Introduction to

Radiographic Testing

Jan. 2007

K. P. Chung

- 1 -
 Introduction to Radiographic Testing

1. Introduction 3. Equipment & Materials

 
1.1 History 3.1 X-Ray Sources

1.2 Present State 3.2 Radio Isotope Sources

1.3. Future Direction 3.3 Radiographic Film

3.4 Exposure Vaults

2. Physics of Radiography
4. Techniques & Calibrations
2.1 Nature of Radiation
4.1 Imaging Consideration
2.2 X-Radiation
4.2 Contrast
2.3 Gamma Radiation
4.3 Definition
2.4 Activity
4.4 Radiographic Density
2.5 Decay Rate
4.5 Film Characteristic Curves
2.6 Ionization 4.6 Exposure Calculations
2.7 Inverse Square Law 4.7 Controlling Quality
2.8 Interaction of Radiation 4.8 Film Processing

2.9 Attenuation Coeifficient 4.9 Viewing Processing

2.10 Half-Value Layer 4.10 Radiograph Interp - Welds

2.11 Sources of Attenuation 4.11 Radiograph Interp - Castings

2.12 Geometric Unsharpness

2.13 Filters in Radiography 5. Advanced Techniques

5.1 Real-time Radiography
2.14 Scatter/Radiation Control
5.2 Computed Tomography
2.15 Radation Safety
5.3 XRISM

References

- 2 -
1. Introduction
1.1 History of Radiography
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
(1845-1923) who was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in
Germany. Working with a cathode-ray tube in his laboratory,
Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table near
his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working with consisted of a
glass envelope (bulb) with positive and negative electrodes
encapsulated in it. The air in the tube was evacuated, and when a
high voltage was applied, the tube produced a fluorescent glow.
Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and discovered
a green colored fluorescent light generated by a material located a
few feet away from the tube.
He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the
tube. This ray was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting
the phosphorescent materials in the room. He found that the new ray could pass
through most substances casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered
that the ray could pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal
objects. One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film of the hand of
his wife, Bertha. It is interesting that the first use of X-rays were for an industrial
(not medical) application, as Roentgen produced a radiograph of a set of weights in
a box to show his colleagues.
Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received
with extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists
everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube
was very well known during this period. Many scientists dropped
other lines of research to pursue the mysterious rays. Newspapers
and magazines of the day provided the public with numerous stories,
some true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newly
discovered rays.
Public fancy was caught by this invisible ray with the ability to pass
through solid matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture
of bones and interior body parts. Scientific fancy was captured by the demonstration
of a wavelength shorter than light. This generated new possibilities in physics, and for
investigating the structure of matter. Much enthusiasm was generated about potential
applications of rays as an aid in medicine and surgery. Within a month after the
announcement of the discovery, several medical radiographs had been made in
Europe and the United States, which were used by surgeons to guide them in their
work. In June 1896, only 6 months after Roentgen announced his discovery, X-rays
were being used by battlefield physicians to locate bullets in wounded soldiers.
Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the
realms of medicine and dentistry, though some
X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The
reason that X-rays were not used in industrial
application before this date was because the
X-ray tubes (the source of the X-rays) broke
down under the voltages required to produce
rays of satisfactory penetrating power for
industrial purposes. However, that changed in
1913 when the high vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge became available. The
high vacuum tubes were an intense and reliable X-ray source, operating at energies
up to 100,000 volts.

- 1 -
In 1922, industrial radiography took another step forward with the advent of the
200,000-volt X-ray tube that allowed radiographs of thick steel parts to be produced
in a reasonable amount of time. In 1931, General Electric Company developed
1,000,000 volt X-ray generators, providing an effective tool for industrial radiography.
That same year, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) permitted
X-ray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels that further opened the door to
industrial acceptance and use.
A Second Source of Radiation
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was
discovered. In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity.
Many scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and other scientists
were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of
the new research showed that certain types of atoms disintegrate by themselves. It
was Henri Becquerel who discovered this phenomenon while investigating the
properties of fluorescent minerals. Becquerel was researching the principles of
fluorescence, wherein certain minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He
utilized photographic plates to record this fluorescence.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day
when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored
some of the compound in a drawer with his photographic plates. Later when he
developed these plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure to
light). Becquerel questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had
wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due to stray
light. In addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound
gave off a type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and expose
photographic film. Becquerel continued to test samples of uranium compounds and
determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. Bacquerel's
discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually unnoticed by laymen and scientists
alike. Relatively few scientists were interested in Becquerel's findings. It was not until
the discovery of radium by the Curies two years later that interest in radioactivity
became widespread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie
Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore known
as pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, French
scientist Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende, and named it 'polonium' in
honor of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered another
radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both polonium and
radium were more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other
radioactive elements have been discovered or produced.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed castings
up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed. During World War II, industrial
radiography grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program. In 1946,
man-made gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These
new sources were far stronger than radium and were much less expensive. The
manmade sources rapidly replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in
industrial radiography.
Health Concerns
The science of radiation protection, or "health physics" as it is more properly called,
grew out of the parallel discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity in the closing years of
the 19th century. Experimenters, physicians, laymen, and physicists alike set up X-ray

- 2 -
generating apparatuses and proceeded about their labors with a lack of concern
regarding potential dangers. Such a lack of concern is quite understandable, for there
was nothing in previous experience to suggest that X-rays would in any way be
hazardous. Indeed, the opposite was the case, for who would suspect that a ray
similar to light but unseen, unfelt, or otherwise undetectable by the senses would be
damaging to a person? More likely, or so it seemed to some, X-rays could be
beneficial for the body.
Inevitably, the widespread and unrestrained use of X-rays led to serious injuries.
Often injuries were not attributed to X-ray exposure, in part because of the slow
onset of symptoms, and because there was simply no reason to suspect X-rays as
the cause. Some early experimenters did tie X-ray exposure and skin burns together.
The first warning of possible adverse effects of X-rays came from Thomas Edison,
William J. Morton, and Nikola Tesla who each reported eye irritations from
experimentation with X-rays and fluorescent substances.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated
causes of disease. Although much still remains to be learned, more is known about
the mechanisms of radiation damage on the molecular, cellular, and organ system
than is known for most other health stressing agents. Indeed, it is precisely this vast
accumulation of quantitative dose-response data that enables health physicists to
specify radiation levels so that medical, scientific, and industrial uses of radiation may
continue at levels of risk no greater than, and frequently less than, the levels of risk
associated with any other technology.
X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature as
light, but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is on the order of
6000 angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one angstrom and
that of gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short wavelength is what gives
x-rays and gamma rays their power to penetrate materials that light cannot. These
electromagnetic waves are of a high energy level and can break chemical bonds in
materials they penetrate. If the irradiated matter is living tissue, the breaking of
chemical bonds may result in altered structure or a change in the function of cells.
Early exposures to radiation resulted in the loss of limbs and even lives. Men and
women researchers collected and documented information on the interaction of
radiation and the human body. This early information helped science understand how
electromagnetic radiation interacts with living tissue. Unfortunately, much of this
information was collected at great personal expense.

1.2 Present State of Radiography

In many ways, radiography has changed little from the early days of its use. We still
capture a shadow image on film using similar procedures and processes technicians
were using in the late 1800's. Today, however, we are able to generate images of
higher quality and greater sensitivity through the use of higher quality films with a
larger variety of film grain sizes. Film processing has evolved to an automated state,
producing more consistent film quality by removing manual processing variables.
Electronics and computers allow technicians to now capture images digitally. The use
of "filmless radiography" provides a means of capturing an image, digitally enhancing,
sending the image anywhere in the world, and archiving an image that will not
deteriorate with time. Technological advances have provided industry with smaller,
lighter, and very portable equipment that produce high quality X-rays. The use of
linear accelerators provide a means of generating extremely short wavelength, highly
penetrating radiation, a concept dreamed of only a few short years ago.
While the process has changed little, technology has evolved allowing radiography to
be widely used in numerous areas of inspection.  Radiography has seen expanded

- 3 -
usage in industry to inspect not only welds and castings, but to radiographically
inspect items such as airbags and canned food products. Radiography has found use
in metallurgical material identification and security systems at airports and other
facilities.
Gamma ray inspection has also changed considerably since the Curies' discovery of
radium. Man-made isotopes of today are far stronger and offer the technician a wide
range of energy levels and half-lives. The technician can select Co-60 which will
effectively penetrate very thick materials, or select a lower energy isotope, such as
Tm-170, which can be used to inspect plastics and very thin or low density
materials. Today gamma rays find wide application in industries such as
petrochemical, casting, welding, and aerospace.
Addressing Health Concerns
It was in the Manhattan District of US Army Corps of Engineers that the name "health
physics" was born, and great advances were made in radiation safety. From the
onset, the leaders of the Manhattan District recognized that a new and intense source
of radiation and radioactivity would be created. In the summer of 1942, the leaders
asked Ernest O. Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at the University of Chicago, to form
a group to study and control radiation hazards. Thus, Wollan was the first to bear the
title of health physicist. He was soon joined by Carl G. Gamertsfelder, recently
graduated physics baccalaureate, and Herbert M. Parker, the noted British-American
medical physicist. By mid 1943, six others had been added. These six include Karl Z.
Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R. Coveyou, O.G. Landsverk, L.A. Pardue, and John
E. Rose.
Within the Manhattan District, the name "health physicist" seems to have been derived
in part from the need for secrecy (and hence a code name for radiation protection
activities) and the fact that it was a group of mostly physicists working on health
related problems. Activities included developing appropriate monitoring instruments,
physical controls, administrative procedures, monitoring radiation areas, personnel
monitoring, and radioactive waste disposal. It was in the Manhattan District that many
of the modern concepts of protection were born, including the rem unit, which took
into account the biological effectiveness of the radiation. It was in the Manhattan
District that radiation protection concepts realized maturity and enforceability.

