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Chapter 12

Coating Ingredients

Susana M. Fiszman

Introduction

Batter- or breadcrumb-coated products are highly attractive foods. Coatings


enhance the flavor, texture, and appearance, adding value to the substrate food by
giving the fried product a pleasant golden color and a crispy exterior texture that is
normally very appetizing.
Because “battering and frying” has been a traditional method for preparing
foods, empiricism has dominated its application for decades. Although considera-
ble geographical variations occasionally exist because of the raw materials availa-
ble, versions of batter-coated or breaded foods are found in the traditional or
regional cuisines of practically every part of the world.
Changes in lifestyle, particularly in the western world, have consolidated the
availability and sales of convenience foods and frozen products, providing consid-
erable support for the expansion and globalization of coated foods. Nowadays, the
market for this type of product is growing steadily, and there are even major food
service sector companies with a worldwide presence that only serve products of this
kind.
Automation of manufacturing, innovations in the cooking methods, the demand
for more sophisticated foods, diversification, and a concern to develop healthier
products that contain less fat are the factors that dominate the latest research trends
in this area. In addition, if the products are to go through the final cooking stage in
the home there has to be a certain degree of versatility, as the consumer can vary
the method or times and this should not lead to disappointment. The research fields
have been increasing permanently in recent years. They cover developments in both
coating formulations and coating application technology, which constitute the
important challenges facing the technicians and researchers working in this area.
In the traditional process, the manufacturer batters the food pieces (chicken
pieces, chicken nuggets, and strips, beef fritters and fingers, pork chunks, veal
products, etc.), prefries them for a few seconds in order to give the batter a certain
solidity of consistence, and then freezes them. The consumer buys them in this
form and, in turn, fries them for a few minutes in order to cook them, normally until
a golden external color has been reached. From the point of view of the industrial

R. Tarté (ed.), Ingredients in Meat Products: Properties, Functionality and Applications 253
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-71327-4_12, © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009
254 S.M. Fiszman

process, there is a choice between cooking fully before the application of the coat-
ing (95°C, 99% RH) or after it (180°C, 5% RH); in both cases the coating stage is
followed by a prefrying step. The choice depends on the industrial machinery, the
type of meat or other product to be coated, and its size, shape, etc., but it must also
be remembered that yields can differ considerably, as can the final product
quality.
While the batter is raw it must create a homogeneous layer that covers the food,
which is normally also raw, and must adhere to it before and after coagulation –
which takes place during the prefrying step – and during final frying; after the batter
coagulates it must withstand freezing temperatures and normal handling (packag-
ing and transportation) without cracking or breaking and without losing any portion
of the external layer; during the final frying performed in the consumer’s home it
must create an outer crust with good acceptability in terms of texture (particularly
crispness), flavor, and color. Coatings might also need to prevent oxidation, limit
moisture and oil transfer, give freeze/thaw stability, and extend shelf life. Of course,
they must also be cost-effective (Kuntz, 1997a). To achieve these objectives,
research into the behavior of flours and starches has traveled a long way and a
considerable array of ingredients with a broad range of functionalities has begun to
be used. Methods for controlling the physical properties of both the raw and the
fried products have also seen a tremendous boost in recent decades.
Although the fascinating world of battered or breaded foods involves many
technological aspects, this chapter will pay particular attention to the use of ingre-
dients and their properties in relation to good coated product performance and,
more specifically, to the uses of polysaccharide hydrocolloids or gums, which have
such a wide-ranging functionality that they feature in practically every approach
to improving the quality of coated products. Most of the available information for
studying the ingredients used in these types of coatings does not differ greatly
between meat products and other types of foods although, in fact, most of the
developments have been made for protein substrates. Nevertheless, developments
involving specific aspects of meat products will be cited in detail in this
chapter.

Types of Batter

Adhesion or Interface Batters

The adhesion coating or interface batter is used as an intermediate layer between the
food to be coated and the exterior layer of bread crumbs or breading. It acts as the
“glue” that holds the breading to the substrate. In this type of batter, stickiness is
important and the viscosity must be strictly controlled, as the purpose of the batter is
to hold a sufficiently thick layer of dry food coating made from flour, starch, season-
ings, etc. uniformly in place. The ingredients, the batter characteristics, the uniformity
12 Coating Ingredients 255

of the layer, its color, etc. do not need to be controlled so strictly, however, as all the
final characteristics of the food depend on the outer layer of breading.

Tempura-Type or Leavened Batter

A tempura batter can be defined as a semiliquid dough, basically consisting of flour


and water, into which a product is dipped before it is cooked, normally by frying.
This batter is designed as a single outer covering for the substrate food. Unlike
adhesion batters, this type of batter contains raising agents that produce carbon
dioxide in the presence of water and heat, so it expands when fried, developing a
number of gas cells and, consequently, a spongy structure.
The basic reaction that produces carbon dioxide comes from the interaction
between sodium bicarbonate and acids or acid salts, which may be tartaric acid,
tartrates, phosphates, glucono-delta-lactone, etc. The amount of acid used is con-
trolled in order to regulate the rate of leavening and neutralization by sodium bicar-
bonate, generally so that this takes place after the mixing and beating of the
ingredients (and continues during the battering of the substrate), but before the
structure is set by frying. As bubbles expand, a surface-active material (emulsifier-
like agent) must be present so that the bubble walls do not get too thin and the
bubbles do not rupture or coalesce. During frying the batter foam becomes a com-
pletely set sponge structure.
Leavening reduces the density and increases the volume of the coatings, so they
are lighter to eat (Brock, 2001). It must be borne in mind that the raising agent only
expands pre-existing bubbles, so the beating stage is very important in this type of
batter. The aeration caused by the raising agent contributes to crispness and facili-
tates steam release during the prefrying and final frying steps.
The structural characteristics of a tempura-like batter must be able, by them-
selves, to achieve a uniform external layer with good adhesion to the substrate.
It must also be visually attractive, with good coverage, no defects, and an agree-
able color. Tempura-type batters form a crisp, continuous, open, and uniform
layer over the food substrate, constituting its final outer coating. They act as a
barrier against loss of food substrate moisture as well by protecting the natural
juices of foods from the effects of freeze/thaw cycles or reheating, thereby
ensuring a final product that is tender and juicy on the inside while crisp on the
outside.

Predusting

Predust is a dry ingredient or mixture of ingredients that is dusted onto the moist
surface of the frozen, fresh, or steam- or heat-cooked food substrate before any
other coating is applied. It improves batter adhesion because it absorbs part of the
256 S.M. Fiszman

water on the surface of the substrate, avoiding migration (Yang & Chen, 1979). If
the batter is applied to a surface that is too moist, it can slip, leaving some areas
uncovered or covered with a diluted material that will then form too thin a layer.
The contrary occurs when a predust is applied on very dry product surfaces or deep
frozen substrates, as the dust will not be absorbed by the product but will be dis-
persed in the liquid batter, increasing its viscosity, and resulting in the batter pick-
up being too high.
In a pioneering work, Baker, Darfler, and Vadehra (1972) evaluated the predust
material capacities of a series of ingredients from three large groups: starches, pro-
teins, and gums. They concluded that the proteins produced crusts with better adhe-
sion and, of these, dried egg albumin produced the best results in terms of yield and
visual scores.
Predusting also reduces the voids that may be caused by entrapment of air pockets
between the substrate and the batter during batter application, and also tends to
increase batter pick-up. On occasion, consecutive layers of predust, batter, and bread-
ing are used to achieve the desired textural or functional results. The predust most
commonly used is wheat flour. Native and modified starches, gums (hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose or methylcellulose), and proteins (whey protein concentrate, egg
albumin or gluten), alone or in combination, have also been used to absorb moisture
and to help form a barrier against moisture and fat migration (Kuntz, 1997a;
Usawakesmanee, Chinnan, Wuttijumnong, Jangchud, & Raksakulthai, 2004; Zhang,
2001). Not much research in this area has been published.

