18MBC24 Business Research Methods

Notes for Test II

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Sampling
Sample: Definition
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that is chosen and/or selected from a larger population by
using a predefined selection method. These elements are known as sample points, sampling units or
observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research as in most cases, it is
impossible or very expensive and time consuming to research the whole population and hence
researching the sample provides insights that can be applied to the whole population.

For example, if a cell-phone manufacturer would like to conduct a research study on the features that
the students in US Universities most use, what features they would like to see in the devices and the
price that they are willing to pay for these features; an in-depth research study has to be conducted.
This step is imperative to understand the features that have to developed, the features that have to be
upgraded, pricing of the device and the go-to market strategy. In 2016/17 alone, there were 24.7
million students enrolled in universities across the US. It is impossible to conduct a research on all of
these students; the time spent would create the new device redundant and the money spent in
development would render the study useless. Hence, creating a sample of universities by geographical
location and further creating a sample of this students from these universities, provides a large enough
number of students that this research can be conducted, with.

Typically, the population for market research is very large. Making an enumeration of the whole
population is practically impossible. The sample usually represents a manageable size from this
population. Data is then collected from these samples in the form
of surveys, polls and questionnaires and this data analysis is then extrapolated to the larger
population.

Types of Samples: Sample Selection Methodologies with Examples

The process of deriving a sample is called a sampling method. Sampling forms an integral part of
the research design as this method derives the quantitative data and the qualitative data that can be
collected as part of a research study. Sampling methods can be characterized into two distinct
methods: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods

1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling s a sampling method that selects random members
of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow every member
to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
2. Non-probability Sampling: Non probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s ability
to select members at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection process
which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included
in a sample.

Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen
using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member
of the population and forms samples on the basis of a fixed process. For example, in a population of
1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being selected to be a part of a
sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all members to be included in
the sample.

There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

 Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a trustworthy method of
obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by
chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

 Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex
etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the
feedback.
For example, if the government of the United States wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants
living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters on the basis of states such as California,
Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of conducting a survey will be
more effective as the results will be organized into states and provides insightful immigration
data.

 Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a sample are chosen at
regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for the sample and sample
size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined
interval and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000 and every 10th individual
will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method where the population
can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the entire population together.
While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group
separately.
 For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according to annual family income such as –
Less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000 etc. and people
belonging to different income groups can be observed to draw conclusions of which income strata
have which characteristics. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones
to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would definitely bear fruitful results.

Use of the Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived
from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample largely depicts the
understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher
quality data collection as the population is appropriately represented by the sample.
 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is important to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square
would like to understand the people that could their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted
from a sample of people across US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds,
helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback on the basis
of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In
most situations, output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results,
which may not totally represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as the
preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints for conducting research, where
non-probability sampling will be much more effective than the other type.

There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of this sampling
method in a better manner:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to get in touch with the
subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements of the sample and it’s
purely done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling
method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where
there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the entrance of
the mall and giving out pamphlets randomly.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive sampling, the sample is

formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along with the
understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are selected
solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice the purpose are kept
out of the sample. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of
people who are interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are
 you interested in studying for Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded
from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies which need
to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For example, it will be
extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the
snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview and results
will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in situations where the topic
is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting surveys to gather information
about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions but researchers can
contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the
victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique happens
on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes,
the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total population. It is an
extremely quick method of collecting samples.
Use of the Non-Probability Sampling Method
There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:

 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to create a hypothesis when
limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with immediate return of data and
helps to build a base for any further research.
 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints and some preliminary data has to be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it
is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

Difference between Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling Methods

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate
the whole discussion though, the major differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods are as below:

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling

technique in which sample from a technique in which the researcher
Definition larger population are chosen using a selects samples based on the subjective
method based on the theory of judgment of the researcher rather than
probability. random selection.

Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as

Population The population is selected

The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection randomly.

Market The research is conclusive in

The research is exploratory in nature.
Research nature.

Since the sampling method is arbitrary,

Sample Since there is method to deciding the population demographics
the sample, the population representation is almost always skewed.
 demographics is conclusively
represented.

Take a longer time to conduct since

This type of sampling method is quick
the research design defines the
Time Taken since neither the sample or selection
selection parameters before the
criteria of the sample is undefined.
market research study begins.

This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased

Results unbiased and hence the results are and hence the results are biased too
unbiased too and conclusive. rendering the research speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an

underlying hypothesis before the In non-probability sampling, the
Hypothesis study begins and the objective of hypothesis is derived after conducting
this method is to prove the the research study.
hypothesis.