1.3 Future Direction of Radiographic Education

Although many of the methods and techniques developed over a century ago remain
in use, computers are slowly becoming a part of radiographic inspection. The future
of radiography will likely see many changes. As noted earlier, companies are
performing many inspections without the aid of film.
Radiographers of the future will capture images in digitized form and e-mail them to
the customer when the inspection has been completed. Film evaluation will likely be
left to computers. Inspectors may capture a digitized image, feed them into a
computer and wait for a printout of the image with an accept/reject report. Systems
will be able to scan a part and present a three-dimensional image to the
radiographer, helping him or her to locate the defect within the part.
Inspectors in the future will be able to peal away layer after layer of a part to
evaluate the material in much greater detail. Color images, much like computer
generated ultrasonic C-scans of today, will make interpretation of indications much
more reliable and less time consuming.
Educational techniques and materials will need to be revised and updated to keep
pace with technology and meet the requirements of industry. These needs may well
be met with computers. Computer programs can simulate radiographic inspections

- 4 -
using a computer aided design (CAD) model of a
part to produce physically accurate simulated x-ray
radiographic images. Programs allow the operator to
select different parts to inspect, adjust the
placement and orientation of the part to obtain the
proper equipment/part relationships, and adjust all
the usual x-ray generator settings to arrive at the
desired radiographic film exposure.
Computer simulation will likely have its greatest
impact in the classroom, allowing the student to see
results in almost real-time. Simulators and
computers may well become the primary tool for
instructors as well as students in the technical
classroom.

- 5 -
2. Physics of Radiography
2.1 Nature of Penetrating Radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin.  X-rays are produced by
an x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.  They
are both part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms, as are light rays,
microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or
heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by
electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight lines. However, they
can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.
Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
small "packets" of energy and are referred to as "photons."  Due to their short
wavelength they have more energy to pass through matter than do the other forms of
energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter, they are
scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter
and the energy of the rays. 
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
• They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
• Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
• They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different
materials.
• They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic
particle.
• Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
• They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living
cells.

2.2 X-Radiation
X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic
radiation. They can be produced in parcels of energy
called photons, just like light. There are two different
atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons. One is

- 6 -
called Bremsstrahlung and is a German term meaning "braking radiation." The other is
called K-shell emission. They can both occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten.
Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode of the x-ray tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is
emitted when the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten changes. The
negatively charged electron slows down after
swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged
tungsten atom. This energy loss produces
X-radiation. Electrons are scattered elastically and
inelastically by the positively charged nucleus. The
inelastically scattered electron loses energy, which
appears as Bremsstrahlung. Elastically scattered
electrons (which include backscattered electrons)
are generally scattered through larger angles. In the
interaction, many photons of different wavelengths
are produced, but none of the photons have more
energy than the electron had to begin with. After
emitting the spectrum of X-ray radiation, the
original electron is slowed down or stopped.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by
accelerating a stream of electrons to energies of
several hundred kilovolts with velocities of several
hundred kilometers per hour and colliding them
into a heavy target material. The abrupt
acceleration of the charged particles (electrons)
produces Bremsstrahlung photons. X-ray radiation
with a continuous spectrum of energies is
produced with a range from a few keV to a
maximum of the energy of the electron beam.
Target materials for industrial tubes are typically
tungsten, which means that the wave functions of
the bound tungsten electrons are required. The inherent filtration of an X-ray tube
must be computed, which is controlled by the amount that the electron penetrates
into the surface of the target and by the type of vacuum window present.
The bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as
they pass through typically 50 microns of target material. The beam is further
attenuated by the aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are an
elimination of the low energy photons, 1 keV through l5 keV, and a significant
reduction in the portion of the spectrum from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum
from an x-ray tube is further modified by the filtration caused by the selection of
filters used in the setup.
K-shell Emission Radiation
Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different
energies. The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron
can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About
0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a
tungsten electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The
energy lost by the falling electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile,
higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so
on. K-shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the
x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.

- 7 -
When outer-shell electrons drop into inner
shells, they emit a quantized photon
"characteristic" of the element. The energies of
the characteristic X-rays produced are only very
weakly dependent on the chemical structure in
which the atom is bound, indicating that the
non-bonding shells of atoms are the X-ray
source. The resulting characteristic spectrum is
superimposed on the continuum as shown in
the graphs below. An atom remains ionized for
14
a very short time (about 10 second) and thus
an atom can be repeatedly ionized by the
12
incident electrons which arrive about every 10
second.

2.3 Gamma Radiation

Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays.  The other two types of natural radioactivity are
alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles.   Gamma rays are the
most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength of less
than one-tenth of a nanometer.
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be
stable or unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus
of an atom together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable nuclei are
constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the nucleus. Over
time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a
process known as radioactive decay. Various types of penetrating radiation may be
emitted from the nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons. Nuclides which undergo
radioactive decay are called radionuclides. Any material which contains measurable
amounts of one or more radionuclides is a radioactive material.
Types Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation
with sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts. Ionizing radiation
can consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or
electromagnetic radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital
electrons.

- 8 -
Alpha Particles
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the
emission of alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two
neutrons and two protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission
of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of atomic
number (Z) and four units of mass number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with
discrete energies characteristic of the particular transformation from which they
originate. All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide transformation will have
identical energies.
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the
emission of a high speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change
of one unit of atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the beta
particles emitted by a specific radionuclide will range in energy from near zero up to
a maximum value, which is characteristic of the particular transformation.
Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not
alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of
moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable).
Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear
decay processes.

2.4 Activity (of Radionuclides)

The quantity which expresses the degree of radioactivity or the radiation producing
potential of a given amount of radioactive material is activity. The curie was originally
defined as that amount of any radioactive material that disintegrates at the same rate
as one gram of pure radium. The curie has since been defined more precisely as a
quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate per second.
The International System (SI) unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is that
quantity of radioactive material in which one atom is transformed per second. The
radioactivity of a given amount of radioactive material does not depend upon the
mass of material present. For example, two one-curie sources of Cs-137 might have
very different masses depending upon the relative proportion of non-radioactive

- 9 -
atoms present in each source. Radioactivity is expressed as the number of curies or
becquerels per unit mass or volume.
The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of radioactive
material and the activity, is called "specific activity." Specific activity is expressed as
the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or
volume. Each gram of Cobalt-60 will contain
approximately 50 curies. Iridium-192 will contain 350
curies for every gram of material. The shorter half-life,
the less amount of material that will be required to
produce a given activity or curies. The higher specific
activity of Iridium results in physically smaller sources.
This allows technicians to place the source in closer
proximity to the film while maintaining geometric
unsharpness requirements on the radiograph. These
unsharpness requirements may not be met if a source
with a low specific activity were used at similar source to
film distances.

2.5 Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life)

Each radionuclide decays at its own unique rate which
cannot be altered by any chemical or physical process.
A useful measure of this rate is the half-life of the
radionuclide. Half-life is defined as the time required
for the activity of any particular radionuclide to
decrease to one-half of its initial value.  In other words
one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable
state material. Half-lives of radionuclides range from
microseconds to billions of years. Half-life of two widely used industrial isotopes are
74 days for Iridium-192, and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60. More exacting calculations can
be made for the half-life of these materials, however, these times are commonly
used.
The applet below offers an interactive representation of radioactive decay series. The
four series represented are Th232, Ir192, Co60, Ga75, and C14. Use the radio
buttons to select the series that you would like to study. Note that Carbon-14 is not
used in radiography, but is one of many useful radioactive isotopes used to
determine the age of fossils. If you are interested in learning more about Carbon-14
Dating, follow this link: Carbon-14 Dating.
The Sequence Info button displays a chart that depicts the path of the series with
atomic numbers indicated on the vertical axis on the left, and the number of neutrons
shown along the bottom. Colored arrows represent alpha and beta decays. To return
to the main user interface, click the "Dismiss" button.
Initially, a selected series contains all parent material, and the amount is represented
by a colored bar on a vertical logarithmic scale. Each line represents a factor of ten.
In order to step forward through the sequence by a specified number of years, you
may type the appropriate number into the "Time Step" field and hit "Enter." A negative
time step will backtrack through the sequence.
You may choose a step interval in years and progress through each step by pressing
the "Enter" key. The "Animate" button will automate the progress through the series.
You can either choose a time step before you animate or leave it at zero. If the time
step is left at zero, the system will choose time steps to optimize viewing
performance.

- 10 -
Carbon-14 Dating

Radio-carbon dating is a method of obtaining age estimates on organic materials.

The word "estimates" is used because there is a significant amount of uncertainty in
these measurements. Each sample type has specific problems associated with its use
for dating purposes, including contamination and special environmental effects. More
information on the sources of error in carbon dating are presented at the bottom of
this page.
The method was developed immediately following World War II by Willard F. Libby
and coworkers and has provided age determinations in archeology, geology,
geophysics, and other branches of science. Radiocarbon dating estimates can be
obtained on wood, charcoal, marine and freshwater shells, bone and antler, and peat
and organic-bearing sediments. They can also be obtained from carbonate deposits
such as tufa, calcite, marl, dissolved carbon dioxide, and carbonates in ocean, lake
and groundwater sources.
Carbon dioxide is distributed on a worldwide basis into various atmospheric,
biospheric, and hydrospheric reservoirs on a time scale much shorter than its
half-life. Measurements have shown that in recent history, radiocarbon levels have
remained relatively constant in most of the biosphere due to the metabolic processes
in living organisms and the relatively rapid turnover of carbonates in surface ocean
waters. However, changes in the atmosphere over the ages are a source of
uncertainty in the measurements.
Carbon (C) has three naturally occurring isotopes. Both C-12 and C-13 are stable,
but C-14 decays by very weak beta decay to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of
approximately 5,730 years. Naturally occurring radiocarbon is produced as a
secondary effect of cosmic-ray bombardment of the upper atmosphere. Plants
transpire to take in atmospheric carbon, which is the beginning of absorption of
carbon into the food chain. Animals eat the plants and this action introduces carbon
into their bodies.
After the organism dies and becomes a fossil, carbon-14 continues to decay without
being replaced. To measure the amount of radiocarbon left in a fossil, scientists burn
a small piece to convert it into carbon dioxide gas. Radiation counters are used to
detect the electrons given off by decaying C-14 as it turns into nitrogen. The amount
of C-14 is compared to the amount of C-12, the stable form of carbon, to determine

- 11 -
how much radiocarbon has decayed, thereby dating the fossil.
Exponential Decay Formula: A = A0* 2^(-t/k)
Where "A" is the present amount of the radioactive isotope, "A0" is the original
amount of the radioactive isotope that is measured in the same units as "A." The
value "t" is the time it takes to reduce the original amount of the isotope to the
present amount, and "k" is the half-life of the isotope, measured in the same units
as "t."
The applet allows you to choose the C-14 to C-12 ratio, then calculates the age of
our fossilized skull from the formula above.
Uncertainty in Carbon Dating
As mentioned above, there is significant uncertainty in carbon dating.  There are
several variables that contribute to this uncertainty. First, as mentioned previously, the
proportions of C-14 in the atmosphere in historic times is unknown. The C-14:C-12
atmospheric ratio is known to vary over time and it is not at all certain that the curve
is “well behaved.”
Complicating things further, various plants have differing abilities to exclude significant
proportions of the C-14 in their intake. This varies with environmental conditions as
well. The varying rates at which C-14 is excluded in plants also means that the
apparent age of a living animal may be affected by an animals diet. An animal that
ingested plants with relatively low C-14 proportions would be dated older than their
true age.
Attempts are often made to index C-14 proportions using samples of know age.
While this may be useful to eliminate the uncertainty of atmospheric proportions of
C-14, it does not compensate for local conditions such as which plant species are in
the diet. The uncertainty in the measurement leads some to conclude that the method
is far less predictive of age than is commonly supposed, especially for older
samples.