Batter Ingredients and Components

As a basis for suitable formulations of dry mixes, it is important to have a good


understanding of the requirements that the raw batter and batter components must
fulfill and of the characteristics they must develop in the product during processing,
prefrying and freezing, and, finally, during final frying or cooking by the
consumer.
In practice, however, the list of ingredients is far longer (starches, seasonings,
gums, different proteins, such as egg or gluten, and many other items) and batters
have therefore become highly complex systems in which the nature of the ingredi-
ents is very wide-ranging and their interactions, which determine the final perform-
ance of the product, are more difficult to study and characterize.

Wheat Flour

As previously mentioned, a batter is typically based on wheat flour, which deter-


mines its fundamental characteristics (degree of adhesion, viscosity, structure,
starchy flavor note, color or absence of color, and fat absorption features). Flour
12 Coating Ingredients 257

commonly makes up 80–90% (by weight) of dry batter mixes; and approximately
70–80% of breading formulas. The main contribution of wheat flour is body or
structure (Van Beirendonck, 2001). Various characteristics of this flour base –
moisture content, functionality of its proteins, and its amylose and amylopectin
contents – have been correlated with the texture characteristics, oil absorption,
appearance and overall acceptability of the external crust. In brief, higher water or
amylopectin content and excess protein increase oil absorption and decrease crisp-
ness of the fried batter.
Flours from the various major wheat types have different functional properties
that need to be taken into account when formulating a batter with particular proper-
ties. However, generally, no particular type of wheat is suggested in batter formula-
tions, so multipurpose flour should be suitable.
Wheat flour proteins are highly efficient water binders. Owing to the functional
properties that they develop when hydrated, they are able to form cohesive doughs
or batters when subjected to kneading or beating forces. Because of its exceptional
elastic properties, gluten can hold gas and expand during frying, producing a cel-
lular structure and providing a desirable, spongy, porous, cooked coating in tem-
pura-type batters, essential for a good, crispy texture. This type of structure also
facilitates the passage of water and oil (Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Boyle, 2001).
Hard wheat flours have a higher protein content than soft wheat flours and therefore
need more water to produce a comparable viscosity when used to formulate a batter.
Good viscosity will prevent the ingredients that are insoluble at ambient (or refrig-
erated) temperature from settling and causing undesired stratification. The batter
will perform best when all the ingredients are in a balanced suspension.
Wheat starch is composed of two main fractions: amylose (a linear polymer) and
amylopectin (a branched polymer). The functionality of the starch is determined to
a great degree by the ratio of these two polymers. The linear structure of amylose
has low water retention capacity and adds structure to the layers, while the branched
amylopectin holds water (a possible cause of blow off) and disrupts layers, result-
ing in poor crisping action. In fact, commercially available high-amylose starches
have various applications in batter coatings. Other factors must be borne in mind,
such as the degree of starch damage. In the grains of cereal, starch granules are
found in different sizes and embedded in a protein matrix; their degree of bonding
and the milling process employed will determine the degree of starch damage and
the particle size distribution. Damaged starch (as the granules that suffer mechani-
cal changes during milling are called) is capable of absorbing higher quantities of
water than intact granules (Olewnik & Kulp, 1993). Intact starch granules absorb
around 30% of their weight in water and, because they have a natural tendency to
settle out of solution, steps need to be taken to keep them uniformly distributed
throughout the batter. Since damaged starch granules absorb greater quantities of
water than intact ones, their use requires that the quantity of water in the formula-
tion be increased.
When starch is heated in the presence of water, the gelatinization process begins.
First, the granules swell as they absorb water into their structure. The crystalline
zones of the starch that could not be reached by the water when cold now break and
258 S.M. Fiszman

all areas are exposed to the hydration process, resulting in swelling of the sample.
At the same time, some of the material from the interior of the granule leaks out,
increasing the viscosity of the system as a whole. Upon cooling, the gelatinized
starch molecules rearrange themselves and form a gel that strengthens the firmness
of the system as the temperature falls. The fraction responsible for this process is
mainly amylose, which has a linear structure, rather than amylopectin, which has a
branched structure. It is this heat-gelatinized starch that gives rise to the basic struc-
ture of the batter coating on the final product. Indeed, a formulation composed only
of flour and water can work, even if it does not possess the optimum characteristics
that are perfected by adding a whole series of other ingredients (Davis, 1983).
Mixing native wheat flour with steamed (heat treated) wheat flour (in which the
gluten forming protein is partially or totally denatured), in a 1:1 ratio, has proved
effective for controlling batter viscosity as well as textural and adhesion character-
istics of the final product (Prakash & Rajalakshmi, 1999).

Nonwheat Flours and Starches

The effect of replacing wheat flour with flour made from other cereals and vegeta-
ble sources has been discussed in terms of changes in the composition and content
of proteins and starch. The GM (genetically modified) issue, which principally
affects corn, should also be considered. Flours from other sources include potato,
rice, tapioca, pea, and barley, among others. The proteins of corn or rice flours are
not capable of forming structures that retain gas or of contributing the viscosity that
wheat proteins develop. Rice starch or corn starch, for example, are different from
wheat starch in terms of the size and shape of their granules, so their gelatinization
properties, water absorption rate, and swelling capacity are not the same.
Consequently, replacing part of the wheat flour with rice flour changes the rheo-
logical properties of the batter, depending on the replacement ratio and the batter
temperature (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000). Replacement of 50% of the
wheat flour with rice flour, which is a poor thickening agent, leads to a batter that
requires a greater proportion of solids or the addition of a thickener to achieve a
suitable viscosity; this rice flour-based frying batter significantly reduces oil uptake
during the frying process while retaining desirable organoleptic properties (Shih &
Daigle, 1999). Batters composed of wheat–corn blends can be tailored by varying
the ratio of these two ingredients; the diluting effect of corn on wheat gluten (which
can cause leathery coatings) will increase crispness (Burge, 1990).
A recent study found that replacing 5% of the wheat flour with soy flour brought
about an improvement in the quality of chicken nuggets in terms of crispness and
color, while replacement with both soy flour (5%) and rice flour (5%) reduced oil
absorption compared to a control that did not contain these additions; the study was
conducted at different frying temperatures (Dogan, Sahin, & Sumnu, 2005). Biswas
and Keshri (2003) used a batter prepared from mixtures of Bengal gram meal with
other ingredients, including spices, carboxymethylcellulose, whole egg and skim
12 Coating Ingredients 259

