Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Lesson: Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits,

Integrator

Lesson Developer: Dr. Arun Vir Singh

College/Department: Shivaji College, University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.1

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Table of Contents
Applications of Operational Amplifier:Nonlinear Circuits:Lesson-I: Integrator
1.1 Nonlinear Circuits
1.2. Integrator
1.2.1 Basic Integrator
1.2.2 Input and Output Wave Forms
1.2.3 Limitations
1.2.4 Frequency Response of Basic Integrator
1.3 Practical Integrator
1.3.1 Frequency Responseof Practical Integrator
1.4 Applications of Integrator
Summary
Exercise
Glossary
References

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.2

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1.1 NonlinearCircuits
In nonlinear circuits output of op-amp does not follow the input.Integration and
differentiation are two arithmeticoperations performed by using nonlinear op-amp circuits.
In these operations op-amp is used with negative feedback. Other nonlinear applications
are comparators, voltage level detectors,zero-crossing detectors.In nonlinear applications
op-amp is generally used in open-loop configuration. In this lesson, we shall discuss
integrator.

1.2Integrator
Integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical operation called integration. Output
voltage of such a circuit is equal to the integral of the input. The integrator is very useful in
many applications which require the generation or processing of analog signals. Such as
triangular wave, square, andsaw tooth wave generators. The most popular application is to
generate a linearly increasing or decreasing voltage, which is known as a ramp.

1.2.1 Basic Integrator

Such a circuit is obtained by using operational amplifier in the inverting configuration with
the feedback resistor Rf replaced by a capacitor, Cf. as shown in figure1.

Fig: 1. Basicintegrator
Developed by :ILLL

This is a basic integrator circuit. Input to this integrator can be time varying (sin,
cosine,triangular,and square wave) or a step/ a dc signal and it is applied at input resistor
R1. Output is taken across the capacitor.Notice that the capacitor is feedback element and
forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.
The expression for output voltage is obtained by using Kirchhoff’s current law at node N.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.3

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑖𝑓 [1.1]

Since IB is very very small. So the current flowing through the input resistorR1 is equal to
the current flowing thefeedback element /capacitor.

𝑖𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑖𝑓 [1.2]

The current through the capacitor is related to voltage by the relation

𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶𝑓 [1.3]
𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑐 is the voltage across the capacitor, given by 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑜 , [1.4]

𝑉 𝑖𝑛 −𝑉2
Current through the input resistor 𝑖𝑖𝑛 = [1.5]
𝑅1

But 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑖𝑐 [1.6]

Substituting Eq.[1.6] in Eq.[1.2]

𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑐 [1.7]

Substituting Eqs.[1.5] and [1.3] in Eq.[1.7]

𝑉 𝑖𝑛 −𝑉2 𝑑𝑉𝑐
= 𝐶𝑓 [1.8]
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

Substituting for𝑉𝑐 from Eq.[1.4] in Eq.[1.8]

𝑉 𝑖𝑛 −𝑉2 𝑑
= 𝐶𝑓 𝑑𝑡 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑜 [1.9]
𝑅1

By using the concept of virtual ground 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0 in Eq.[1.9]

𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑑
𝑅1
= 𝐶𝑓 𝑑𝑡 −𝑉𝑜 [1.10]

Output voltage can be obtained by integrating Eq. [1.10 ]

𝑡 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑
0 𝑅1
𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐶𝑓 𝑑𝑡 −𝑉𝑜 𝑑𝑡=𝐶𝑓 −𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑜 |𝑡=0

1 𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅 𝐶 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 +𝐶 [1.11]
𝑖𝑛 𝑓

Where C is the constant of integration and is proportional to the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 at time
t=0.Hence output is (i) directly proportional to negative integral of the input signal voltage.
So the circuit is an integrating circuit.