2.6 Ionization
As penetrating radiation moves from point to point in matter, it loses its energy
through various interactions with the atoms it encounters. The rate at which this
energy loss occurs depends upon the type and energy of the radiation and the
density and atomic composition of the matter through which it is passing.
The various types of penetrating radiation impart their energy to matter primarily
through excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. The term "excitation" is used to
describe an interaction where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged
particle but are not removed completely from their atom. Excited electrons may
subsequently emit energy in the form of x-rays during the process of returning to a
lower energy state. The term "ionization" refers to the complete removal of an
electron from an atom following the transfer of energy from a passing charged
particle. In describing the intensity of ionization, the term "specific ionization" is often
used. This is defined as the number of ion pairs formed per unit path length for a
given type of radiation.
Because of their double charge and relatively slow velocity, alpha particles have a
high specific ionization and a relatively short range in matter (a few centimeters in air
and only fractions of a millimeter in tissue). Beta particles have a much lower specific
ionization than alpha particles and, generally, a greater range. For example, the
relatively energetic beta particles from P32 have a maximum range of 7 meters in air
and 8 millimeters in tissue. The low energy betas from H3, on the other hand, are
stopped by only 6 millimeters of air or 6 micrometers of tissue.

- 12 -
Gamma-rays, x-rays, and neutrons are referred
to as indirectly ionizing radiation since, having
no charge, they do not directly apply impulses
to orbital electrons as do alpha and beta
particles. Electromagnetic radiation proceeds
through matter until there is a chance of
interaction with a particle. If the particle is an
electron, it may receive enough energy to be
ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization
by direct interactions with other electrons. As a
result, indirectly ionizing radiation (e.g. gamma,
x-rays, and neutrons) can cause the liberation of directly ionizing particles (electrons)
deep inside a medium. Because these neutral radiations undergo only chance
encounters with matter, they do not have finite ranges, but rather are attenuated in
an exponential manner. In other words, a given gamma ray has a definite probability
of passing through any medium of any depth.
Neutrons lose energy in matter by collisions which transfer kinetic energy. This
process is called moderation and is most effective if the matter the neutrons collide
with has about the same mass as the neutron. Once slowed down to the same
average energy as the matter being interacted with (thermal energies), the neutrons
have a much greater chance of interacting with a nucleus. Such interactions can
result in material becoming radioactive or can cause radiation to be given off.

2.7 Newton's Inverse Square Law

Any point source which spreads its influence
equally in all directions without a limit to its
range will obey the inverse square law. This
comes from strictly geometrical considerations.
The intensity of the influence at any given radius
(r) is the source strength divided by the area of
the sphere. Being strictly geometric in its origin,
the inverse square law applies to diverse
phenomena. Point sources of gravitational force,
electric field, light, sound, and radiation obey
the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general
inverse square law, a point radiation source can
be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking about Roentgens,
rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the inverse square law. For
example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch from a source, the
exposure will be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.
Exercise: Assume you are standing three feet from a a 15 Curie Cobalt-60 source.
How many mR/hr dosages are you getting?

2.8 Interaction Between Penetrating Radiation and Matter

When x-rays or gamma rays are directed into an object, some of the photons
interact with the particles of the matter and their energy can be absorbed or
scattered.  This absorption and scattering is called attenuation.  Other photons travel
completely through the object without interacting with any of the material's particles. 
The number of photons transmitted through a material depends on the thickness,

- 13 -
density and atomic number of the material, and the energy of the individual photons.
Even when they have the same energy, photons travel different distances within a
material simply based on the probability of their encounter with one or more of the
particles of the matter and the type of encounter that occurs.  Since the probability
of an encounter increases with the distance traveled, the number of photons reaching
a specific point within the matter decreases exponentially with distance traveled.  As
shown in the graphic to the right, if 1000 photons are aimed at ten 1 cm layers of a
material and there is a 10% chance of a photon being attenuated in this layer, then
there will be 100 photons attenuated. This leave 900 photos to travel into the next
layer where 10% of these photos will be attenuated.  By continuing this progression,
the exponential shape of the curve becomes apparent.
The formula that describes this curve is:

The factor that indicates how much attenuation will take place per cm (10% in this
example) is known as the linear attenuation coefficient, m.  The above equation and
the linear attenuation coefficient will be discussed in more detail on the following
page.

page.

2.9 Transmitted Intensity and Linear Attenuation Coefficient

For a narrow beam of mono-energetic photons, the change in x-ray beam intensity
at some distance in a material can be expressed in the form of an equation as:

- 14 -
 Where: dI =
the change in intensity
  I =
the initial intensity
  n the number of atoms/cm3
=
  s =
a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of a
photon being scattered or absorbed
  dx = the incremental thickness of material traversed
When this equation is integrated, it becomes:

3
The number of atoms/cm (n) and the proportionality constant (s) are usually
combined to yield the linear attenuation coefficient (m). Therefore the equation
becomes:

Where: I = the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x

  I0 = the initial intensity of photons
  s = a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of a
photon being scattered or absorbed
  m = the linear attenuation coefficient
  x = distance traveled
The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (m)
The linear attenuation coefficient (m) describes the fraction of a beam of x-rays or
gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber. This
value basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic cm volume of material
and the probability of a photon being scattered or absorbed from the nucleus or an
electron of one of these atoms. The linear attenuation coefficients for a variety of
materials and x-ray energies are available in various reference books.
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can be
used to make a number of calculations. These include:
• the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident
x-ray intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
• the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray
intensity, material, and material thickness are known.
• the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and
the material are known.
• the material can be determined from the value of m when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.

2.10 Half-Value Layer

The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident energy has been
attenuated is know as the half-value layer (HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of
distance (mm or cm). Like the attenuation coefficient, it is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a stream of photons will result in an increase in
a material's HVL.
The HVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient. If an incident energy

- 15 -
of 1 and a transmitted energy is 0.5 is plugged into
the equation introduced on the preceding page, it
can be seen that the HVL multiplied by m must
equal 0.693.

If x is the HVL then m times HVL must equal 0.693

(since the number 0.693 is the exponent value that
gives a value of 0.5).
Therefore, the HVL and m are related as follows:

The HVL is often used in radiography simply because it is easier to remember values
and perform simple calculations. In a shielding calculation, such as illustrated to the
right, it can be seen that if the thickness of one HVL is known, it is possible to
quickly determine how much material is needed to reduce the intensity to less than
1%.

2.11 Sources of Attenuation

The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation and
matter is not a simple process.  A single interaction event between a primary x-ray
photon and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon changing to
some other form of energy and effectively disappearing.  Several interaction events
are usually involved and the total attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to
different types of interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect,
scattering, and pair production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total
absorption coefficient, (µ), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation energy.
The four radiation-matter interactions that contribute to the total absorption are shown
in black. The four types of interactions are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering
(C), pair production (PP), and Thomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most
industrial radiography is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the

- 16 -
plot that photoelectric and Compton scattering account for the majority of attenuation
encountered.

Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x-ray beam

Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs when the
x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in the ejection of
electrons from the outer shell of the atom, and hence
the ionization of the atom. Subsequently, the ionized
atom returns to the neutral state with the emission of
an x-ray characteristic of the atom. This subsequent
emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed
and does not contribute to (or hinder) the image making process. Photoelectron
absorption is the dominant process for x-ray absorption up to energies of about 500
KeV. Photoelectron absorption is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers.
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the incident x-ray
photon is deflected from its original path by an
interaction with an electron.  The electron gains energy
and is ejected from its orbital position.  The x-ray
photon looses energy due to the interaction but
continues to travel through the material along an altered
path.  Since the scattered x-ray photon has less
energy, it, therefore, has a longer wavelength than the incident photon. The event is
also known as incoherent scattering because the photon energy change resulting from
an interaction is not always orderly and consistent.  The energy shift depends on the
angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering medium. 
Pair production (PP) can occur when the x-ray
photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, but really
only becomes significant at energies around 10
MeV. Pair production occurs when an electron and
positron are created with the annihilation of the
x-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived and
disappear (positron annihilation) with the formation
of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy.  Pair production is of particular importance when
high-energy photons pass through materials of a high atomic number.
Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special circumstances
these may need to be considered, but are generally negligible.
Thomson scattering (R), also known as Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering,

- 17 -
occurs when the x-ray photon interacts with the
whole atom so that the photon is scattered with
no change in internal energy to the scattering
atom, nor to the x-ray photon. Thomson
scattering is never more than a minor contributor
to the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs
without the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction.
Photodisintegration (PD) is the process by which
the x-ray photon is captured by the nucleus of
the atom with the ejection of a particle from the
nucleus when all the energy of the x-ray is given
to the nucleus. Because of the enormously high
energies involved, this process may be neglected
for the energies of x-rays used in radiography.
Effect of Photon Energy on Attenuation
Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the x-ray is
increased or decreased. Since attenuation characteristics of materials are important in
the development of contrast in a radiograph, an understanding of the relationship
between material thickness, absorption properties, and photon energy is fundamental
to producing a quality radiograph. A radiograph with higher contrast will provide
greater probability of detection of a given discontinuity. An understanding of
absorption is also necessary when designing x-ray and gamma ray shielding,
cabinets, or exposure vaults.
Compton Scattering
As mentioned on the previous page, Compton scattering
occurs when the incident x-ray photon is deflected from
its original path by an interaction with an electron.  The
electron is ejected from its orbital position and the x-ray
photon looses energy because of the interaction but
continues to travel through the material along an altered
path.  Energy and momentum are conserved in this
process.  The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature
of the scattering medium.  Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it has a
longer wavelength and less penetrating than the incident photon.
Compton effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this discovery led
to his award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics.  The discovery is important because
it demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave phenomenon.
Compton's work convinced the scientific community that light can behave as a stream
of particles (photons) whose energy is proportional to the frequency.
The change in wavelength of the scattered photon is given by:

Where: l = wavelength of incident x-ray photon

  l' = wavelength of scattered x-ray photon
  h = Planck's Constant: The fundamental constant equal to the ratio
of the energy E of a quantum of energy to its frequency v:
E=hv.
  me = the mass of an electron at rest
  c = the speed of light
  q = The scattering angle of the scattered photon

- 18 -
The applet below demonstrates Compton scattering as calculated with the
Klein-Nishina formula, which provides an accurate prediction of the angular
distribution of x-rays and gamma-rays that are incident upon a single electron. 
Before this formula was derived, the electron cross section had been classically
derived by the British physicist and discoverer of the electron, J.J. Thomson.
However, scattering experiments showed significant deviations from the results
predicted by Thomson's model.  The Klein-Nishina formula incorporates the
Breit-Dirac recoil factor, R, also known as radiation pressure. The formula also
corrects for relativistic quantum mechanics and takes into account the interaction of
the spin and magnetic moment of the electron with electromagnetic
radiation. Quantum mechanics is
a system of mechanics based on quantum theory to provide a consistent explanation
of both electromagnetic wave and atomic structure. 
The applet shows that when a photon of a given energy hits an atom, it is
sometimes reflected in a different direction. At the same time, it loses energy to an
electron that is ejected from the atom. Theta is the angle between the scattered
photon direction and the path of the incident photon. Phi is the angle between the
scattered electron direction and the path of the incident photon.