milk powder, for covering pork patties, and concluded that this mixture improved
the quality of the final battered, fried patties. Wheat flour has been replaced with
steam jet-cooked barley flour in batter formulations, producing batters with good
rheological properties and coatings with low oil uptake and high moisture content,
which could be related to the high water binding capacity of this ingredient (Lee &
Inglett, 2006).
As ingredients, native starches present a wide range of functionalities that
include improved adhesiveness, changes in tenderness and crunchiness, textural
modifications, improvements in crispness, holding time under heat lamps, freeze/
thaw stability, better moisture retention and decreased greasiness (Van Beirendonck,
2001).
Corn starch-based batters require continuous mixing during processing because
the solids have a tendency to settle out easily, leading to changes in batter viscosity
throughout the production period, and resulting in irregular batter pick-up
(Suderman, 1993). The addition of a thickener to keep the solids in suspension
helps to solve this problem.
High-amylose hybrid starches result in increased gelatinization temperatures; a
film is formed in seconds, creating a uniform appearance and the desired final brit-
tleness and crispiness of the coating (Bertram, 2001). These high-amylose starches,
alone or in combination with other ingredients such as rice flour or flour from other
cereals, dextrin, etc., have good film-forming properties, and help reduce oil
absorption in fried, battered products (Higgins, Qian, & Williams, 1999; Van
Beirendonck, 1998). In one study, native starches – high-amylose corn starch
(HAC), normal corn starch (NCS), waxy corn starch (WCS), rice starch (RS), and
waxy rice starch (WRS) – were used in wheat flour batter (20% starch). The crisp-
ness and hardness of the fried batter correlated positively with the amylose content
of the starch (HAC > NCS > RS > WRS > WCS) and negatively with residual
moisture content; however, WCS was the most effective in reducing oil uptake (Lee
& Lim, 2004).
Modified starches find many applications in this area as a result of their wide-
ranging functionality. Oxidized starches, for example, have functional carboxyl
groups that bind with proteins in the substrate, and this bonding makes the batter
stick (Shinsato, Hippleheuser, & Van Beirendonck, 1999). Lenchin and Bell (1985)
used flour and corn starch with a high-amylose content to formulate a mix for coat-
ing prefried food products suitable for final cooking in a microwave oven which are
characterized by improved crispness. Cold water-swelling, oil-resistant, rice-based
starch products, such as pregelatinized rice flour, phosphorylated rice starch, and
pregelatinized acetylated rice starch, are used in formulations to enhance viscosity
and textural and sensory quality of the fried batter. Addition of pregelatinized rice
flour gives a high crispness value but also increases oil absorption (Mohamed,
Hamid, & Hamid, 1998). The effect of amylomaize, corn, waxy maize, and prege-
latinized tapioca starches on the texture, moisture content, oil content, color, coat-
ing pick-up, cooking yield, volume, and porosity of deep-fat frying chicken nuggets
was studied by Altunakar, Sahin, and Sumnu (2004). They concluded that starch
addition to the formulation increased the crispness of the final product in the last
260 S.M. Fiszman

stages of frying, and the highest porosity and oil content were obtained when corn
starch was used; pregelatinized tapioca starch resulted in the lowest oil content and
the highest moisture content, coating pick-up and volume. Lee and Lim (2004)
found that modified (oxidized, acid-treated, cross-linked, hydroxypropylated and
acetylated) starches provided texture improvements (crispness and hardness) in
fried products.

Gums and Hydrocolloids

One of the main challenges with the use of gums and hydrocolloids is that these
perform functions that influence every stage of the manufacturing process: blend-
ing of the mix, coating, prefrying, freezing (if applicable), and final frying by the
end consumer.
The use of gums has been one of the central issues in experimentation with bat-
ters to cover pieces of food. Their primary use is based on their ability to retain or
immobilize water and their direct effect on the control of viscosity.
The addition of hydrocolloids is generally effective at levels as low as 1% or less
(dry weight), of the formulation, so their addition does not “dilute” the functionality
of proteins in the flour base. However, many gums are highly hydrophilic, so the
formulation requires adjustment of the solids to water ratio, modifying the charac-
teristics of the entire system. When hydrocolloids are used in a formulation, com-
plete incorporation and hydration are essential if they are to be effective. Moreover,
many authors recognize the need to study the numerous interactions that compo-
nents of this kind develop in the presence of lipids, proteins, other hydrocolloids,
or other batter ingredients. Since these components display the combined effect of
surface tension, hydrophilic capability, ability to gel on heating, and ability to form
films, it is necessary to take all these properties into account when predicting their
performance in relation to the other ingredients of the batter (Annapure, Singhal, &
Kulkarni, 1999).
The choice of the most appropriate gum for a particular function basically
depends on its effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, ease of incorporation into the
manufacturing process, and the sensory properties of the final product.
From the standpoint of their technological application also, there are several
factors that are important to consider when choosing a gum for a specific effect
within the batter. One of the most important of these is to achieve correct hydration.
In this regard, when different alternatives are available, the preferred gum will be
the one that can be incorporated into the batter by dry blending, as this requires no
modification of the normal process.
The correct choice should also consider that other ingredients in the batter sys-
tem can also affect gum performance, so the compatibility of the gum with those
components must also be assessed. For example, the presence of soluble solids (i.e.,
sugar, salt, etc.) can reduce the solubility of hydrocolloids because of competition
for available water (Meyers, 1990).
12 Coating Ingredients 261

The preferred gum will also be cost-effective and that which gives the final
batter-coated food the most suitable sensory characteristics.

Effects of Gums on Batter Viscosity

The best-known application of gums in batter-coated products, as a result of their


water-immobilization properties, is related to their ability to control viscosity.
As previously mentioned the viscosity of the batter is critical to the quality of
the coating and is recognized as one of the main factors that determine batter behav-
ior during frying (Loewe, 1990, 1993). Higher viscosity increases the degree of
coating and affects the quantity and quality of the batter that adheres to the sub-
strate (Hsia, Smith, & Steffe, 1992). The degree of adhesion in turn determines the
handling properties of the product during and after coating, as well as its final
appearance and texture after frying.
The main reason why batter viscosity needs to be controlled is the inherent
variability of the rheological properties of the main ingredients, principally flour
(Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Rausch, 2000). The advantage of using gums
rather than other hydrocolloids such as modified starches is their effectiveness at
lower concentrations, thus reducing the dilution of the functional protein in the
flour, which plays a critical role in the overall performance of the coating
system.
At times, the need to increase batter viscosity is necessary due to the low inherent
viscosity of the batter ingredients. For example, in rice flour-based batters, which are
widely used in Asian countries and can be used as alternatives to traditional wheat
flour-based batters, the absence of gluten limits their ability to provide viscosity. To
obtain a batter with optimum properties, it is therefore necessary to add an agent
that will give the formulation the required viscosity. Shih and Daygle (1999)
reported that adding phosphorylated long grain rice starch esters to the batters was
effective in enhancing their viscosity; these batters are an alternative for individuals
with gluten allergies and, in addition, they absorbed substantially less oil than
wheat flour-based batters. Another combination that has been used in this type of
batter is oxidized starch, xanthan gum, and methylcellulose, which gave good
results in a rice flour-based batter for chicken drumsticks as reported by Mukprasirt,
Herald, Boyle, and Rausch (2000) and Mukprasirt et al. (2001).
The ability of gums to enhance viscosity also enables them to keep solids in
suspension. This property has been related particularly to xanthan gum and traga-
canth gum, which also provide yield value (i.e., the system begins to flow if the
shear stress exceeds a certain threshold value) and are able to aid in the suspension
of heavy particles under low shear conditions at low gum concentrations (0.10–
0.25% w/w) (Hsia et al., 1992).
The greater viscosity conferred by gums also makes it possible to obtain batters
with a greater proportion of water while maintaining appropriate viscosity. This
property has been used to increase the quantity of water available for starch gelati-
nization (Davis, 1983).
262 S.M. Fiszman