Determining Sample Size: How to Calculate Sample Size

As we have learnt above, the right sample size is important for the success of data collection in
a market research study. But is there a right number for a sample size? What parameters decide the
sample size? What are the distribution methods of the survey? To understand all of this and make an
informed calculation of the right sample size, it is first important to understand four important
variables that form the basis characteristics of a sample. They are:

 Population size: The population size is all the people that can be considered for the research study.
This number in most cases runs into huge numbers. For example, the population of the United
States is 327 million. But in market research, it is impossible to consider all of them for the research
study.
 Margin of error (confidence interval): The margin of error is depicted by a percentage that is a
statistical inference about the confidence of what number of the population depicts the actual views
of the whole population. This percentage helps towards the statistical analysis in selecting a sample
and how much error in this would be acceptable.
 Confidence level: This metric measures where the actual mean falls within a confidence interval.
The most common confidence intervals are 90%, 95% and 99%.
 Standard deviation: This metric covers the variance in a survey. A safe number to consider is .5
which would mean that the sample size has to be that large.

Calculating Sample Size

To calculate the sample size, you need the following parameters.

 Z-score: The Z-score value can be found, here.

 Standard deviation
 Margin of error
 Confidence level
To calculate use the sample size, use this formula:
 Sample Size = (Z-score)2 * StdDev*(1-StdDev) / (margin of error)2

Consider the confidence level of 90%, standard deviation of .6 and margin of error, +/-4%

((1.64)2 x .6(.6)) / (.04)2

( 2.68x .0.36) / .0016

.9648 / .0016

603

603 respondents are needed and that becomes your sample size.

Advantages of a Sample

As soon above, there are many advantages of a sample. Some of the biggest advantages, are:

 Reduced cost & time: Since using a sample reduces the number of people that have to be reached
out to, it reduces cost and time. Imagine the time saved between conducting a research with a
population of millions vs conducting a research study with the use of a sample.
 Reduced resource deployment: It is obvious that if the number of people that are part of a
research study is much lower due to the sample, the resources required are also much lesser. The
manpower required in researching the sample is much lesser than the manpower required in
researching the whole population.
 Accuracy of data: Since the sample is indicative of the population, the data collected is accurate.
Also, since there is a willingness of the respondent to participate, the survey dropout rate is much
lower which increases the validity and accuracy of the data.
 Intensive & exhaustive data: Since there are lesser respondents, the data collected from a sample
is intensive and exhaustive. More time and effort is given to each respondent rather than having to
collect data from a lot of people.
 Apply properties to a larger population: Since the sample is indicative of the larger population,
it is safe to say that the data collected and analyzed from the sample, the properties can be applied
to the larger population and it would hold true.

Sampling terminology
The class, families living in the city or electorates from which you select you select your sample
are called the population or study population, and are usually denoted by the letter N.
The small group of students, families or electors from whom you collect the required information
to estimate the average age of the class, average income or the election outcome is called the
sample.

The number of students, families or electors from whom you obtain the required information is
called the sample size and is usually denoted by the letter n.
 The way you select students, families or electors is called the sampling design or sampling
strategy.
Each student, family or elector that becomes the basis for selecting your sample is called the
sampling unit or sampling element.

A list identifying each student, family or elector in the study population is called the sampling
frame. If all elements in a sampling population cannot be individually identified, you cannot have
a sampling frame for that study population.

Your findings based on the information obtained from your respondents (sample) are called
sample statistics. Your sample statistics become the basis of estimating the prevalence of the
above characteristics in the study population.

Your main aim is to find answers to your research questions in the study population, not in the
sample you collected information from. From sample statistics we make an estimate of the answers
to our research questions in the study population. The estimates arrived at from sample statistics
are called population parameters or the population mean.

Sampling Error
“Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of taking a sample from
a population rather than using the whole population.
Sampling error is one of two reasons for the difference between an estimate of a population parameter
and the true, but unknown, value of the population parameter. The other reason is non-sampling error.
Even if a sampling process has no non-sampling errors then estimates from different random samples
(of the same size) will vary from sample to sample, and each estimate is likely to be different from
the true value of the population parameter.
The sampling error for a given sample is unknown but when the sampling is random, for some
estimates (for example, sample mean, sample proportion) theoretical methods may be used to measure
the extent of the variation caused by sampling error.”

Non-sampling error:
“Non-sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of factors other
than taking a sample.