2.12 Geometric Unsharpness

Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of geometric
factors of the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs because the radiation
does not originate from a single point but rather over an area. Consider the images
below which show two sources of different sizes, the paths of the radiation from
each edge of the source to each edge of the feature of the sample, the locations
where this radiation will expose the film and the density profile across the film. In the
first image, the radiation originates at a very small source. Since all of the radiation
originates from basically the same point, very little geometric unsharpness is produced
in the image. In the second image, the source size is larger and the different paths
that the rays of radiation can take from their point of origin in the source causes the
edges of the notch to be less defined.

The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance,
and object to detector distance. The source size is obtained by referencing
manufacturers specifications for a given X-ray or gamma ray source. Industrial x-ray
tubes often have focal spot sizes of 1.5 mm squared but microfocus systems have
spot sizes in the 30 micron range. As the source size decreases, the geometric
unsharpness also decreases. For a given size source, the unsharpness can also be
decreased by increasing the source to object distance, but this comes with a

- 19 -
reduction in radiation intensity.
The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help minimize
unsharpness. However, there are situations, such as when using geometric
enlargement, when the object is separated from the detector, which will reduce the
definition. The applet below allow the geometric unsharpness to be visualized as the
source size, source to object distance, and source to detector distance are varied.
The area of varying density at the edge of a feature that results due to geometric
factors is called the penumbra. The penumbra is the gray area seen in the applet.
Codes and standards used in industrial radiography
require that geometric unsharpness be limited. In
general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material
thickness up to a maximum of 0.040 inch. These values
refer to the degree of penumbra shadow in a
radiographic image. Since the penumbra is not nearly as
well defined as shown in the image to the right, it is
difficult to measure it in a radiograph. Therefore it is
typically calculated. The source size must be obtained
from the equipment manufacturer or measured. Then the
unsharpness can be calculated using measurements
made of the setup.
For the case, such as that shown to the right, where a
sample of significant thickness is placed adjacent to the
detector, the following formula is used to calculate the
maximum amount of unsharpness due to specimen
thickness:
Ug = f * b/a
f = source focal-spot size
a = distance from the source to front surface of the object
b = the thickness of the object
For the case when the detector is not placed next to the sample, such as when
geometric magnification is being used, the calculation becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source to front surface of material/object
b = distance from the front surface of the object to the detector

- 20 -
2.13 Filters in Radiography
At x-ray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiation based on energy level or to modify the spatial distribution of
the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons emitted by
the tube before they reach the target. The use of filters produce a cleaner image by
absorbing the lower energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of part of
the x-ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of a metal
inserted in the x-ray beam). Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in
the direct path of the x-ray beam. Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part
and the film cassette has also proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often
constructed of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass. Filters
for medical radiography are usually made of aluminum (Al). The amount of both the
inherent and the added filtration are stated in mm of Al or mm of Al equivalent. The
amount of filtration of the x-ray beam is specified by and based on the voltage
potential (keV) used to produce the beam. The thickness of filter materials is
dependent on atomic numbers, kilovoltage settings, and the desired filtration factor.
Gamma radiography produces relatively high energy levels at essentially
monochromatic radiation, therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is seldom
used.

2.14 Secondary (Scatter) Radiation and Undercut Control

Secondary (Scatter) Radiation
Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken into
consideration when producing a radiograph. The scattered
photons create a loss of contrast and definition. Often
secondary radiation is thought of as radiation striking the
film reflected from an object in the immediate area, such
as a wall, or from the table or floor where the part is
resting. Side scatter originates from walls, or objects on
the source side of the film. Control of side scatter can
be achieved by moving objects in the room away from
the film, moving the x-ray tube to the center of the vault,
or placing a collimator at the exit port, thus reducing the
diverging radiation surrounding the central beam.
It is often called backscatter when it comes from objects
behind the film. Industry codes and standards often
require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of
the cassette to verify the control of backscatter. If the
letter "B" shows as a "ghost" image on the film, a
significant amount of backscatter radiation is reaching the
film. The image of the "B" is often very nondistinct as
shown in the image to the right.  The arrow points to the
area of backscatter radiation from the lead "B" located on
the back side of the film.  The control of backscatter
radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette
with a sheet of lead that is at least 0.010 inch thick. It is
a common practice in industry to place a 0.005" lead
screen in front and a 0.010" screen behind the film.

- 21 -
Undercut
Another condition that must often be controlled when producing a radiograph is called
undercut. Parts with holes, hollow areas, or abrupt thickness changes are likely to
suffer from undercut if controls are not put in place. Undercut appears as a
darkening of the radiograph in the area of the thickness transition. This results in a
loss of resolution or blurring at the transition area. Undercut occurs due to scattering
within the film. At the edges of a part or areas where the part transitions from thick
to thin, the intensity of the radiation reaching the film is much greater than in the
thicker areas of the part. The high level of radiation intensity reaching the film results
in a high level of scattering within the film. It
should also be noted that the faster the film
speed, the more undercut that is likely to occur.
Scattering from within the walls of the part also
contributes to undercut, but research has shown
that scattering within the film is the primary cause.
Masks are used to control undercut. Sheets of
lead cut to fill holes or surround the part and
metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often used
as masks.

2.15 Radiation Safety

Ionizing radiation is an extremely important NDT tool but it can pose
a hazard to human health. For this reason, special precautions must
be observed when using and working around ionizing radiation. The
possession of radioactive materials and use of radiation producing
devices in the United States is governed by strict regulatory controls.
The primary regulatory authority for most types and uses of
radioactive materials is the federal Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC). However, more than half of the states in the US have entered
into "agreement" with the NRC to assume regulatory control of radioactive material
use within their borders. As part of the agreement process, the states must adopt
and enforce regulations comparable to those found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal
Regulations. Regulations for control of radioactive material used in Iowa are found in
Chapter 136C of the Iowa Code.
For most situations, the types and maximum quantities of radioactive materials
possessed, the manner in which they may be used, and the individuals authorized to
use radioactive materials are stipulated in the form of a "specific" license from the
appropriate regulatory authority. In Iowa, this authority is the Iowa Department of
Public Health. However, for certain institutions which routinely use large quantities of
numerous types of radioactive materials, the exact quantities of materials and details
of use may not be specified in the license. Instead, the license grants the institution
the authority and responsibility for setting the specific requirements for radioactive
material use within its facilities. These licensees are termed "broadscope" and require
a Radiation Safety Committee and usually a full-time Radiation Safety Officer.
More information on Radiation Safety

- 22 -
3. Equipment and Materials
3.1 X-ray Generators
The major components of an X-ray generator are the
tube, the high voltage generator, the control console,
and the cooling system. As discussed earlier in this
material, X-rays are generated by directing a stream
of high speed electrons at a target material such as
tungsten, which has a high atomic number. When the
electrons are slowed or stopped by the interaction
with the atomic particles of the target, X-radiation is
produced. This is accomplished in an X-ray tube
such as the one shown here. The X-ray tube is one
of the components of an X-ray generator.
The tube cathode (filament) is heated with a
low-voltage current of a few amps. The filament
heats up and the electrons in the wire become
loosely held. A large electrical potential is created
between the cathode and the anode by the
high-voltage generator. Electrons that break free of
the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode
target. The stream of electrons between the cathode
and the anode is the tube current. The tube current
is measured in milliamps and is controlled by regulating the low-voltage, heating
current applied to the cathode. The higher the temperature of the filament, the larger
the number of electrons that leave the cathode and travel to the anode. The milliamp
or current setting on the control console regulates the filament temperature, which
relates to the intensity of the X-ray output.
The high-voltage between the cathode and the anode affects the speed at which the
electrons travel and strike the anode. The higher the kilovoltage, the more speed and,
therefore, energy the electrons have when they strike the anode. Electrons striking
with more energy results in X-rays with more penetrating power. The high-voltage
potential is measured in kilovolts, and this is controlled with the voltage or kilovoltage
control on the control console. An increase in the kilovoltage will also result in an
increase in the intensity of the radiation.
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the
target called the focal spot. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's
ability to produce a sharp image. See the information on image resolution and
geometric unsharpness for more information on the effect of the focal spot size.
Much of the energy applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot of
the anode. As mentioned above, the anode target is commonly made from tungsten,
which has a high melting point in addition to a high atomic number. However, cooling
of the anode by active or passive means is necessary. Water or oil recirculating
systems are often used to cool tubes. Some low power tubes are cooled simply with
the use of thermally conductive materials and heat radiating fins.
It should also be noted that in order to prevent the cathode from burning up and to
prevent arcing between the anode and the cathode, all of the oxygen is removed
from the tube by pulling a vacuum. Some systems have external vacuum pumps to
remove any oxygen that may have leaked into the tube. However, most industrial
X-ray tubes simply require a warm-up procedure to be followed. This warm-up
procedure carefully raises the tube current and voltage to slowly burn any of the
available oxygen before the tube is operated at high power.