Guar gum, xanthan gum, and the cellulose derivatives carboxymethylcellulose


(CMC), methylcellulose (MC), and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) have
been the most used. Evidently, the efficiency of viscosity enhancement varies
according to the gum used and its concentration, but the interactions and resulting
action of each product with other system components are also very important fac-
tors in the choice of gum. As an ionically charged gum, CMC can lose its effective-
ness in the presence of salts (e.g., NaCl, leavening agents). In the case of MC and
HPMC, temperature control is essential to assure the gum’s functional properties.
For these cellulose derivatives to be correctly hydrated, the temperature of the water
used to reconstitute the dough must be between 10°C and 15°C, which ensures their
gelling effectiveness during the subsequent step of coagulation in hot water. For this
same reason, the dough must be kept at this temperature when it is used in the bat-
tering step.
The incorporation of hydrocolloids makes the flow behavior of batters more
complex. However, only single shear rate rheological measurements are usually
performed in industrial plants and they do not provide complete information. These
batters generally present shear-thinning behavior, time dependency, and thixotropy,
so a rheological characterization of their behavior over a range of shear stresses and
times gives more complete information for optimizing the mixing, pumping, and
coating processes, with a view to maintaining uniform batter properties, pick-up,
and adhesion (Fiszman & Salvador, 2003). The sophisticated rheometers that are
available nowadays make it possible to study the rheological behavior of batters in
depth, although their use is generally confined to the field of research (Sanz,
Fernández, Salvador, Muñoz, & Fiszman, 2004).
In a comparative study on the effects of guar gum, xanthan gum, and CMC on
the rheological behavior of batters (Hsia et al., 1992), xanthan gum produced the
batters with the greatest consistency, followed by guar gum and CMC. The concen-
tration of the chosen hydrocolloid also affected its rheological behavior. In this
case, for the concentration range studied (0.25–1%), increasing the concentration
of xanthan gum and guar gum increased the consistency index of the batters as well
as their pseudoplasticity, whereas the pseudoplastic behavior of CMC decreased at
higher concentrations. A higher MC concentration in the batter, within the 1–2%
range, increased the viscosity and shear thinning behavior of the batters, as reported
by Sanz, Salvador, and Fiszman (2004a). The rheological behavior of these batters
was particularly affected by temperature; a significant increase in pseudoplastic
behavior was observed as the temperature was increased from 5°C to 25°C.
An important factor to consider when choosing the concentration of a hydrocol-
loid is its effect on the crispness of the final fried crust. An increased concentration
of MC has been associated with greater moisture retention in the product during
frying, causing a loss of crispness. The use of xanthan gum at levels higher than
0.2% imparts a chewy texture (Kuntz, 1995).
As mentioned below, in the particular case of MC and HPMC, their film-form-
ing and thermal gelation properties also help maintain integrity and structure during
frying, which is especially important for batters that use low quality flour or have
low solids contents (Meyers, 1990).
12 Coating Ingredients 263

The use of ingredients that do not develop much viscosity, such as rice flour,
makes it necessary to incorporate a gum to ensure a quality similar to a classic
formulation (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000).

Effects of Gums on Batter Pick-Up

Batter pick-up is a particularly important factor for batter-coated products. The


appearance, thickness, and crispness of the fried external crust are critical to the
sensory acceptance of fried batter-coated foods and they are all closely linked to the
pick-up value. Pick-up is also important for industrial manufacturers of batter-
coated products, as the weight of the coagulated batter in relation to the total weight
of the batter-coated food determines the process yield, which in turn affects the
final cost of the product.
Evidently, hydrocolloids influence the pick-up value of a batter-coated product
because of their ability to confer viscosity. In principle, as the viscosity of the batter
increases, so will the percentage of it that will adhere to the substrate. In batters
formulated with xanthan gum, guar gum, and CMC at concentrations of 0.25%,
0.5% and 1.0%, a correlation between greater viscosity and greater adhesion of the
batter to the food was observed (Hsia et al., 1992). However, this correlation is not
always direct, as the increase in viscosity caused by a higher concentration of
HPMC does not cause a proportional increase in the quantity of batter on the final
product; the batter pick-up rate increased less than the batter viscosity with increas-
ing levels of HPMC between 0.25% and 1.0% (Meyers & Conklin, 1990).
Therefore, using the apparent viscosity values of the batter as a quality control
check for batter pick-up may be misleading, so the actual pick-up should be
monitored.
Apart from viscosity, some other properties of gums have been indirectly related
to yield. The presence of HPMC in batter-coated and breaded chicken nuggets has
been associated with increased product yields due to moisture loss reduction during
frying (The Dow Chemical Co., 1991). Also, as remarked in a latter section, the
body and integrity conferred by gums enhance batter performance before, during,
and after the frying operation, leading to improved batter adhesion and, indirectly,
to higher yields.

Effects of Gums on Oil Absorption During Frying

One of the main problems associated with consumption of batter-coated foods is


the considerable amount of oil absorbed during the prefrying and frying steps. As
is well known, a reduction in oil absorption leads to healthier products, because a
high intake of fat is related to the risk of heart diseases (and, of course, taking into
account that oils high in mono- or polyunsaturated fats are healthier options those
high in saturated or trans-fats). In this regard, improved public and media aware-
ness of the desirability of reducing fat in the average diet has prompted studies on
264 S.M. Fiszman

ways to lower the oil content of fried foods. Different ingredients have been proven
to reduce oil absorption in fried foods. Among these, gums are of considerable
interest, as they are the most effective. The gelling ability of hydrocolloids, together
with their usually hydrophilic nature, makes them suitable for reducing oil uptake
during frying of battered products (Annapure et al., 1999).
Use of MC and HPMC. Among the different gums employed as fat barriers, the
cellulose ethers MC and HPMC, which possess the unique property of reversible
thermal gelation, have been more widely investigated than other gums.
In contact with hot oil, the MC or HPMC in the batter gels to form a film.
Together with their high water-retention capacity, this protects against moisture loss
and the entry of oil during the frying process (Balasubramaniam, Chinnan,
Mallikarjunan, & Phillips, 1997; Mallikarjunan, Chinnan, Balasubramaniam, &
Phillips, 1997; Meyers, 1990).
The use of MC and HPMC in batters has been shown to be effective in a wide
range of applications, such as chicken nuggets (Meyers & Conklin, 1990; The Dow
Chemical Co., 1991), mushrooms, chicken breast strips and codfish fillets (Ang,
1993), chicken balls (Balasubramaniam et al., 1997), mashed potato balls
(Mallikarjunan et al., 1997), and chicken strips (Holownia, Chinnan, Erickson, &
Mallikarjunan, 2000).
Gelation of MC and HPMC is mainly caused by hydrophobic interaction
between molecules containing methoxyl groups. However, the presence of a
hydroxypropyl substitution significantly alters gelation properties. For the same
degree of methoxyl substitution, an increase in hydroxypropyl substitution raises
the gelation temperature and diminishes the strength of the resulting gel; therefore,
gelation temperature is higher and gel strength is lower for HPMC than for MC.
Regarding the influence of molecular weight, gel strength increases in line with
molecular weight up to a molecular weight of approximately 140,000, at which
point it stabilizes. Molecular weight does not affect gelation temperature
(Sarkar, 1979).
Despite the differences in gelation properties between MC and HPMC, the stud-
ies currently available do not enable these to be linked to the barrier efficiency of
the two hydrocolloids.
What has been linked to effectiveness as a barrier is the MC content of the batter.
Raising the MC concentration from 1% to 2% has led to lower oil absorption and
greater moisture reduction in the crust of batter-coated squid rings, both after the
first 30 s of frying and after the final frying subsequent to freezing. At the three
concentrations studied, the barrier effectiveness was more evident after 30 s of
prefrying (Sanz et al., 2004a). Similar results regarding higher barrier effectiveness
in the first 30 s of frying were found in batter-coated/breaded chicken nuggets con-
taining HPMC levels from 0.25% to 1.0% w/w on a wet batter basis (The Dow
Chemical Co., 1991).
When incorporating MC and HPMC into the batter, the two main ways of
achieving correct hydrocolloid hydration provide two main alternatives. The sim-
plest method is to disperse the hydrocolloid by dry blending with the other batter
ingredients; it is then hydrated when they are mixed with water. When this method
12 Coating Ingredients 265