1
(ii) Inversely proportional to the time constant .
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑓

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.4

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1.2.2 Input and Output Wave Forms

Step Input

A step input is shown in figure 2a. Let its magnitude isA unit. Mathematically it can be
expressed as

𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Fig:2(a).Step input signal of magnitude (+A)and 2(b) Negative going ramp with slope(-A).
Developed by :ILLL

If 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 =1, and C=0 , then from Eq.[1.11]

𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = − 0
𝐴𝑑𝑡 = −𝐴𝑡 [1.12]

The output is a straight line with a slope of –A. The output is shown in Fig.[2b]

Example
Consider a positive step input 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =1 Volt, 𝑅1 = 10𝐾𝛺, 𝐶𝑓 = 0.01𝜇𝐹 to the integrator circuit
shown in Fig.[1] . Calculate the output voltage and draw the output waveforms.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.5

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Solution

Let the power supply voltage =±15 V. Calculated output for the circuit of Fig. 1 is

1
𝑉𝑜 = − 1 𝑑𝑡
10 𝐾𝛺 × 0.01 𝜇𝐹

𝑉𝑜 = − 10000 1 𝑑𝑡 = 10000𝑡

This is a negative ramp voltage dropping at a rate (slope) of 10,000 V/s. This ramp voltage
will drop from +15 V to -15 V in 30 V/10,000 sec or 3× 10−3 sec(3 ms). After 3 ms
outputchanges from +15 V to -15 V and gets saturated at -15 V. Figure 3 shows the input
step waveform (3a) and the resulting output ramp waveform (4b).

Fig. 3 Input step waveform (3a) and output ramp waveform (3b).
Developed by :ILLL

So we can conclude if input signal is a step function, output voltage is a ramp and is
opposite in polarity to the input voltage and is multiplied by the factor1 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 . Output is
saturated at voltage level slightly < ± supply Voltage. This is because of the voltage drop
across the op-amp.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.6

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Value Addition :FAQ

Why isthe output of step input linear?

Body Text:
The capacitor charging in a simple RC circuit is not linear but is exponential. But here it is
linear. The key thing about using an op-amp with an RC circuit to form an integrator is that
the capacitor’s charging current is made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear)
voltage rather than an exponential voltage.

Suggested Reading:
Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert. L Boylestad and L. Nashelsky,8th Edition.
Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits : RamakantA. Gayakwad, 3rd Edition

Square Wave Input

The square wave input signal is shown in figure 4a. We can say that it is made of two step
inputs (i) a positive step between time period 0 to T/2 and (ii) a negative step for time
period T/2 to T. Mathematically it can be expressed as

𝑇
+𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 <
2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
𝑇
− 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 <𝑡<𝑇
2

Fig: (4a)Square wave input (4b) output wave triangular wave

Developed by :ILLL

As discussed earlier the output for the positive step input is a straight line with a slope of
negative A. So for the period 0 to T/2 output will be straight line with negative slope (-A).
For the period T/2 to T, output will be straight line with positive slope (+A).Mathematically
output can be expressed as

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.7

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

−𝐴𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑇/2

𝑉𝑜 = [1.13]
𝑇
+𝐴𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2
<𝑡<𝑇

Output wave form is shown in figure (3b). This is called triangular wave. So integral of
square wave is triangular wave, and also shown in animation 1.

Animation1

Animation 1: Integrated output of square wave from.

Developed by: ILLL.

Sine Wave Input

Sine wave inputsignal is represented byexpression

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 [1.14]

Output is given by substituting Eq.[1.13] in Eq.[1.11] for 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 = 1 and C=0

Output is cosine wave and is shown along with the input signal in animation 2

Animation2

Animation 2: Integration of sine wave from.

Developed by: ILLL.

Triangular Wave Input

For triangular wave input, integrated output wave form is a sine wave and is shown in
animation 3.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.8

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Animation3

Animation 3: Animated output waveform for triangular input wave form.