- 23 -
The other important component of an X-ray generating
system is the control console. Consoles typically have a
keyed lock to prevent unauthorized use of the system. They
will have a button to start the generation of X-rays and a
button to manually stop the generation of X-rays. The three
main adjustable controls regulate the tube voltage in
kilovolts, the tube amperage in millivolts, and the exposure
time in minutes and seconds. Some systems also have a
switch to change the focal spot size of the tube.
X-ray Generator Options
Kilovoltage - X-ray generators come in a large variety of
sizes and configurations. There are stationary units that are
intended for use in lab or production environments and
portable systems that can be easily moved to the job site.
Systems are available in a wide range of energy levels.
When inspecting large steel or heavy metal components,
systems capable of producing millions of electron volts may
be necessary to penetrate the full thickness of the material.
Alternately, small, lightweight components may only require
a system capable of producing only a few tens of kilovolts.
Focal Spot Size - Another important consideration is the
focal spot size of the tube since this factors into the
geometric unsharpness of the image produced. Generally,
the smaller the spot size the better. But as the electron
stream is focused to a smaller area, the power of the tube must be reduced to
prevent overheating at the tube anode. Therefore, the focal spot size becomes a
tradeoff of resolving capability and power. Generators can be classified as a
conventional, minifocus, and microfocus system. Conventional units have focal-spots
larger than about 0.5 mm, minifocus units have focal-spots ranging from 50 microns
to 500 microns (.050 mm to .5 mm), and microfocus systems have focal-spots
smaller than 50 microns. Smaller spot sizes are especially advantageous in instances
where the magnification of an object or region of an object is necessary. The cost of
a system typically increases as the spot size decreases and some microfocus tubes
exceed $100,000. Some manufacturers combine two filaments of different sizes to
make a dual-focus tube. This usually involves a conventional and a minifocus
spot-size and adds flexibility to the system.
AC and Constant Potential Systems - AC X-ray systems supply the tube with
sinusoidal varying alternating current. They produce X-rays only during one half of the
1/60th second cycle. This produces bursts of radiation rather than a constant stream.
Additionally, the voltage changes over the cycle and the X-ray energy varies as the
voltage ramps up and then back down. Only a portion of the radiation is useable and
low energy radiation must usually be filtered out. Constant potential generators rectify
the AC wall current and supply the tube with DC current. This results in a constant
stream of relatively consistent radiation. Most newer systems now use constant
potential generators.
Flash X-Ray Generators
Flash X-ray generators produce short, intense bursts of radiation. These systems are
useful when examining objects in rapid motion or when studying transient events such
as the tripping of an electrical breaker. In these type of situations, high-speed video
is used to rapidly capture images from an image intensifier or other real-time
detector. Since the exposure time for each image is very short, a high level of
radiation intensity is needed in order to get a usable output from the detector. To
prevent the imaging system from becoming saturated from a continuous exposure

- 24 -
high intensity radiation, the generator supplies microsecond bursts of radiation. The
tubes of these X-ray generators do not have a heated filament but instead electrons
are pulled from the cathode by the strong electrical potential between the cathode
and the anode. This process is known as field emission or cold emission and it is
capable of producing electron currents in the thousands of amperes.

3.2 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources

Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms

of the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is released in
the form of gamma rays. Two of the more common industrial gamma-ray sources for
industrial radiography are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. These isotopes emit radiation in
a few discreet wavelengths.  Cobalt-60 will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray,
and iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. In comparison to an
X-ray generator, cobalt-60 produces energies comparable to a 1.25 MeV X-ray
system and iridium-192 to a 460 keV X-ray system. These high energies make it
possible to penetrate thick materials with a relatively short exposure time. This and
the fact that sources are very portable are the main reasons that gamma sources are
widely used for field radiography. Of course, the disadvantage of a radioactive source
is that it can never be turned off and safely managing the source is a constant
responsibility.
Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but generally an
isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the level
of activity desired, a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and

- 25 -
sealed by welding. The capsule is attached to
short flexible cable called a pigtail.
The source capsule and the pigtail is housed in
a shielding device referred to as a exposure
device or camera. Depleted uranium is often
used as a shielding material for sources. The
exposure device for iridium-192 and cobalt-60
sources will contain 45 pounds and 500
pounds of shielding materials, respectively.
Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a trailer and
transported to and from inspection sites. When
the source is not being used to make an
exposure, it is locked inside the exposure
device.
To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and a guide tube are
attached to opposite ends of the exposure device. The guide tube often has a
collimator at the end to shield the radiation except in the direction necessary to make
the exposure. The end of the guide tube is secured in the location where the
radiation source needs to be to produce the radiograph. The crank-out cable is
stretched as far as possible to put as much distance as possible between the
exposure device and the radiographer. To make the exposure, the radiographer
quickly cranks the source out of the exposure device and into position in the
collimator at the end of the guide tube.  At the end of the exposure time, the source
is cranked back into the exposure device. There is a series of safety procedures,
which include several radiation surveys, that must be accomplished when making an
exposure with a gamma source. See the radiation safety material for more
information.

- 26 -
3.3 Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin
containing radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver
bromide or silver chloride, and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted
base. The emulsion is different from those used in other types of
photography films to account for the distinct characteristics of
gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to light.
Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers
about 0.0005 inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the
base doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the
film speed. The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can
be accomplished in a reasonable time. A few of the films used for radiography only
have emulsion on one side which produces the greatest detail in the image.
When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver halide in
-
the emulsion, some of the Br ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+  ions. This
change is of such a small nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical
methods and is called a "latent (hidden) image." However, the exposed grains are
now more sensitive to the reduction process when exposed to a chemical solution
(developer), and the reaction results in the formation of black, metallic silver. It is this
silver, suspended in the gelatin on both sides of the base, that creates an image.
See the page on film processing for additional information.
Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends on a
number of different factors. Listed below are some
of the factors that must be considered when
selecting a film and developing a radiographic
technique.
1. Composition, shape, and size of the part
being examined and, in some cases, its
weight and location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether x-rays
from an x-ray generator or gamma rays
from a radioactive source.
3. Kilovoltages available with the x-ray
equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
4. Relative importance of high radiographic
detail or quick and economical results.
Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique usually
involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors. For example, if
high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance, a slower and finer
grained film should be used in place of a faster film.
Film Packaging
Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging options. The
most basic form is as individual sheets in a box. In preparation for use, each sheet
must be loaded into a cassette or film holder in the darkroom to protect it from
exposure to light. The sheets are available in a variety of sizes and can be
purchased with or without interleaving paper. Interleaved packages have a layer of
paper that separates each piece of film. The interleaving paper is removed before the
film is loaded into the film holder. Many users find the interleaving paper useful in
separating the sheets of film and offer some protection against scratches and dirt
during handling.

- 27 -
Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in
which each sheet is enclosed in a light-tight envelope.
The film can be exposed from either side without
removing it from the protective packaging. A rip strip
makes it easy to remove the film in the darkroom for
processing. This form of packaging has the advantage
of eliminating the process of loading the film holders in
the darkroom. The film is completely protected from
finger marks and dirt until the time the film is removed
from the envelope for processing.
Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut the film
to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical tape in the
darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of circumferential welds and the
examination of long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths of film offer great
economic advantage. The film is wrapped around the outside of a structure and the
radiation source is positioned on axis inside, allowing for examination of a large area
with a single exposure.
Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between two lead
oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below
150keV and as intensification screens above 150 keV.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible
holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure
pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as on an
un-ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to produce desensitized areas in
the radiograph. This precaution is particularly important when using envelope-packed
films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with
processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always
grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels should be
kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often and well. Use of
envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is opened
for processing.
Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, exposure
holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or treelike black
markings in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static electric discharges

3.4 Exposure Vaults &Cabinets

Exposure vaults and cabinets allow personnel to work
safely in the area while exposures are taking place.
Exposure vaults tend to be larger walk in rooms with
shielding provided by high-density concrete block and
lead.
Exposure cabinets are often self-contained units with
integrated x-ray equipment and are typically shielded with
steel and lead to absorb x-ray radiation.
Exposure vaults and cabinets are equipped with protective interlocks that disable the
system if anything interrupts the integrity of the enclosure. Additionally, walk in vaults
are equipped with emergency "kill buttons" that allow radiographers to shut down the
system if it should accidentally be started while they were in the vault.

- 28 -
4. Techniques and Calibrations
4.1 Image Considerations
The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest
amount of detail possible. This requires careful control of a number of different
variables that can affect image quality. Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the
quality of an image in terms of the smallest detail or discontinuity that may be
detected. Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the combined effects of two
independent sets of variables. One set of variables affects the contrast and the other
set of variables affects the definition of the image.

 Radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference between

two areas on a radiograph. Contrast makes it easier to distinguish
features of interest, such as defects, from the surrounding area. The
image to the right shows two radiographs of the same stepwedge.
The upper radiograph has a high level of contrast and the lower
radiograph has a lower level of contrast. While they are both imaging
the same change in thickness, the high contrast image uses a larger
change in radiographic density to show this change. In each of the
two radiographs, there is a small circle, which is of equal density in
both radiographs. It is much easier to see in the high contrast
radiograph. The factors affecting contrast will be discussed in more
detail on the following page.
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one area of a
given radiographic density to another. Like contrast, definition also makes it easier to
see features of interest, such as defects, but in a totally different way. In the image
to the right, the upper radiograph has a high level of definition and the lower
radiograph has a lower level of definition. In the high definition radiograph it can be
seen that a change in the thickness of the stepwedge translates to an abrupt change
in radiographic density. It can be seen that the details, particularly the small circle,
are much easier to see in the high definition radiograph. It can be said that the detail
portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to the physical change present in the

- 29 -
stepwedge. In other words, a faithful visual reproduction of the
stepwedge was produced. In the lower image, the radiographic setup
did not produce a faithful visual reproduction. The edge line between
the steps is blurred. This is evidenced by the gradual transition
between the high and low density areas on the radiograph. The
factors affecting definition will be discussed in more detail on a
following page.
Since radiographic contrast and definition are not dependent upon
the same set of factors, it is possible to produce radiographs with
the following qualities:
• Low contrast and poor definition
• High contrast and poor definition
• Low contrast and good definition
• High contrast and good definition

4.2 Radiographic Contrast

As mentioned on the previous page, radiographic
contrast describes the differences in photographic
density in a radiograph. The contrast between
different parts of the image is what forms the
image and the greater the contrast, the more
visible features become. Radiographic contrast
has two main contributors: subject contrast and
detector (film) contrast.
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities
transmitted through different areas of the
component being evaluated. It is dependant on
the absorption differences in the component, the
wavelength of the primary radiation, and intensity
and distribution of secondary radiation due to
scattering.
It should be no surprise that absorption differences within the subject will affect the
level of contrast in a radiograph. The larger the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger the difference in radiographic density or
contrast. However, it is also possible to radiograph a
particular subject and produce two radiographs having
entirely different contrast levels. Generating X-rays using
a low kilovoltage will generally result in a radiograph with
high contrast. This occurs because low energy radiation
is more easily attenuated. Therefore, the ratio of photons
that are transmitted through a thick and thin area will be
greater with low energy radiation. This in turn will expose
the film to a greater and lesser degree in the two areas.
There is a tradeoff, however. Since film and other detectors have the advantage of
shooting a radiograph with lower contrast, the image will have more radiographic
latitude. This means that more areas of different thicknesses will be visible in the
image. Therefore, the goal is to balance radiographic contrast and latitude so that
there is enough contrast to identify the features of interest but also to make sure the
latitude is great enough so that all areas of interest can be inspected with one
radiograph. In thick parts with a large range of thicknesses, multiple radiographs will

- 30 -
likely be necessary to get the necessary density levels in all areas.
Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film used,
how it was exposed, and how it was processed. Since there are other detectors
besides film, this could be called detector contrast, but the focus here will be on
film.
Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will generally increase the contrast.
In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas because
in any given period of time more x-rays are reaching the darker areas. Therefore, the
highest density that can be conveniently viewed or digitized will have the highest
contrast and contain the most information.
Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce scatter
radiation at energy levels below 150,000 volts. Above this point they will emit
electrons to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation, thus increasing
the density and contrast of the radiograph.  Fluorescent screens produce visible light
when exposed to radiation and this light further exposes the film and increases
contrast.