is used, it must be remembered that for correct hydration, cold water must be used;
the required temperature decreases as the number of methoxyl substitutions in the
anhydroglucose ring rises. The other method is to hydrate the hydrocolloid before
mixing it into the batter (The Dow Chemical Co., 1996).
These ways of blending MC or HPMC into the batter have been linked to their
efficiency in reducing oil absorption. The barrier effect of HPMC in various batter-
coated foods (pieces of chicken, fish, vegetables and cheese) has been found to be
more efficient when using the prehydrated hydrocolloid method than when hydrated
together with the other batter ingredients. The viscosity of the batters was also
greater, which was linked to greater hydration efficiency and its effect on functional
properties (Meyers & Conklin, 1990). Another factor that has been linked to barrier
efficiency is the batter temperature at the moment of applying the coating. In batters
with differing MC concentrations stored at 5°C, 15°C, and 25°C for an hour after
preparation (dry-blending technique), a reduction in the barrier efficiency was
observed as the temperature increased (Sanz et al., 2004a). Subsequent Cryo-SEM
observation of the batters showed a greater density of eutectic artifacts at 5°C. This
was associated with the development of greater viscosity and water-retention
capacity by the batters which, in turn, was associated with the presence of a hydro-
colloid that was more unfolded and, therefore, more efficient at performing its
function (Llorca et al., 2005).
As an alternative to adding the hydrocolloids to the batter mix, another possibility
that has been tested is to form an edible film around the pieces of food by dipping
them in a solution of MC or HPMC. The influence of applying HPMC and MC as a
film before breading or adding these substances to the breading formulation in order
to reduce the amount of oil absorbed by the crust has been evaluated in marinated
chicken strips (Holownia et al., 2000). The most efficient method was to add the
dry hydrocolloid to the breading formulation. In this work, application as a film
before breading did not reduce the amount of oil absorbed by the crust but did
reduce its moisture; this was associated with an inhibition of moisture migration
from the substrate into the crust. Applying the film after breading was rejected
owing to adhesion problems.
Use of Other Cellulose Derivatives. Although less efficient than MC and HPMC,
another cellulose-derived hydrocolloid that has also been used to reduce oil absorp-
tion is sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Adding CMC to the formulation of
“boondis,” a deep-fried batter-based legume snack food popular in India reduced
the amount of oil in the final product (Priya, Singhal, & Kulkami, 1996). This study
analyzed different concentrations of CMC (0.5–3%), adjusting the proportion of
water to obtain adequate viscosity. The greatest barrier efficiency was obtained at a
concentration of 2%; higher concentrations (3%) were not effective.
Microcrystalline cellulose codried with whey (to allow it to be used in dry form)
increased moisture retention and reduced the oil absorbed by the bread coating of
fried batter-coated and breaded fish (Anonymous, 1980).
Cellulose derivatives are not always the most effective barriers to oil absorption.
A study that evaluated the oil uptake barrier efficiency of various gums at concen-
trations between 0.25% and 2% in model systems based on chickpea flour (gram
266 S.M. Fiszman

flour) classified HPMC as the most effective at 0.25%, although its efficiency fell
as concentration increased. For a 2% admixture, gum arabic proved the most effec-
tive, followed by carrageenate and karaya gum. Similarly to HPMC, CMC showed
decreased effectiveness with increasing gum concentration. In both cases, the effect
was thought to be the consequence of the formation of a thick coating at higher
concentrations resulting in rupture of the film from excessive pressure built up dur-
ing frying. Other gums studied, such as xanthan gum, ghatti gum, tragacanth gum,
and locust bean gum, were not effective. In this study all the gums were incorpo-
rated by dry-mixing with chickpea flour and the water level was adjusted to obtain
a soft dough (Annapure et al., 1999).
Noncellulose Hydrocolloid Barriers. In addition to MC and HPMC, other gel
forming hydrocolloids which have been employed as barriers against fat absorption
are gellan gum and pectin.
Gellan gum, the anionic linear heteropolysaccharide produced by Pseudomonas
elodea, can be applied as a hot solution. The food is dipped into the solution and
the film forms as it cools. Another possibility is to dip the food into a cold gellan
solution; gelation takes place after ions such as Na+, Ca++, Mg++ or K+ have been
added (Duxbury, 1993).
Gellan gum has also been added with calcium chloride to the dry ingredient
mixture of batters for chicken, fish, cheese, and vegetables, resulting in low oil
absorption and the development of appropriate crispness, and gellan solutions have
been used to coat the crumbs used for breading. The use of these rather than con-
ventional breading crumbs resulted in a final product with excellent crispness and
lower oil absorption (Chalupa & Sanderson, 1994).
Pectin, a substance that gels in contact with calcium, forms a film that has
proven effective for reducing oil absorption in a batter-coated and breaded
product. Ca ++ is added to the breading (by dry blending, spray drying,
agglomerating, baking the calcium source into the bread crumb or any com-
bination of these methods) and the batter-coated and breaded food is treated
with a solution of calcium-reactive pectin. A hydrophilic film that reduces oil
absorption forms during the reaction between Ca++ and the pectin. The level
of Ca ++ added to the breading is critical, as sufficient calcium must be avail-
able for efficient reaction with the pectin. The preferred pectin types are
characterized by very strong calcium reactivity, selected from the group of
conventional low methoxy pectins and amidated low methoxy pectins
(Gerrish, Higgins, & Kresl, 1997).

Methylcellulose Application in a Method Without Prefrying

The most recent application of gums to batter-coated products involves the ther-
mogelling property of MC to create a new industrial manufacturing process for
frozen batter-coated foods that eliminates the prefrying stage and thus provides a
healthier and more environmentally friendly alternative (Fiszman et al., 2003; Sanz,
Salvador, & Fiszman, 2004b).
12 Coating Ingredients 267

The purpose of the prefrying stage of industrial manufacture is to coagulate the


coating around the food. It is the most problem-ridden stage of the process and one
in which the batter-coated food absorbs a considerable amount of oil.
The patented process adds MC to the batter and basically consists of the same
stages as the traditional process except that the prefrying process is replaced by
immersing the batter-coated food in hot (70–80°C) water for 30 s and then quickly
heating it in a microwave, conventional, or infrared oven. The aim of the hot water
is to prompt the gelation of the MC so that the batter develops the appropriate con-
sistency. A further objective of the heating step is to “fix” the resulting structure to
preclude thermo-reversibility of the gelation process and make the batter-coated
food stable at any temperature.
The new product, batter-coated by the new process, offers the additional advan-
tage of absorbing significantly less oil during the final frying by the consumer while
having a moisture content similar to that of traditional batter-coated products, thus
giving it adequate crispness.
Similarly to commercial wheat flour-based formulations already available, the
batter mix employed allows great flexibility and, in addition to wheat flour and MC,
it may include other ingredients, allowing the final batter-coated products to be
given different sensory properties and, consequently, to cover a wider range of
consumer requirements.
The basic ingredients of the batter should preferably be chosen for their low
ability to confer viscosity, in order to make it possible to obtain an appropriate bat-
ter viscosity despite the MC concentrations used.
An essential prerequisite for correct coagulation of the batter in the water bath
is that the MC be well hydrated. Dispersion of the MC by dry blending with the rest
of the ingredients and hydration with cold (10–14°C) water has given good results.
A reduction in the gelling efficiency of the reconstituted batter has been observed
as the temperature rises, so the batter must be kept refrigerated during use to ensure
that the process proceeds correctly.
Unlike the use of cellulose ethers as oil barriers, this application is limited exclu-
sively to MC, since the lower strength of the gels that develop when using HPMC
is insufficient for correct coagulation.
The choice of MC concentration is influenced by the balance between the vis-
cosity-conferring effect and the subsequent gelling action. A gum concentration
that confers to the batter appropriate viscosity and correct coagulation when placed
in the hot water bath must be used. The addition of 1.5–2% (dry ingredients) of MC
for a 1.2:1 (w/w) ratio of water to dry ingredients has given satisfactory results.
Lower levels of MC were insufficient to obtain an adequate consistency after freez-
ing. Although higher concentrations provided excellent coagulation, the viscosity
of the batters after mixing was excessive, preventing an adequate coating from
being applied.
The thermal process undergone by batters in this innovative process has been
studied by SAOS (small amplitude oscillatory shear). The evolution of their viscoe-
lastic behavior with temperature showed that the main feature associated with MC
batters was a decrease in the temperature at which an increase in consistency
268 S.M. Fiszman

appears (Sanz, Fernández, et al., 2004). The influence of a number of ingredients