Developed by: ILLL

1.2.3Limitations
When inputvoltage to the integrator iszero, (𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0) the integrator works as an open loop
amplifier. This is because the capacitor 𝐶𝑓 acts as an open circuit to the input offset
voltage𝑣𝑖𝑜 . This input offset voltage and the part of the input current charging capacitor
Cfproduce the error voltage at the output of the integrator.

1.2.4 Frequency Response of Basic Integrator

As already mentioned for dc signals, the capacitor𝐶𝑓 behaves as an open circuit element and
there is no negative feedback. The op-amp thus operates in an open loop, resulting in an
infinite gain. In practice, output never becomes infinite. The plot in figure 5 shows the
frequency response of the basic integrator circuit. The gain decreases with a constant rate
over the entire range of the plot. The gain goes down 20 db for every decade (powerof 10)
with

Fig.5. Frequency response of basic integrator.

Developed by :ILLL

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.9

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

increase in frequency .As frequency continues to increase the gain will continue to diminish
at the same rate.The frequency at which gain in decibel is zero, is called higher cut off
frequency 𝑓𝑏 and is given by the equation

1
𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋 𝑅 [1.15]
1 𝐶𝑓

As frequency decrease, the gain will continue to increase. This increasing gain to lower
frequencies produces a practical limit for using this circuit.

Value addition :FAQ

Why is decrease in gain ofbasic integrator with increase in frequency?

Body Text:
𝑉
Gain of integrator is 𝐴 = 𝑉 𝑜
𝑖𝑛
We can write the components of basic integrator shown in Fig.1.in S domain as under

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (S), 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑆), and𝑋𝐶 = 1/𝑆𝐶𝑓 .where S=jω=2πf

𝑉 (𝑆) 𝑉𝑜 (S) 𝑍𝑓 (𝑆)

𝐴 = 𝑉𝑜 ,where
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑆)
= −𝑍 .
𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1 (𝑆)

where 𝑍𝑓 𝑆 = 1 𝑆𝐶𝑓 and 𝑍1 𝑆 = 𝑅1

𝑉𝑜 (S) 1
Therefore A=
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑆)
= − 𝑆𝑅 .
1 𝐶𝑓

𝑉𝑜 jω 1 1
Magnitude of gain is = = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑅
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 jω 2 1 𝐶𝑓
𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓
1
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑅 , so for a fixed value of 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 we can say that gain decreases with increase in
1 𝐶𝑓
frequency f.

The frequency (f=𝑓𝑏 )at which the magnitude of the gain of basic integrator is 1 (or 0dB)
can be obtained by equating the above equation to 1.

1
Hence =1
2𝜋𝑓 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

1
𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋 𝑅 (Cutoff frequency)
1 𝐶𝑓

Suggested reading:
Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits : Ramakant A. Gayakwad, 3rd Edition.
Linear Integrated Circuits :D.Roy Choudhury and Shail B. Jain,2nd Edition.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.10

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1.3 Practical Integrator

The limitations of ideal integrator can be minimized in practical integrator to limits the low
frequency gain and hence minimizes the variations in the output voltage circuit. In this
circuit a resistor Rf is connected across the feedback capacitor Cf to reduce the error voltage
at the output.The circuit for the practical integrator is shown in figure 6.The addition of the
resistor also corrects the stability and low frequency roll-off problems. Gain of this circuit if
given by ratio of 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 .A practical op-amp integrator approximatesthe characteristics of the
ideal circuit, but has a fixed gain equal to ratio of Rf and R1.