4.3 Definition
As mentioned previously, radiographic definition is
the abruptness of change from one density to
another. Geometric factors of the equipment and
the radiographic setup, and film and screen
factors both have an effect on definition.
Geometric factors include the size of the area of
origin of the radiation, the source-to-detector
(film) distance, the specimen-to-detector (film)
distance, movement of the source, specimen or
detector during exposure, the angle between the
source and some feature and the abruptness of
change in specimen thickness or density.
Geometric Factors
The effect of source size, source-to-film distance
and the specimen-to-detector distance were
covered in detail on the geometric unsharpness
page. But briefly, to produce the highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source
size should be as close to a point source as possible, the source-to-detector
distance should be a great as practical, and the specimen-to-detector distance
should be a small as practical.  This is shown graphically in the images below.
The angle between the radiation and some features will also have an effect on
definition. If the radiation is parallel to an edge or linear discontinuity, a sharp distinct
boundary will be seen in the image. However, if the radiation is not parallel with the
discontinuity, the feature will appear distorted, out of position and less defined in the
image.
Abrupt changes in thickness and/or density will appear more defined in a radiograph
than will areas of gradual change. For example, consider a circle. Its largest
dimension will a cord that passes through its centerline. As the cord is moved away
from the centerline, the thickness gradually decreases. It is sometimes difficult to
locate the edge of a void due to this gradual change in thickness.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will
reduce definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the

- 31 -
image. Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection
situations.

Film and Screen Factors

The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine
grain film is capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a
coarse grain film. Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As
the wavelength shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film
will increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent
graininess of the radiograph.
The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a
couple of different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used
is because incident radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the
film. However, the light they produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in
adjacent areas, as well as in the areas which are in direct contact with the incident
radiation. Fluorescent screens also produce screen mottle on radiographs. Screen
mottle is associated with the statistical variation in the numbers of photons that
interact with the screen from one area to the next.

- 32 -
4.4 Radiographic Density
Photographic, radiographic or film density is a measure of the degree of film
darkening.  Technically it should be called "transmitted density" when associated with
transparent-base film since it is a measure of the light transmitted through the film.
Density is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. Specifically,
it is the log of the intensity of light incident on the film (I0) to the intensity of light
transmitted through the film (It).

Similar to the decibel, using the log of the ratio allows ratios of various sizes to be
described using easy to work with numbers. The following table shows the
relationship between the amount of transmitted light and the calculated film density.
Transmitta Percent Film
nce Transmitta Density
(I0/It) nce Log(I0/It)
1.0 100% 0
0.1 10% 1
0.01 1% 2
0.001 0.1% 3
0.0001 0.01% 4
0.00001 0.001% 5
0.000001 0.0001% 6
0.0000001 0.00001% 7
From this table, it can be seen that a density reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through the film. At a density of 4.0 only
0.01% of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film. Industrial codes and
standards typically require a radiograph to have a density between 2.0 and 4.0 for
acceptable viewing with common film viewers. Above 4.0, extremely bright viewing
lights is necessary for evaluation. Contrast within a film increases with increasing
density, so in general the higher the density the better. When radiographs will be
digitized, densities above 4.0 are often used since digitization systems can capture
and redisplay for easy viewing information from densities up to 6.0.
Film density is measured with a densitometer. A densitometer simply has a
photoelectric sensor that measures the amount of light transmitted through a piece of
film. The film is placed between the light source and the sensor and a density
reading is produced by the instrument.

4.5 Film Characteristic Curves

In film radiography, the number of photons reaching the
film determines how dense the film will become when
other factors such as the developing time are held
constant. The number of photons reaching the film is a
function of the intensity of the radiation and the time
that the film is exposed to the radiation. The term used
to describe the control of the number of photons
reaching the film is “exposure.”
Film Characteristic Curves
Different types of radiographic film respond differently to
a given amount of exposure. Film manufacturers

- 33 -
commonly characterize their film to determine the
relationship between the applied exposure and the
resulting film density. This relationship commonly
varies over a range of film densities, so the data
is presented in the form of a curve such as the
one for Kodak AA400 shown to the right. The
plot is called a film characteristic curve,
sensitometric curve, density curve, or H and D
curve (named for developers Hurter and
Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of
measuring the response of photographic
emulsions to light or radiation.
A log scale is used or the values are reported in
log units on a linear scale to compress the
x-axis. Also, relative exposure values (unitless)
are often used. Relative exposure is the ratio of
two exposures. For example, if one film is
exposed at 100 keV for 6mAmin and a second
film is exposed at the same energy for 3mAmin,
then the relative exposure would be 2. The image
directly to the right shows three film characteristic
curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log
scale, while the image below and to the right
shows the log relative exposure plotted on a
linear scale.
Use of the logarithm of the relative exposure scale makes it easy to compare two
sets of values, which is the primary use of the curves. Film characteristic curves can
be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a radiograph with a certain density
to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph of higher or lower film density.
The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced with one type of film
to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the same density with a second type
of film.
Adjusting the Exposure to Produce a Different Film Density
Suppose Film B was exposed with 140 keV at
1mA for 10 seconds and the resulting radiograph
had a density in the region of interest of 1.0.
Specifications typically require the density to be
above 2.0 for reasons discussed on the film
density page. From the film characteristic curve,
the relative exposures for the actual density and
desired density are determined and the ratio of
these two values is used to adjust the actual
exposure. In this first example, a plot with log
relative exposure and a linear x-axis will be
used.
From the graph, first determine the difference
between the relative exposures of the actual and the desired densities. A target
density of 2.5 is used to ensure that the exposure produces a density above the 2.0
minimum requirement. The log relative exposure of a density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the
log of the relative exposure when the density of the film is 2.5 is 2.12. The
difference between the two values is 0.5. Take the anti-log of this value to change it
from log relative exposure to simply the relative exposure and this value is 3.16.
Therefore, the exposure used to produce the initial radiograph with a 1.0 density

- 34 -
needs to be multiplied by 3.16 to produce a radiograph with the desired density of
2.5.  The exposure of the original x-ray was 10 mAs, so the new exposure must be
10 mAs x 3.16 or 31.6 mAs at 140 keV.
Adjusting the Exposure to Allow Use of a Different Film Type
Another use of film characteristic curves is to
adjust the exposure when switching types of film.
The location of the characteristic curves of
different films along the x-axis relates to the film
speed of the films. The farther to the right that a
curve is on the chart, the slower the film speed.
It must be noted that the two curves being used
must have been produced with the same
radiation energy. The shape of the characteristic
curve is largely independent of the wavelength of
the x-ray or gamma radiation, but the location of
the curve along the x-axis, with respect to the
curve of another film, does depend on radiation
quality.
Suppose an acceptable radiograph with a density of 2.5 was produced by exposing
Film A for 30 seconds at 1mA and 130 keV. Now, it is necessary to inspect the part
using Film B. The exposure can be adjusted by following the above method, as long
at the two film characteristic curves were produced with roughly the same radiation
quality. For this example, the characteristic curves for Film A and B are shown on a
chart showing relative exposure on a log scale. The relative exposure that produced a
density of 2.5 on Film A is found to be 68. The relative exposure that should
produce a density of 2.5 on Film B is found to be 140. The relative exposure of Film
B is about twice that of Film A, or 2.1 to be more exact. Therefore, to produce a 2.5
density radiograph with Film B the exposure should be 30mAs times 2.1 or 62 mAs.

4.6 Exposure Calculations

Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are many
variables that affect the final radiograph.  Some of the variables that affect the
density of the radiograph include:
• The spectrum of radiation produced by the x-ray generator.
• The voltage potential used to generate the x-rays (KeV).
• The amperage used to generate the x-rays (mA).
• The exposure time.
• The distance between the radiation source and the film.
• The material of the component being radiographed.
• The thickness of the material that the radiation must travel through.
• The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film.
• The film being used.
• The concentration of the film processing chemicals and the contact time.
The current industrial practice is to develop a procedure that produces an acceptable
density by trail for each specific x-ray generator.  This process may begin using
published exposure charts to determine a starting exposure, which usually requires
some refinement. 
However, it is possible to calculate the density of a radiograph to a fair degree
accuracy when the spectrum of an x-ray generator has been characterized.  The
calculation cannot completely account for scattering but, otherwise, the relationship
between many of the variables and their effect on film density is known.  Therefore,

- 35 -
the change in film density can be estimated for any given variable change.  For
example, from Newton's Inverse Square Law, it is known that the intensity of the
radiation varies inversely with distance from the source.  It is also known that the
intensity of the radiation transmitted through a material varies exponentially with the
linear attenuation coefficient (m) and the thickness of the material.
A number of radiographic modeling program are available that make this calculation. 
These programs can provide a fair representation of the radiograph that will be
produce with a specific setup and parameters.  The applet below is a very simple
radiographic density calculator.  The applet allows the density of a radiograph to be
estimated based on material, thickness, geometry, energy (voltage), current, and time.
The effect of the energy and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film
density after exposure. Since the calculation uses a generic (and fixed characteristic)
x-ray source, fixed film type and development, the applet results will differ
considerably from industrial x-ray configurations.  The applet is design simply to
demonstrate the affects of the variable on the resulting film density.
How To Use This Applet
First choose a material. Each material has a mass attenuation constant, mu. Next, the
voltage to the x-ray source needs to be set. Continue to fill in numbers for the rest
of the variables. The current is the number of milliamps that flow to the source. After
the Distance, Time, and Thickness have been set, press the "Calculate" button.
Note, the Io field has a number in it. This is the initial intensity of the x-ray beam.
For large numbers, it may be necessary to use the mouse to see the entire number.
Click on the number and move the mouse as if selecting it. The cyan pointer
indicates the density on the resultant radiograph. The two other pointers represent
under- and over-exposure by a factor of four. These may be used to judge the
degree of contrast in the resultant radiograph.
Try the following examples: material: aluminum, kV: 120, mA: 5, distance: 0.5 meter,
time: 90 seconds, thickness: 6.5 cm. The resultant density will be 2.959. As can be
noted on the stepwedge, reducing the exposure by a factor of four will change the
density to a value of 1.0, and increasing the exposure by a factor of four will result
in a density of 5.0. Reduce the time from 90 seconds to 22.5 seconds (factor of
four) and note the results.
Change the material to iron and press "Calculate". Note that not enough radiation is
received to generate an image. Change the following: kV: 320, mA: 10, time: 900
seconds, thickness: 1.25 cm, and then click "Calculate". Note the resulting center
density of 0.561. With aluminum, the time was altered by a factor of four to change
the density. With the iron, current (mA) must be increased by a factor of four to
produce an increase in density. Change the current from 10 to 40 and calculate the
results.