(wheat starch, corn starch, dextrin, gluten, and dried egg) on the viscous behavior
of these MC batters was also studied by dynamic rheological techniques (Sanz,
Salvador, Vélez, Muñoz, & Fiszman, 2005).

Effects of Gums on Adhesion Properties

In a batter system, adhesion can be defined as the chemical and physical bonding
of a food coating with the food substrate (Suderman & Cunningham, 1983). The
batter must cover the substrate evenly and remain adhered to it throughout all the
stages of the manufacturing process. It must then withstand the frozen storage and
transport conditions without becoming detached from the substrate. Finally, during
final cooking by the consumer, the batter must continue to remain attached to the
substrate and must not have any holes or cracks in its surface. Factors affecting
batter adhesion to food products include the properties of the food used (Suderman
& Cunningham, 1980), cooking methods (Baker et al., 1972; Hale & Goodwin,
1968), and batter ingredients (Baker et al., 1972; Hale & Goodwin, 1968; Hanson
& Fletcher, 1963).
Adhesion is another critical characteristic of batter-coated foods which has been
associated with gums. Similarly to their use as barriers against fat absorption, the
effectiveness of gums in improving adhesion has been linked mainly to their gel-
forming properties. The gels or films they form provide strength and integrity,
which have a positive effect on adhesion, preventing “blow-off” and “pillowing.”.
In the particular case of MC and HPMC, cohesion is conferred to the raw dough in
a primary state; structural integrity is then conferred by the activation of thermal
gelation during frying. Gelling of gellan gum, pectin, carrageenan, and alginates in
the presence of ionic salts has also been associated with improved adhesion (Kuntz,
1997b). The method of adding gellan and pectin to a batter-coated food is the same
as described above for their use as oil absorption reduction agents. For alginates, a
possible method of application is that described by Earle and McKee (1985); the
food substrate is first coated with an algin solution and is then dusted with a dry
mixture which contains Ca++. Subsequently, once the algin gel has formed, the food
is dipped into the tempura batter and prefried.
Although it does not possess gel forming properties, CMC has also been sig-
nificantly correlated to improvements in the adhesion of a commercial breading
mix to poultry skin, as measured by a mechanical method. Other nongelling gums
tested in the study (guar, tragacanth and xanthan) did not significantly affect
adhesion. In no case were significant differences in adhesion found when the
concentration of the gums was increased (Suderman, Wiker, & Cunningham,
1981). In another study that evaluated the relationship between the rheological
properties of batters and the breading adhesion properties of different nongelling
hydrocolloids (xanthan, guar and CMC), a high correlation between apparent
viscosity and breading adhesion (measured as overall yield and cooking yield)
was found. Xanthan gum was the only one that significantly improved adhesion.
12 Coating Ingredients 269

In this case adhesion was found to increase with hydrocolloid concentration (Hsia
et al., 1992).
The use of gums to improve adhesion, however, is not without controversy. For
example, the addition of MC to a rice flour-based batter provided good adhesion
immediately after frying but was not suitable for frozen storage (Mukprasirt et al.,
2001). Langan (1988) found that in the presence of adhesion starches (e.g.,
hypochlorite-treated dent corn starch; cross-linked and pregelatinized waxy corn
starch), some gums may actually inhibit adhesive strength. Similarly, the addition
of MC alone at 0.3% has been found to not form a film that adhered to chicken skin,
as was the case for xanthan gum at 0.2%. In contrast, the combined effect of oxi-
dized cornstarch, xanthan gum, and MC significantly improved the binding force
between the rice flour-based batter and the chicken drumsticks. In this study, adhe-
sion was evaluated by texture analysis and laser scanning confocal microscopy
(Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Rausch, 2000). The negative effect on adhesion was
explained by excessive moisture binding by the batters, which may cause excessive
steam pressure to build up between the batter and the substrate during frying.

Effects of Gums on Freezing and Handling Stability

Freezing stability is another property that has been generally associated with the
use of gums in batter-coated products. This property has been mainly attributed to
their ability (associated with their hydrophilic nature) to bind the free water gener-
ated during freeze–thaw cycles, thereby preventing ice crystal formation and
growth, and water migration from the substrate to the coating, which are the main
causes of quality loss during frozen storage or freeze/thaw cycles.
There is currently a need for more scientific research in this area, as there con-
tinues to be disagreement regarding the use of gums for the purpose of adhesion.
For example, lack of adhesion in rice flour-based batters during frozen storage has
been explained as being due to their sensitivity to freezing damage; structural
analysis has shown that number and size of voids increased within the fried batter
due to water retention, which upon slow freezing would lead to ice crystal growth,
however the MC-added batter exhibited more damage compared to other rice-flour
based formulations (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000).

Effects of Gums on Microwaveability

The microwave oven is a well-established method for cooking or heating food


today. However, a problem that remains unsolved is that microwave cooking or
heating of traditional batter-coated foods results in undesirably soft and soggy tex-
tures, due to the conduction of water from the inside to the outside of the product
(Fiszman & Salvador, 2003). One way to solve this problem would be to prevent
moisture from migrating from the food substrate to the batter (Meyers, 1990). The
use of gums batter-coated foods has been shown to assist in this regard. Pickford
270 S.M. Fiszman

(1993) presented a method of producing a coated fried foodstuff which may be


heated by microwave radiation prior to consumption. Pickford’s method is based on
adding a high-amylose starch and a cellulose gum able to gel upon heating (MC or
HPMC) to the predust and the dry batter mix. The exact composition will be for-
mulated taking into account the amount of moisture vapor which will be released
into the batter during frying and subsequent microwave reheating, thus ensuring
that the batter does not become soggy. In general, as the cellulose gum content of
the predust increases, so does the allowable moisture loss through the gel during
heating. A further advantage of the formulation is an improvement of batter adhe-
sion and of product stability during freezing and thawing cycles.
Some gums can be gelled by various mechanisms (presence of specific ions, etc.)
and the structure that they form can make the coating more resistant and durable,
allowing it to withstand handling (Loewe, 1993) and the occurrence of blow-outs (or
air pockets), which cause the batter to fall off the food due to the pressure built up
between the batter and the product during frying (Ang, Miller, & Blais, 1991).