Fig:6. Practical integrator

Developed by :ILLL

Output is given by

1 𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑓 0 𝑖𝑛
[1.16]

1.3.1 Frequency response of Practical Integrator

Frequency response isshown in figure7.In this plot the dc gain of the integrator is 10
(20 dB).Notice that the circuit’s gain is relatively constant until 30Hz and then starts to
decrease.
The point where the gain begins to decrease is called the cutoff frequency. This is defined
as the point where the gain is down 3 db from the gainin the pass band. A 3dB reduction in
gain corresponds to a 0.707 reduction in the output voltage from the level in the pass band.
This point is defined bythe gain limiting frequency faandis given by

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.11

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1
𝑓𝑎 = [1.17]
2𝜋𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓

After the cutoff point is reached, the gain of the circuit falls at a rate of -20 dB/decade; just
as in the ideal integrator circuit. It eventually takes the shape of the ideal integrator below
the cutoff frequency.
To use thiscircuit as an integrator, the lowest frequency expected to be encountered must
fall into this part of the circuit response. The lowest frequency is the frequency at which

Fig:7. Frequency response of practical integrator

Source: Self/Developed by ILLL.

gain is 0dB and is given by

1
𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅 𝐶 [1.18]
1 𝑓

The circuit acts as an integrator in the frequency range fa to fb. the value of fa and in turn
𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 and RfCf values should be selected such thatfa<fb.
Input frequencies, f<fapasses to output without integration. So integrator acts as a low pass
filter. In this range gain (𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 )constant.
For proper integration, the time period T of the input signal has to larger than or equal to
𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 .That is, 𝑇 ≥ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 where

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.12

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1
𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑓𝑎

Value Addition: Did you know

How an infinite gain of ideal integrator,gets limited to a finite value in practical integrator.

Body Text:
Gain of practical integrator shown in fig.6 in terms of frequency using S domain is

𝑉 (S) 𝑍𝑓 (𝑆) 1 𝑅
𝐴(𝑆) = 𝑉 𝑜 (𝑆) = − 𝑍 .where 𝑍1 𝑆 = 𝑅1 , 𝑍𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑅𝑓 ‖
𝑆𝐶𝑓
= − 1+𝑆𝑅𝑓 , S=2πf
𝑖𝑛 1 (𝑆) 𝑓 𝐶𝑓

𝑅𝑓 𝑅1
𝐴(𝑆) = −
1 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓

𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 1
Magnitude of gain is 𝐴 = , where 𝑓𝑎 =
𝑓 2
2𝜋 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
1+
𝑓𝑎

𝑅𝑓
At f=0, 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 i.e 20 log 𝑑𝐵.
𝑅1

Thus an infinite dc gain of ideal integrator,gets limited to 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 (a finite value) in practical

integrator.

When f =fa

𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝐴 = 1+1
= 0.707 𝑅
1

𝑅 𝑅𝑓
i.e 20 log 𝐴 =20 log 0.707 𝑅𝑓 =20 log(0.707)+20 log 𝑅1
1

20 log 𝐴 =- 3dB + d.c gain.

Thus the dc gain remains constant for all frequencies less than fa, and the gain drops by 3dB
at the frequency f = fa, which is the break frequency .And for frequency f>fa gain reduces
at the rate of 20dB/decade.For integration ,frequency response must be straight line of
slope -20 dB/decade, which is possible for the frequency f>faand f<fb..

Suggested Reading
Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits : Ramakant A. Gayakwad, 3rd Edition.
Linear Integrated Circuits :D.Roy Choudhury and Shail B. Jain,2nd Edition.

Example

Let 𝐶𝑓 = 0.01µ𝑓, 𝑅𝑓 = 100 𝑘𝛺, 𝑅1 = 10 𝑘𝛺 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉 (square wave) for the practical integrator
circuit shown in Fig.[6].Calculated values of 𝑓𝑎 ,𝑓𝑏 ,gain A and 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 are

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.13

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

(i)Gain limiting frequency 𝑓𝑎 = 159𝐻𝑧 , using Eq.[1.17]

(ii) Cutoff frequency 𝑓𝑏 = 1.59 𝐾𝐻𝑧 , using Eq.[1.18]

𝑅𝑓
(iii) Gain 𝐴 = = 20 𝑑𝐵
𝑅1

Frequency response of the circuit and input and output wave forms are obtained using
probe. Frequency response is already shown in Fig.[7]. It can be seen from the response
curve,that in frequency range (f <fa)gain of integrator (20 dB) is constant up to 30 Hz.
Calculated and obtained values of𝑓𝑎 ,𝑓𝑏 and gain are approximately equal. After fa gain
decreases at the rate of ≈20dB/decade. At fb gain is 0.