Non-sampling errors have the potential to cause bias in polls, surveys or samples.
There are many different types of non-sampling errors and the names used to describe them are not
consistent. Examples of non-sampling errors are generally more useful than using names to describe
them.
 Factor Analysis - If there are too many variables in a research design, the variables can be
reduced to a smaller set of factors. This is an independent technique and there is no
dependent variable. The researcher looks for the underlying structure of the data matrix. The
independent variables are ideally normal and continuous and at least 3 to 4 variables load
onto a factor. Multicollinearity is mostly preferred between the variables as the correlations
are key to the reduction of data.
 Multiple Regression Analysis - One of the most commonly used multivariate technique is
multiple regression. The relationship between a single metric dependent variable and two or
more independent variables is examined. The technique is quite dependent on determining
the linear relationship with the lowest sum of the square variances. The assumptions of
linearity, normality, and equal variances are observed quite carefully.

 Logistic Regression Analysis - The technique can be called a variation of multiple

regression, allowing the prediction of an event, sometimes referred to as the 'choice
models'. Utilizing non-metric dependent variables is allowed as the sole objective is to get
a probabilistic assessment of the binary choice. The independent variables can be
continuous or discrete. The tool helps to predict the choices consumers might make when
alternatives are presented.

Difference Between Parametric and Nonparametric Test

To make the generalisation about the population from the sample, statistical tests are used. A
statistical test is a formal technique that relies on the probability distribution, for reaching the
conclusion concerning the reasonableness of the hypothesis. These hypothetical testing related to
differences are classified as parametric and nonparametric tests. The parametric test is one which
has information about the population parameter.

On the other hand, the nonparametric test is one where the researcher has no idea regarding the
population parameter. So, take a full read of this article, to know the significant differences between
parametric and nonparametric test.

BASIS FOR
PARAMETRIC TEST NONPARAMETRIC TEST
COMPARISON

Meaning A statistical test, in which specific A statistical test used in the case of
assumptions are made about the non-metric independent variables, is
population parameter is known as called non-parametric test.
parametric test.
 BASIS FOR
PARAMETRIC TEST NONPARAMETRIC TEST
COMPARISON

Basis of test Distribution Arbitrary

statistic

Measurement Interval or ratio Nominal or ordinal

level

Measure of Mean Median

central tendency

Information about Completely known Unavailable

population

Applicability Variables Variables and Attributes

Correlation test Pearson Spearman

Definition of Parametric Test

The parametric test is the hypothesis test which provides generalisations for making statements about
the mean of the parent population. A t-test based on Student’s t-statistic, which is often used in this
regard.

The t-statistic rests on the underlying assumption that there is the normal distribution of variable and
the mean in known or assumed to be known. The population variance is calculated for the sample. It
is assumed that the variables of interest, in the population are measured on an interval scale.

Definition of Nonparametric Test

The nonparametric test is defined as the hypothesis test which is not based on underlying assumptions,
i.e. it does not require population’s distribution to be denoted by specific parameters.

The test is mainly based on differences in medians. Hence, it is alternately known as the distribution-
free test. The test assumes that the variables are measured on a nominal or ordinal level. It is used
when the independent variables are non-metric.

Key Differences between Parametric and Nonparametric

Tests
1. A statistical test, in which specific assumptions are made about the population
parameter is known as the parametric test. A statistical test used in the case of
non-metric independent variables is called nonparametric test.
2. In the parametric test, the test statistic is based on distribution. On the other
hand, the test statistic is arbitrary in the case of the nonparametric test.
3. In the parametric test, it is assumed that the measurement of variables of
interest is done on interval or ratio level. As opposed to the nonparametric test,
wherein the variable of interest are measured on nominal or ordinal scale.
4. In general, the measure of central tendency in the parametric test is mean, while
in the case of the nonparametric test is median.
5. In the parametric test, there is complete information about the population.
Conversely, in the nonparametric test, there is no information about the
population.
6. The applicability of parametric test is for variables only, whereas nonparametric
test applies to both variables and attributes.
7. For measuring the degree of association between two quantitative variables,
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is used in the parametric test, while
spearman’s rank correlation is used in the nonparametric test.
Equivalent Tests

PARAMETRIC TEST NON-PARAMETRIC TEST

Independent Sample t Test Mann-Whitney test

Paired samples t test Wilcoxon signed Rank test

One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Kruskal Wallis Test

One way repeated measures Analysis of Variance Friedman's ANOVA

Data Cleaning: Treatment of Missing Responses
• Substitute a Neutral Value – A neutral value, typically the
mean response to the variable, is substituted for the missing
responses.
• Substitute an Imputed Response – The respondents' pattern of
responses to other questions are used to impute or calculate a
suitable response to the missing questions.
• In casewise deletion, cases, or respondents, with any missing
responses are discarded from the analysis.
• In pairwise deletion, instead of discarding all cases with any
missing values, the researcher uses only the cases or respondents
with complete responses for each

Data Transformation
• Data conversion
• Changing the original form of the data to a new format
• More appropriate data analysis
• New variables

New Variables
• Collapsing 5-point scale into 3-point scale
• Collective, average data of respondents and variables
• Reversal of negative statements

Tabulation
• Tabulation - Orderly arrangement of data in a table or other
summary format
• Frequency table
• Percentages
Cross-Tabulation
• A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or
classes, thus facilitating comparisons; a joint frequency
distribution of observations on two or more sets of variables

Cross-Tabulation
• Analyze data by groups or categories
• Compare differences
• Contingency table
• Percentage cross-tabulations
• Contingency table- The results of a cross- tabulation of
two variables, such as survey questions
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved in
writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation
of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (c) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final
draft. Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for
better understanding.

Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of
a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical
development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by
means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the
most complex structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence.
The directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a
reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”3

Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final
outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his
study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings
and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference
between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the material,
as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern,
like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the
researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should
check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography.
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books

(A) Technical Report

In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions made in the
course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting
data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem I
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling
studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data are
used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which
data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of
the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to
be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results
be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order of
presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words, means that
the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined above will not always
be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report. It should, however, be remembered
that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an
important consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered desirable.

(B) Popular Report

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification
should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.

We give below a general outline of a popular report.

1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical
interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is
made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific
objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used,
including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are
presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts,
diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the form
of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the research
report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be scrupulously adhered to, and no
deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as soon as the materials for the research
paper have been assembled. The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a
report are concerned:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 1 2× 11in size. If
it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at least one and
 one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the
paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be neat and legible.
If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-spaced on one side of the page only
except for the insertion of the long quotations.
2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps have already
been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report should be
thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research report and various types
of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a guide for report-
writing in case of a particular problem).
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced, forming
an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four or five
type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right of the
normal text margin.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in the
report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research text but still
of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references, citation of authorities
and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should always
be kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern
tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which they
identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual material by a space
of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter separately.
The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a quotation.
At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a little above the
line. Thus, consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in the text with its
corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in case of statistical tables and other numerical
material, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like one may be used to prevent confusion.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by double
space.
6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work should
be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such
documentary footnotes follow a general sequence.

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote is the
author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma. After the comma,
the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted and only the first
word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed by a comma. Information
concerning the edition is given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place of publication is
then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a famous one such
as Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. This entry is followed by a
comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed by a comma. It is
followed by the date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If the date appears in the
copyright notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, the comma should
be omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The entry is followed by a
comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma if both are given.
A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should remember that the
documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical literature follow
a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography.
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often
considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the
material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than a
thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs and
pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be suitable
and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neat and
attractive.
9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great care
before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions like: Are
the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically correct? Do they say what is meant’?
Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically? “Having at least one colleague
read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful. Sentences that seem crystal-clear to
the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a connection that had seemed self evident may
strike others as a non-sequitur. A friendly critic, by pointing out passages that seem unclear or
illogical, and perhaps suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an invaluable aid in
achieving the goal of adequate communication.”

10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed
earlier.

11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the value of
which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be prepared both as subject
index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or concepts along with
the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the latter gives
the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always be arranged
alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of authors, subject-
topics, concepts and the like ones.

Research Ethics
• Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to research.
• Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, but in some form is essential
for all research.
• Medical and biological research ethics includes the design and implementation of research
involving :
– human experimentation,
– animal experimentation,
–various aspects of academic scandals including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication
of data and plagiarism), regulation of research, etc.
•Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research.
•various aspects of academic scandals including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication
of data and plagiarism), regulation of research, etc.

Basic Ethical Principles

a. Respect for Persons

• Individual autonomy (freedom to act or function independently). Protection of individuals
with reduced autonomy
b. Beneficence
 • Maximize benefits and minimize harms
c. Justice
• Equitable distribution of research risks and benefits

Respect for Persons

• Autonomy (independence), self-determination

• Respect each individual
• Treat individuals as autonomous agents
• Allow people to make choices for themselves
• Do not use people as a means to an end
• Provide extra protection to those with limited autonomy-vulnerable group
– Voluntary Participation
– Informed Consent
– Protection of Privacy & Confidentiality
– Right to Withdraw without Penalty