Effects of Gums on Frying Oil Life

The frying process exposes the oil to conditions that cause its degradation if good
hygienic practices are not followed, and can give rise to undesirable constituents
that can not only jeopardize the quality and nutritional value of the food, but also
pose a potential occupational hazard. The chemical reactions that contribute to
these unwanted by-products include triacylglycerol hydrolysis, oxidation, and
polymerization. Heating the oil to high temperatures in the presence of air and the
degree of unsaturation of the oil are among the major factors that contribute to the
progress of these breakdown reactions. The food being fried may also accelerate
these reactions, when moisture and other constituents migrate from the food into
the oil. A basic tool to assure food and oil quality is oil filtration. Filter materials
help maintain oil quality by preventing solid particles from accumulating in the
bottom of the fryer. By the other hand use, but not abused, frying oils may be
topped up or diluted with fresh oil.
The film and gel forming ability of certain gums has also found an application
in extending the useful life of frying oils. By conferring batter integrity barrier
properties, they are able to prevent the migration of moisture and other components
from the food into the frying medium.
Holownia et al. (2000) and Holownia, Erickson, Chinnan, and Eitenmiller
(2001) evaluated the effectiveness of using HPMC as a barrier in marinated chicken
strips to extend the useful life of frying oil. It was found that the application of
HPMC, either as a film or as a breading mix ingredient, created an effective barrier
to the migration of water and acetic acid from the food into the frying oil. Through
the resulting reduction in the pro-oxidant action of the acetic acid, the useful life of
the frying oil was extended.
The application of a pectin solution around a breaded food and of calcium to the
breading has been found to reduce batter/breading detachment and fall-off into the
12 Coating Ingredients 271

oil, as well as to maintain batter and breading integrity and adhesion during the
prefrying and final frying stages (Gerrish et al., 1997).
The hydrocolloids most commonly used as barriers are MC and HPMC (Ang,
1989; Lee & Han, 1988; Stypula & Buckholz, 1989). Meyers and Conklin (1990)
proposed the use of a prehydrated solution of HPMC to ensure its effectiveness.
Clearly, one must not lose sight of the fact that oil absorption also depends on factors
such as the shape, porosity, composition (especially initial water content), weight to
surface ratio, and surface roughness of the product, as well as oil composition, frying
time, and oil and food temperature (Pinthus, Weinberg, & Saguy, 1993).

Proteins

The use of proteins in batter formulations also has a long history. Egg derivatives are
among the most utilized proteins in these applications. The use of egg white in batters
to coat broiler drumsticks was reported to improve coating pick-up, final yield values,
and sensory scores, compared to formulations without this ingredient (Baker & Scott-
Kline, 1988). Mohamed et al. (1998) observed that adding ovalbumin to a batter
increased its crispness and improved its color, and attributed this to the presence of
protein amino groups that take part in the Maillard reaction. On the subject of using
egg in coating batters, Loewe (1993) considers that albumin helps bond the coating
to the substrate while the lecithin in the yolk could act as an emulsifier, improving the
stability of the system. Soy concentrate has produced good adhesion, although not as
high as albumen or gluten (Baker et al., 1972). The rheology of batters containing
dried whole egg has been studied, with the observation that the proteins contributed
a more pronounced shear-thinning behavior during flow and a higher elastic com-
ponent value in oscillatory dynamic measurements of the systems studied (Baixauli,
Sanz, Salvador, & Fiszman, 2003).
According to Baker and Scott-Kline (1988), batters with high protein contents
produce coatings that may be perceived as more nutritious (some nutrition-conscious
consumers feel that high carbohydrate coatings contribute to obesity). Egg albumen
batters have a lower caloric content (due to lower solids contents than control sam-
ples) than batters based purely on flour. However, a high proportion of egg albumen
in batter formulations for coating chicken nuggets can cause gummy texture or color
problems, so in order to formulate acceptable coating batters it has proven necessary
to make certain process modifications (e.g., to the cooking system). Coating pick-up
values, final fried product yield, and sensory scores were found to be slightly better
in formulations containing egg white than in those that did not. Mohamed et al.
(1998) found that egg yolk increased the hardness of the coating as well as oil absorp-
tion, probably because the proteins largely take the form of lipoproteins and phospho-
proteins, which can reduce the surface tension between water and oil. Other proteins,
such as powdered milk or whey solids, also provide structure and contribute lactose,
a reducing sugar that takes part in nonenzymatic browning reactions. Bhardwaj
(1990) proposed a batter with a high concentration of a pulse (Moong Dal, a
272 S.M. Fiszman

leguminose seed) of a particular particle size in order to obtain fried battered products
of high quality with a crispy, chewy crust.
Soluble proteins extracted from animal or fish muscle by a concentration and
ultrafiltering process were used to obtain products with high moisture and protein
contents that blocked the absorption of fats; these liquid proteins were added to the
batter or applied as a coating by waterfall or spraying over the substrate prior to
frying, or by dipping the product after it had been breaded, forming a barrier that
avoided water evaporation during final frying (Pszczola, 2005). Fully cooked,
breaded chicken patties treated with NutraPure® (proteins extracted from pollock
fish) applied either as a batter additive or as a coating have been observed to contain
23– 48% less fat than a similar commercial product; their flavor was rated clean by
a sensory panel, the substrate food was found to be moist, the final product under-
went little shrinkage and held up well under lamps, and the crumb had increased
crunch and bronze color (Kelleher, 2005).
Other developments have used soy protein isolate, egg white or whey protein
isolate applied as a postbreading dip. In formed chicken patties that were battered/
breaded and then dipped in these protein solutions (10%), the best results were
obtained with egg white proteins, which reduced oil pick-up by 34% and caused an
11% increase in moisture retention (Brannan & Teyke, 2006).

Dextrins

Dextrins are usually obtained by hydrolysis of starch with enzymes, followed by


anhydrous heating, which results in repolymerization. They may also be obtained
from starch by controlled hydrolysis with acids (Chap. 2). Compared with the origi-
nal starch, dextrins produce less viscous solutions and are water-soluble.
The use of dextrins in batter formulations is associated with crispness and snap
retention and improvement in the fried product (Shinsato et al., 1999), with tender-
ness and browning, and with providing cohesion to the batter system. The dextrins
used generally have medium to high viscosity and aid in the formation of a continu-
ous, uniform batter. In addition to increasing the crispness of the fried product, they
help maintain crispness under infrared heating lamps. Battered squid rings prepared
with a dextrin-containing batter remained crisper for a longer period of time after
frying (Baixauli et al., 2003).

Fiber and Fiber Sources

Powdered cellulose with specific fiber lengths (>100 mm) has also been described
as a batter ingredient that reduces oil absorption and increases moisture retention in
the final product after frying (Ang et al., 1991). As the result of a strong interaction
due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the cellulose fibers in the
12 Coating Ingredients 273

batter, the displacement of water by oil during drying is restricted. The nonenzy-
matic browning properties of powdered cellulose can also be advantageous for
controlling the development of color (Ang, 1993). Other dietary fibers, such as oat,
soy, pea, or sugar beet fibers, can be used for the same purpose. These substances
develop greater mechanical resistance than conventional batters, making it easier
for the coagulated product to stay intact during handling, and they improve product
appearance by giving the coating an even, golden color after frying (Ang, 1991).
Microcrystalline cellulose codried with whey demonstrated a similar function-
ality in tempura-battered food items (Anonymous, 1980). Fibers have been used
to promote adhesion of batter to the substrate. Polydextrose, considered a soluble
fiber, has also been shown, alone or in combination with other fibers, soy protein,
or a cellulose derivative, to reduce absorption of oil in a batter formulation
(Kilibwa, 1999).

Other Ingredients

A number of other minor ingredients can be added to batter mixes.