Response of the practical integrator for square wave at three different values of
frequenciesis illustrated in figures 8 to 10.

(i) f<fa . f=5 Hz

Input and output wave forms are illustrated in figure 8.

Fig:8. Input and output wave form for f=5Hz < fa.Developed by :ILLL

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.14

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Output wave is inverted having magnitude (Vo)equal to 10V. So gain is equal to 10 or 20dB.
Comparing with the input signal we can say that output wave form is same as that of input.
It is not integrated.Hence input signal is passed by the integrator.

(ii) f<fa . f=50 Hz

Input and output wave forms are shown in figure 9. At this frequency, gain decreased
slightly as observed from the response curve. It can be seen that output wave is not
perfectly square. We can say that circuit starts integrating input wave.

Fig:9. Input and output wave form for f=50Hz < fa.
Developed by :ILLL

However, magnitude of output is 10 V, which is equal to the gain of integrator. Comparing

with the input signal we can say that input signal isnot integrated properly.

(iii)f>fa but < fb, f=500 Hz .

Input and output wave forms are shown in figure 10. Frequency of the input signal is
chosen,such that it lies between fa and fb ie.( fa,<f,<fb). Output wave is triangular as
expected. So we can say that input signal is integrated by the integrator. Magnitude of
output wave decreased. Output is inverted.

So for integration of any type of input signal, frequency should bebetween gain limiting
frequency and cutoff frequency.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.15

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Fig: 10. Input and output wave forms for f=500Hz, T=2ms
Developed by :ILLL

1.4 Applications Of Practical Integrator

Integrator circuits are used in following applications
(i) In analog computer
(ii) Analog-to- digital conversion (ADC)and wave shaping circuits.
(iii) In ramp generators.
(iv) In solving differential equations.

Summary:After studying this chapter, you should be able to

 Explain and analyze the operation of integrators.
 Discuss the ideal integrator and compare it to practical integrator.
 Show the various output wave forms.
 Explain the limitations of ideal integrator.
 Explain the frequency response curve of ideal and practical integrator.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.16

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

EXERCISES
Question Number Type of question

1 Multiple choice questions

(1) In an ideal integrator, the feedback element is a

Question Number Type of question
(a) resistor(b) capacitor (c) zener diode (d) voltage divider
2 Fill in the blanks
(2)The rate of change of an integrator’s output voltage in response to a step input is set
by
(a) the RC time constant (b) the amplitude of the step input(c) the current through the
capacitor (d) all of these

(3) For a step input, the output of an integrator is

(a) a pulse (b) a triangular waveform (c) a spike (d) a ramp

(4) For a triangular wave input, the output of an integrator is

(a) a pulse (b) a sine wave(c) a spike (d) a ramp

(5) For proper integration, the time period T of the input signal has to
(a) larger than 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 (b) equal to 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 (c) smaller than 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 (d) both a and b .

Correct answers (1) b

(2) a
(3) d
(4) b
(5) d

Type of question

2 Fill in the blacks

(1)Integration of a constant is -------------.

(2) Integrator acts as a ------------filter.
(3) Gain of the practical integrator decreases in the frequency range ---- to-----
at the rate of ----------.
(4) Output of integrator is ----------- phase with respect to input.
(5) The scale multiplier
Institute (factor)
of Lifelong of a University
Learning, basic integrator is --------.
of Delhi page no.17

a
Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Correct answers (1) Straight line

(2) low pass
(3) fa to fb, 20dB/decade
(4) out of phase
(5) -1 𝑅𝐶

Question Number Type of question

3 Subjective questions

1. Discuss the operation of basic op-amp integrator.

2. Mention the limitations of basic integrator.
3. What do you mean by gain limiting frequency?
4. What are the differences between basic and practical op-amp integrator?
5. Discuss the frequency response curve of practical op-amp integrator.
6.What are the applications of integrating circuit?
7. Which type of filter we get from integrator.