Vulnerable group:
– Children,
– Women
– Prisoner
– Those with limited education
– The poor
– Those with out easy access to health services
– Patients with Mental disabilities,
– People in prison
– Animals

b-Beneficence

• Acts of kindness or charity that go beyond duty

• Physical, mental and social well-being
• Risks reduced to a minimum
• Protection of the participant is the most important responsibility of the researcher
• Obligations derived from beneficence
– Do no harm
– Prevent harm
– Prevent evil
– Promote good
• Risks are justified by the benefits
• Risks are minimized
• Conflicts of interest are managed to avoid bias

c-Justice

• Equal distribution of risk and benefit- Treat people fairly

• Equitable recruitment of research participants- Eliminate bias
• Special protection for vulnerable groups
• Share burdens and benefits of research fairly
• Distinguish procedural justice from distributive justice
– Vulnerable subjects are not targeted for convenience
– People are not selected as subjects because of their ease of availability or compromised
position
– People who are likely to benefit are not excluded

Application of Principles
– Ethical and moral principles must be applied
– All principles are essential to sound ethical research
– Principles carry equal moral weight
– Ethical conduct is expected

Research Ethics: Areas of Focus

a. Harm
b. Informed Consent
c. Confidentiality
d. Deception
e. Reporting Results and Plagiarism

a-Harm
• The research will not harm the participants in any way physically, psychology, socially
• Researchers should take every precaution to ensure that participants are not subjected
to undue harm or stress

b-Informed Consent
• The following points must be followed:
1. Subjects are made fully aware of the nature and purpose of the research project
2. Consent is voluntarily given
3. The person involved has the legal capacity to give consent
4. The responsibility for obtaining consent rests with the researcher

* Sometimes, because of the Hawthorne Effect (the alteration of behaviour by the subjects of
a study due to their awareness of being observed), it may be necessary to use some deception
in telling subjects about the study.

Informed Consent

• Voluntary Informed Consent is essential for research involving human subjects

• Informed Consent should include:
– Description of the nature of the research
 – Statement that the research is voluntary and participants can withdraw at any

time
– Identification of Risks and Benefits
– Description of protection of confidentiality
– Description of compensation
– Description of what info researchers will share with participants
– Identification of who is responsible for research with contact information

C-Privacy and Confidentiality

• Privacy refers to capacity of individuals to control when and what conditions others have
access to their behaviors, beliefs, and values.

• Confidentiality refers to linking information to a person’s identity

• Informed consent should indicate how researcher will protect confidentiality of participants
• Some procedures that can ensure confidentiality:
– Obtaining anonymous information
– Code data so that identifying info is eliminated
– Substitute other names
– Do not release or report individual data
– Limit access that could reveal individual identity
– Report data only in group form
– Used computerized methods for encrypting data

•All information collected in a research project should remain confidential

– Participants should be assigned a compliant code
– Data should be locked away in a secure setting
– Electronic Databases should also be protected

d-Deception

• At times, researchers may choose to hide from participants the true nature of the study
• Deception by Omission

– Withholding important facts from the participants

• Deception by Commission
– Lie to or purposely mislead research participants
Deception

• Staged Manipulations
– Also called Event Manipulations
– Used for 2 reasons
•The researcher may need to create some sort of psychological state (anxiety)
• The researcher may need to stage a manipulation to recreate a real-world scenario
 –
Having a participant do one task and then having them do more tasks at the
same time
• Staged manipulations usually employ a confederate
– Also called an accomplice
– A confederate is someone who appears to be another participant in an experiment
but is really a part of the experiment

Example: Someone who purposely insults a participant in a study in order to provoke anger
or frustration

Deception
•Researchers can us deception under certain conditions:
– Participants must be provided with enough information to consent voluntarily

– Researchers must convince the IRB that deception is necessary to collect data and

that it will cause little or no harm

– Researchers must arrange to fully inform the patients of the true nature of the
study in a timely manner

d-Reporting Results and Plagiarism

• Results of research studies should be reported in a honest, accurate manner

– Researchers cannot “manipulate” data to fit their hypotheses

– Researchers cannot make up or report false results
– Researcher must report what they find, even if the data does not support their

initial hypotheses

– Researchers should ensure that data is being collected consistently (do checks of

research assistants)

– Researchers should give the proper credit (authorship) to those who have earned it
Data Manipulation
Researchers who manipulate their data in ways that deceive others are violating both the basic
values and widely accepted professional standards of science.
• They mislead their colleagues and potentially impede progress in their field or research.
• They undermine their own authority and trustworthiness as researchers.

Plagiarism
• Avoid plagiarism in all research, reporting, and writing
• Comes from the Latin word meaning “to kidnap”

• e.g.:
 – Copying someone else’s words without proper citation
– Copy and pasting from other manuscripts
– Stealing someone else’s ideas
– Stealing someone else’s intellectual property

Bottom Line: Cite sources properly and minimize quotations in research reports

Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism

• Plagiarism: using the ideas or words of another person without giving appropriate credit
• Self-Plagiarism: The copying or reuse of one’s own research
Both types of plagiarism are considered to be unacceptable practice in scientific literature