4.7 Controlling Radiographic Quality

One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use of
image quality indicators (IQIs). IQIs provide a means of visually informing the film
interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI
indicates that a specified amount of change in material thickness will be detectable in
the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of definition so that the
density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without such a reference point,
consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States, two IQI styles are prevalent: the
placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material types so

- 36 -
that one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the material being
radiographed can be used.

Hole-Type IQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material group
classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates eight groups of
shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching system is
incorporated into the requirements, which allows the radiographer to easily determine
if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The thickness in
thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by a lead number 0.250 to 0.375
inches wide, depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or government
standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to indicate the material
type rather than the notching system, as shown on the left in the image above.
Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such as
2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of the
region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the expression
refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is expressed as a
multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would mean that the shim
thickness should be two percent of the material thickness and that a hole that is
twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the radiograph. This presentation of a
2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies that the radiographic technique is capable of
showing a material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a defect
of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holes in the
penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues
within the part may contain gradual changes and are often less visible. The
penetrameter is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not
intended to be used as a measure of the size of a cavity that can be located on the
radiograph.
Wire Penetrameters
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire
penetrameters (IQIs) to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six wires
arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two sheets of
clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQI sets, which control the wire diameters. The
set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of the IQI. The number in
the lower left corner indicates the material group. The same image quality levels and
expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs.
The wire sizes that correspond to various hole-type quality levels can be found in a
table in E747 or can be calculated using the following formula.

- 37 -
 Where:
F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire)
d = wire diameter (mm or inch)
l = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire)
T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch)
H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch)
Placement of IQIs
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a material
thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of interest. When a
block is used, the IQI should be the same distance from the film as it would be if
placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI should also be placed
slightly away from the edge of the part so that at least three of its edges are visible
in the radiograph.

4.8 Film Processing

As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base
coated on both sides with an emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver
chloride. When x-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the the crystals or grains,
some of the Br- ions are liberated and captured by the Ag+ ions. In this condition,
the radiograph is said to contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in the
grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive to
reaction with the developer.
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemicals solutions for
controlled periods of time. Processing film basically involves the following five steps.
• Development - The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver
halide grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the
radiation develop more rapidly, but given enough time the developer will
convert all the silver ions into silver metal. Proper temperature control is
needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver while keeping unexposed
grains as silver halide crystals.
• Stopping the development - The stop bath simply stops the development
process by diluting and washing the developer away with water.
• Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath.
The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
• Washing - The film is washed with water to remove all the processing
chemicals.
• Drying - The film is dried for viewing.
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical concentration,
temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is done by hand or

- 38 -
automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require a high
degree of consistency and quality control.
Manual Processing &Darkrooms
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom
should be located in a central location, adjacent to the reading
room and a reasonable distance from the exposure area. For
portability, darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trailers.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is
most often a metal bin that is used to store and protect the film.
An area next to the film bin that is dry and free of dust and dirt
should be used to load and unload the film. Another area, the
wet side, should be used to process the film. This method
protects the film from any water or chemicals that may be
located on the surface of the wet side.
Each of step in the film processing must be excited properly to
develop the image, wash out residual processing chemicals, and
to provide adequate shelf life of the radiograph. The objective of
processing is two fold: first, to produce a radiograph adequate
for viewing, and second, to prepare the radiograph for archival
storage. Radiographs are often stored for 20 years or more as a
record of the inspection.
Automatic Processor Evaluation
The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray
department. The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when compared
to manual development by a factor of four. To monitor the performance of a
processor, apart from optimum temperature and mechanical checks, chemical and
sensitometric checks should be performed for developer and fixer. Chemical checks
involve measuring the pH values of the developer and fixer as well as both
replenishers. Also, the specific gravity and fixer silver levels must be measured.
Ideally, pH should be measured daily and it is important to record these
measurements, as regular logging provides very useful information. The daily
measurements of pH values for the developer and fixer can then be plotted to
observe the trend of variations in these values compared to the normal pH operating
levels to identify problems.
Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of films in
the automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve measurement of
basic fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1° C intervals of temperature.
The range of temperature measurement depends on the type of chemistry in use,
whether cold or hot developer. These three measurements: fog level, speed, and
average gradient, should then be plotted against temperature and compared with the
manufacturer's supplied figures.

4.9 Viewing Radiographs

Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally
viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common to digitize
radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper viewing conditions
are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can
enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.
Viewing Radiographs
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area
should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting materials.

- 39 -
Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be
close at hand. Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn
to prevent fingerprints on the radiograph. Ambient light levels
should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc are often
recommended, but subdued lighting (rather than total darkness)
is preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the
surroundings should be about the same as the area of interest
in the radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that
there are no reflections from the surface of the film under
examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four groups
of film viewers. These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, and a
combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a source of
defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can cause distortion
of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow only 1% of the
incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01% of the
incident light to pass. With such low levels of light passing through the radiograph,
the delivery of a good light source is important.
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written procedure
or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required documents should be
available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary when evaluating
components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as required by the procedure,
should first be determined. It should be verified that the radiograph was produced to
the correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct
identification information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality
indicator was used and that the required sensitivity level was met. Next, the
radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not contain processing and
handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of interest. The
technician should develop a standard process for evaluating the radiographs so that
details are not overlooked.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity with
knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated discontinuities.
If the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of applied loads and
history of the component is helpful. A process for viewing radiographs (e.g. left to
right, top to bottom, etc.) is helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on the
radiograph. This process is often developed over time and individualized. One part of
the interpretation process, sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the
eyes need to occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light
source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the
intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indications.
Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help identify and evaluate
indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected is very often helpful in
developing an understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By using
the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the interpreter
will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.

4.10 Radiograph Interpretation - Welds

In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be

- 40 -
skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three
basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps
make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a
spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in
radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the
experience level for recognizing various features in the image. The following material
was developed to help students develop an understanding of the types of defects
found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph.
Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not
melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the
base material without bonding.

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take
many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or
specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated
and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while
the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a
void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding
area.

Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the

- 41 -
weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in
the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.

Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between
weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the
weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities.
Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate.
The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that
follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or
lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining

- 42 -
area.

Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted
as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it
looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often
quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld.
In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline
of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not
follow a ground edge.

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of
the weld area.

- 43 -
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by
the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of
the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld

metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to
determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image
density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image
density of the surrounding base material.

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess
of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a
radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering
requirements.

- 44 -
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction
that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will
appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear
as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process, including aluminum and
stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld
which when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense
than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline
on the radiograph.

- 45 -
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material
and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as
light, "wire like" indications.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate
the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular
condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles.
On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by
light globular areas (icicles).

4.11 Radiograph Interpretation - Castings

The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects
that adversely affect the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that
often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the
casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with
this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process
deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject
decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes
of defects have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important
that the radiographer is able to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155,

- 46 -
Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the radiographer
make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The castings used to
produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analyzed to confirm the
size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief description of the
most common discontinuity types included in existing reference radiograph documents
(in graded types or as single illustrations).
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by
accumulated gas or air which is trapped
by the metal. These discontinuities are
usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of
a spherical, elongated or flattened shape.
If the sprue is not high enough to provide
the necessary heat transfer needed to
force the gas or air out of the mold, the
gas or air will be trapped as the molten
metal begins to solidify. Blows can also
be caused by sand that is too fine, too
wet, or by sand that has a low
permeability so that gas cannot escape.
Too high a moisture content in the sand
makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes of water vapor away from the
casting. Another cause of blows can be attributed to using green ladles, rusty or
damp chills and chaplets.
Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic
oxides, which appear on the radiograph as
irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core
walls and/or from oxides (formed in the
melt) which have not been skimmed off
prior to the introduction of the metal into
the mold gates. Careful control of the
melt, proper holding time in the ladle and
skimming of the melt during pouring will
minimize or obviate this source of trouble.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that
appears as dark spots on the radiograph.
Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in
all cases it occurs because molten metal
shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of
the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by
making sure that the volume of the casting
is adequately fed by risers which
sacrificially retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage
in its various forms can be recognized by
a number of characteristics on
radiographs. There are at least four types
of shrinkage: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3)
filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some
documents designate these types by
numbers, without actual names, to avoid
possible misunderstanding.
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may be

- 47 -
produced when metal solidifies between
two original streams of melt coming from
opposite directions to join a common
front. Cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a
time when the melt has almost reached
solidification temperature and there is no
source of supplementary liquid to feed
possible cavities.
Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very
fine lines or small elongated cavities that
may vary in density and are usually
unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a
continuous structure of connected lines or
branches of variable length, width and
density, or occasionally as a network.
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of
lacy texture with diffuse outlines, generally
toward the mid-thickness of heavier
casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may be
dendritic or filamentary shrinkage.
Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears
more blurred because it is projected
through the relatively thick coating between
the discontinuities and the film surface.
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly
disposed discontinuities that occur after
the melt has solidified. They generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.

Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges.
Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal
during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to
overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears as a
stress concentration is similar to that of an ordinary crack, and hot tears are usually
systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a casting type,
explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required.