Type of question

4 Unsolved questions

1. Calculate the lower frequency limit for the integrator shown in figure 6 .Given𝐶𝑓 =
0.1𝜇𝐹𝑅𝑓 = 100 𝑘𝛺𝑅1 = 10 𝑘𝛺.

2 For an integrator circuit shown in figure 1 how long does it take for the output to reach
saturation. Given Vin= +10 mV, 𝐶𝑓 = 0.1𝜇𝐹𝑅1 = 10 𝑘𝛺 and power supply voltage ±15V.

3.Determine the rate of change of output voltage in response to a single pulse input of
amplitude 1V, to the integrator shown in figure 1. Given𝐶𝑓 = 0.01𝜇𝐹𝑅1 = 10 𝑘𝛺.

1 1
Solution (1) 𝑓𝑎 = , 𝑓𝑎 = = 15.90 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 2𝜋 × 100 ×10 3 ×(0.1×10 −6 )

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.18

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

1 𝑡
(2) 𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅 𝑉 𝑑𝑡,
0 𝑖𝑛
Vin=+10 mV
1 𝐶𝑓
1 𝑡 (10×10 −3 )
𝑉𝑜 = − 0
10𝑚𝑉𝑑𝑡 ,𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑡 = −10𝑡 𝑉
10×10 3 × 0.1×10 −6 10×10 3 × 0.1×10 −6

Saturated voltage =- 15V ,−10𝑡𝑉 = −15 𝑉

𝑡 = 1.5 𝑆𝑒𝑐

1 𝑡 ⍙𝑉 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 1𝑉
(3)𝑉𝑜 = −
𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑡𝑜 = − 𝑅 𝐶𝑓
= 10×10 3 ×(0.01×10 −6 )
= −104 𝑉/𝑠
1

−104 𝑉 𝑆𝑒𝑐 = −10−2 𝑉 𝜇𝑠 = −10𝑚𝑉/𝜇𝑠

GLOSSARY
Integrator:A circuit that produces an output which approximates the area under the curve
of input curve.
Differentiator: A circuit that produces an output which approximates the instantaneous
rate of change of input function.
Node: A node is any junction wherein two or more two-terminal components meet.
KCL: Kirchhoff’s Current Law simply states that the currents entering a node are equal in
magnitude to the currents leaving that same node, so 𝑖 = 0
Time constant: It is equal to the product of the circuit resistance (in ohms) and the circuit
capacitance (in farads).
Ramp: A linearly increasing or decreasing voltage.
Input offset voltage:The differential dc voltage required between the inputs forthe output
to be zero.
Cut of frequency: This is defined as the point where the gain is down 3 db from the
gainin the pass band(where gain is constant).
Decible (db): Unit of gain. A logarithmic measure of the ration of one power to another or
one voltage to another,
Decade: When frequency changes from f1 to f2 such that f1=10f2, it is referred to as
decade.
Roll off. The decrease in voltage gain of op-amp with frequency is called as frequency roll
off.
Bode Plot:When the gain is represented in db and the frequency is plotted on a logarithmic
scale, a Bode plot is produced. Bode plots are used to determine the stability of control
systems and the frequency response of filter circuits
Virtual Ground: Means the node N shown in Fig.1.1 is at 0V but it is not mechanically
ground. So no current flows from point N to ground.
Low pass filter:A circuit which passed the low frequency.

References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading Source:

Op-Amps and linear Integrated Circuits :Ramakant A. Gayakwad,3rd Edition.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.19

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits Lesson-I: Integrator

Electronic Principles :A.P. Malvino ,6th Edition.

Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert.L Boylestad and L. Nashelsky.,2nd Edition.
Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd,6th Edition.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi page no.20