- 48 -
Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions
with a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily
eliminated by specific remedial actions in the process.
Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less
dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague,
thin-section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused
by interaction of the object's grain boundary material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV
or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling as indications
of unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often have to check the
condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in
mottling are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only
slightly in appearance.
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid metallic matrix. They may be
less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light
metal castings.

Core shift shows itself as a variation in section thickness, usually on radiographic

views representing diametrically opposite portions of cylindrical casting portions.

Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds

Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective
conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting

- 49 -
repair that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here.
The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For additional information, see
the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the "Radiographic
Control of Welds."
Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material
and base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long
narrow indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to
very dark.
Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is
generally cylindrical or elliptical in shape.
Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled
by weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and
appears as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.
Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through
the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at
the center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld
joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On a
radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline
of the weld joint or at the fusion line.
Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip,
fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized
region but without the development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph,
melt-through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication.
Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent
base metal.
Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface
contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat
generated when electrical energy passes between the surfaces of the finished weld or
base metal and the current source.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled
during welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter
appears as many small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph.
Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions
appear very light radiographic images.  Accept/reject decisions for this defect are
generally based on the slag criteria.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in
oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld
atmosphere. The condition is also called sugaring.
Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into
the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in
radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.
Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface
of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.

- 50 -
5. Advanced Techniques
5.1 Real-time Radiography
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time
radioscopy, is a nondestructive test (NDT)
method whereby an image is produced
electronically, rather than on film, so that very
little lag time occurs between the item being
exposed to radiation and the resulting image.
In most instances, the electronic image that is
viewed results from the radiation passing
through the object being inspected and
interacting with a screen of material that
fluoresces or gives off light when the
interaction occurs. The fluorescent elements of
the screen form the image much as the grains of silver form the image in film
radiography. The image formed is a "positive image" since brighter areas on the
image indicate where higher levels of transmitted radiation reached the screen. This
image is the opposite of the negative image produced in film radiography. In other
words, with RTR, the lighter, brighter areas represent thinner sections or less dense
sections of the test object.
Real-time radiography is a well-established method of NDT having applications in
automotive, aerospace, pressure vessel, electronic, and munition industries, among
others. The use of RTR is increasing due to a reduction in the cost of the equipment
and resolution of issues such as the protecting and storing digital images. Since RTR
is being used increasingly more, these educational materials were developed by the
North Central Collaboration for NDT Education (NCCE) to introduce RTR to NDT
technician students.
Real-time Radiography: An Introductory Course Module for NDT Students
Download PDF File / View material as Web Pages

5.2 Computed Tomography

Computed Tomography (CT) is a powerful nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technique
for producing 2-D and 3-D cross-sectional images of an object from flat X-ray
images. Characteristics of the internal structure of an object such as dimensions,
shape, internal defects, and density are readily available from CT images. Shown
below is a schematic of a CT system.

- 51 -
The test component is placed on a turntable stage that is between a radiation source
and an imaging system. The turntable and the imaging system are connected to a
computer so that x-ray images collected can be correlated to the position of the test
component. The imaging system produces a 2-dimensional shadowgraph image of
the specimen just like a film radiograph. Specialized computer software makes it
possible to produce cross-sectional images of the test component as if it was being
sliced.
How a CT System Works
The imaging system provides a shadowgraph of an object, with the 3-D structure
compressed onto a 2-D plane. The density data along one horizontal line of the
image is uncompressed and stretched out over an area. This information by itself is
not very useful, but when the test component is rotated and similar data for the
same linear slice is collected and overlaid, an image of the cross-sectional density of
the component begins to develop. To help comprehend how this works, look at the
animation below.
In the animation, a single line of density data was collected when a component was
at the starting position and then when it was rotated 90 degrees. Use the pull-ring to
stretch out the density data in the vertical direction. It can be seen that the lighter
area is stretched across the whole region. This lighter area would indicate an area of
less density in the component because imaging systems typically glow brighter when
they are struck with an increased amount of radiation. When the information from the
second line of data is stretched across and averaged with the first set of stretched
data, it becomes apparent that there is a less dense area in the upper right quadrant
of the component's cross-section. Data collected at more angles of rotation and
merged together will further define this feature. In the movie below, a CT image of a
casting is produced. It can be seen that the cross-section of the casting becomes
more defined as the casting is rotated, X-rayed and the stretched density information
is added to the image.

In the image below left is a set of cast aluminum tensile specimens. A radiographic
image of several of these specimens is shown below right.

  

- 52 -
CT slices through several locations of a specimen are shown in the set of images
below.

A number of slices through the object can be reconstructed to provide a 3-D view of
internal and external structural details. As shown below, the 3-D image can then be
manipulated and sliced in various ways to provide thorough understanding of the
structure.

5.3 X-Ray Inspection Simulation

One of the most significant recent advances in NDT has been the development and
use of computer modeling that allows inspection variables to be scientifically and
mathematically evaluated. In a few cases, these models have been combined with a
graphical user interface to produce inspection simulation programs that allow
engineers and technicians to evaluate the inspectability of a component in a virtual
computer environment. One such program, XRSIM, was designed and developed at
Iowa State University's Center for Nondestructive Evaluation. The program simulates
radiographic inspections using a computer aided design (CAD) model of a part to
produce physically accurate simulated radiographic images. XRSIM allows the operator

- 53 -
to select a part, input the material properties, input the size,
location, and properties of a defect. The operator then selects the
size and type of film and adjusts the part location and orientation
in relationship to the x-ray source. The x-ray generator settings
are then specified to generate a desired radiographic film
exposure. Exposure variables are quickly and easily revised
allowing the operator to make and see results of defect size,
material, and part or defect orientation.
The almost instantaneous results produced by simulation programs
make them especially valuable in education and training settings.
Successful radiography depends on numerous variables that affect the outcome and
quality of an image. Many of these variables have a substantial effect on image
quality and others have little effect. Using inspection simulation programs, inspections
can be modified and the resulting images viewed and evaluated to assess the impact
these variables have on the image. Many inspection scenarios can be rapidly modeled
since the shot setup and exposure can be quickly accomplished and the
film-developing step is eliminated. Not only can a greater number and variety of
problems be explored, but also the effects of variables can be learned and
self-discovered through experimentation, which is one of the most effective modes of
learning. Results are not complicated by unnecessary variables such as film
processing variables and artifacts. Distractions unrelated to the primary learning
exercise are eliminated. Through the use of simulation programs a more effective
understanding of the scientific concepts associated with radiography will be
developed.
Another important aspect of the program is that it
does not require a real part for the inspections.
Inspections can be simulated that would otherwise
be impossible or too costly to perform outside the
computer environment. Flaws of various shapes,
sizes, and materials can be easily introduced into
the CAD model to produce a sample set for
probability of detection exercises.
It should be noted that densities produced in the
simulated images may not match exactly the images
produced in the laboratory using similar equipment
settings. The difference between the actual and
simulated radiographs are due to variations in the X-ray spectrum of various tubes
and approximations made in the scattering model used to keep the computation times
reasonable. As scattering effects become more dominant, the predicted density will
agree less with the actual density on the radiograph. For example, when a one-inch
steel sample is radiographed at 250 keV, over half of the total flux reaching the
detector is due to scattering.
For more information on how the XRSIM program operates, the users manual is
available here for downloading. The educational version of the program is available
commercially.
Ten X-ray inspection exercises have been developed by the Collaboration for NDT
Education that make use of XRSIM program. Educators can download these lessons
from this site.

- 54 -
Radiograhy Lessons Using the XRSIM Program
One of the education improvement projects completed by the Collaboration for NDT
Education involved the introduction of X-ray inspection simulation program into the
college classroom. Ten X-ray inspection exercises were developed that make use of
an X-ray inspection simulation program developed by the Center for NDE at Iowa
State University. The lessons cover the following topics:
Film properties
Kilovoltage and contrast sensitivity
Milliamperage and time relationships
Creating an exposure chart
Source to film relationships
Radiographic equivalence factors
Defect composition, shape, and size
Defect shape and relationship to X-ray source
Beam divergence and image distortion
Developing a radiographic technique card
The student booklet for the lessons and the program user instructions may be
downloaded below. NDT instructors may request a copy of the instructor's booklet by
email addressed to [email protected]. Please include a daytime phone
number in the email so that a member of the collaboration for NDT Education may
contact you. The instructors booklet is also free of charge. The XRSIM program is
commercially available from NDE Technologies, Inc,
More Information on Teaching With the XRSIM Program
Using the XRSIM program, a student must perform all of the operations required to
produce a "real" radiograph except that the film-developing step is eliminated. First,
the exposure must be set-up by loading in a CAD model of a part, positioning the
part relative to the x-ray source and the film, and selecting the x-ray generator and
film type. The student must then adjust the generator settings and the exposure time
to produce the desired exposure. Once the part set-up and generator setting
selections are complete, the program generates a simulated radiograph in only a few
seconds compared to twenty or thirty minutes when film developing is involved. The
student can view a number of simulated radiographs at once so that side-by-side
comparisons are possible. A densitometer feature allows students to collect
quantitative information about the images.
One of the main advantages of the program is that it provides a hands-on learning
environment were results are produced very quickly. This allows instructors to expose
students to a greater number and variety of problems and allows the students to
discover the effects of variables for themselves. Quick results also reduce the many
distractions unrelated to the primary learning exercise that can confuse the results
and even the purpose of the exercise. Another advantage is that results are not
complicated by unnecessary variables such as film processing artifacts. The simulator
also records all the variables used to produce images, which allows instructor to
quickly trouble shoot any problems that students may be having with an exercise.
Since the program uses a CAD model and does not require a real part, inspections
can be simulated that would be impossible or too costly to develop outside of the
computer environment. Flaws of various shapes and sizes can be easily introduced
into the CAD model to produce a sample set for probability of detection exercises.
Use of the program is more cost effective because students can make all the usual
mistakes while learning the basics of radiography, and correct them before actual
exposing film. In addition to reducing consumable costs, the use of the simulator
could reduce equipment costs since the students will spend less time using expensive
x-ray systems.

- 55 -
References and Resources
Radiography in Modern Industry, Fourth Edition, Eastman Kodak Company,
Rochester, New York, 1980
Nondestructive Testing : Radiography, Ultrasonics, Liquid Penetrant, Magnetic Particle,
Eddy Current by Louis Cartz, ASM Intl; ISBN: 0871705176
Introduction to Radiation
Radiation and Health Physics
NDT - Radiography Papers 98
X-ray and Gamma-Ray Data

- 56 -