Seasonings

The current market for coated products is being driven by convenience, and diver-
sity of seasoning adds value and influences the growth of this product sector. Herbs
and spices are widely used in predusting systems, as are oleoresins and extracts.
The predusting stage is a good point at which to add flavorings, as they remain
reasonably protected from the cooking process and do not penetrate into the sub-
strate, as in a marinade. Adding flavorings to the batter is another possibility, but it
must be remembered that insoluble ingredients can give the batter a gritty texture
and can cause blockages in pump tubes, volatile oils can easily escape during the
frying step, and although they add sweetness, sugars can also dramatically affect
the external color during frying. If the product is to be breaded, the addition of deli-
cate and volatile components should be avoided and it should be remembered that
the presence of sugars can cause spotting upon frying. Breadings frequently contain
white, red, and black peppers. Cayenne pepper is popular in many Cajun dishes. A
good option is to use vegetable powders like onion or garlic, due to their low vola-
tility and neutral color. The color that can be imparted by some oleoresins should
also be taken into account, if they give the batter a green color, for instance, the
product will not be attractive. On the other hand, flavor is developed during frying
even without flavor addition, particularly via Maillard and browning reactions.
Flavors transfer from the product into the cooking oil and then back to the product
again. Because of this, and also because frying is a great contributor to flavor loss,
strict oil management procedures must be used if on e is to maintain a certain load
of flavor profiles (Calver, 2001).
274 S.M. Fiszman

In such a wide realm as seasonings and flavor systems, it will be deduced that
while some general remarks can be made, each case must be studied individually.
The current trend is diversity, adding visual appeal and unique flavors (cereal
crumbs, tortilla crumbs, potato shreds, bean thread noodles, etc.). Golden brown
has always has been the benchmark color for fried foods; but now consumers are
demanding more variety, so designers can also add caramel colors to enhance
brown notes, paprika to enhance redness, or annatto to contribute yellow or orange
notes (Gerdes, 2001).
Antioxidants are another category of ingredients that could have interesting
technical applications. Biswas, Keshri, and Bisht (2003) used a 50:50 mixture of
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) in a batter
mix for coating pork patties and evaluated product quality after long refrigerated
and frozen storage times. Instrumental quality attributes and sensory scores of the
final battered, fried products were higher for the treated simples than for the con-
trols throughout storage.

Raw Batter Quality Factors

Control of Raw Batter Viscosity

The consistency of a batter is a key quality attribute of coatings, in that it is a critical


determinant of their performance during frying (Shih & Daigle, 1999). Viscosity
affects the thickness and quality of the adhering batter layer, the handling properties
of the battered product, and its appearance and final texture. For decades, the appar-
ent viscosity of reconstituted doughs has been measured at a single shear rate
(Cunningham & Tiede, 1981; Mohamed et al., 1998; Olewnik & Kulp, 1993;
Prakash & Rajalakshmi, 1999). However, these doughs generally present thixot-
ropy, shear-thinning behavior, and time-dependency, so a rheological characteriza-
tion of their flow behavior over a wide range of shear stresses, temperatures, and
time gives more complete information. This makes it possible to predict their
behavior during the processes of mixing, pumping, and coating, with a view to
keeping batter properties, pick-up, process tolerance and adhesion uniform, as well
as to discover the possible variations that any change in composition or process
might introduce (Balasubramaniam et al., 1997; Hsia et al., 1992; Mukprasirt,
Herald, & Flores, 2000). For example, the incorporation of proteins or gums makes
flow characterization more complex. The technique of dynamic rheology at very
low strains, introduced into this field of food technology research a relatively short
time ago, is a very useful tool because it provides valuable information that may be
related to the structure that these batter systems develop. By applying low degrees
of strain, indicating the degree of solidness and structuring that have developed,
these techniques are able to show the relationship between the viscous and elastic
components, and how they change with composition. Structural changes in batters
12 Coating Ingredients 275

at increasing temperatures, corresponding to the transition from a paste to a gelled


state, and the effects of adding proteins or dextrins, can be clearly followed by
studying their mechanical spectra at different temperatures (65°C and 75°C)
(Baixauli et al., 2003). The influence of several ingredients (wheat starch, corn
starch, dextrin, gluten or dried egg) on the thermo-rheological behavior of batters
containing methylcellulose has been studied by dynamic methods (Sanz et al.,
2005). However, these methods for monitoring batter quality are not yet in general
use, although their application is becoming more widespread.
The most important factors that affect the rheological properties of batters are
the properties and levels of the ingredients, the solids to water ratio, and tempera-
ture. Also, as in any fluid system, rheological properties depend on factors such as
shear rate, duration of shearing, and previous thermal and shear histories (Steffe,
1996). A widely used model to characterize raw batter flow is that of
Ostwald–deWaele:

hap = kg n–1

where hap = apparent viscosity


k = consistency index
g = shear rate
n = flow index, which varies between 0 and 1 and indicates when the system
deviates from Newtonian behavior (n = 1 corresponds to a Newtonian liquid, i.e.,
one where apparent viscosity does not vary with shear rate)
In general, batters exhibit shear-thinning behavior, i.e., an increase in shear rate
lowers the viscosity. Baixauli et al. (2003) and Salvador, Sanz, and Fiszman (2003)
found that an increase in temperature resulted in lower consistency index values in
several tempura batter formulations containing different ingredients. The effect of
soy flour (5%) and rice flour (5%) on the rheological behavior of chicken nugget
batter formulations was studied by Dogan et al. (2005). Soy flour provided the
highest apparent viscosity, measured in a parallel plate rotational viscometer and
modeled as a power-law fluid. These investigators also evaluated the time depend-
ency of the batters by determining the change in apparent viscosity under constant
shear rate over a fixed time. In order to achieve optimum consistency and water
distribution, another key factor that should be controlled is the solids to water ratio.
In deep-frying batters, the volume fraction of water is very critical in terms of oil
absorption, since oil uptake increases linearly with percentage moisture removed
(Shukla, 1993).

Degree of Raw Batter Adhesion

The importance of viscosity in raw batter coatings has already been mentioned. In
principle, the better the raw batter adheres to the substrate food, the lower the losses
from breakage or partial detachment of the batter during the subsequent steps
276 S.M. Fiszman

(freezing, packing, transport, etc.). From this point of view, it is important for sub-
strate proteins to be available for setting up protein/starch interactions. The avail-
ability of substrate proteins can be increased by extraction through mechanical
treatments such as mincing, tumbling, etc.
On the other hand, it is important that pieces of food be prevented from sticking
together and forming what are known as “marriages,” “twins,” “doubles,” or “clus-
ters”; for this, as well as for avoiding excessive stickiness, it is very important to
use mechanical handling methods that do not allow the batter-coated pieces to
touch or overlap prior to freezing or final cooking. The thickness of the adhered
layer is also important financially, as it is directly related to yield and to sensory
acceptance by consumers.
Various indices are commonly used to express the degree of batter adhesion.
Pick-up is defined as the percentage of raw batter that adheres to an uncoated piece
of food:

% Coating pick-up = (C–I) × 100/I

where C = mass of coated food item after dipping in raw batter


I = initial mass of raw uncoated food item
This pick-up rate expresses the quantity of raw batter that adheres to a given
weight of an uncoated food.
Pick-up can also be expressed as the quantity of raw batter that adheres to a
given weight of an already coated food:

% Coating pick-up = (C–I) × 100/C+I

Moreover, partial batter losses during manufacture, frozen storage, or handling


by the consumer cause financial losses and create a poor general impression of the
product. A layer that is too thick can lead to an incompletely cooked final product,
lack of crispness, and a generally hard, lumpy appearance.
The surface and structural characteristics, moisture content, and shape and size
of the substrate food are a further set of factors that are not without importance. For
instance, a layer of ice on the food to be coated reduces the degree of adhesion
(Kuntz, 1997b). Rounded substrate shapes favor uniform coating. Other factors that
also have an effect are the sequence of steps, degree and type of mechanization used
in the coating procedures, thermal treatment of the food pieces and their external
temperature at the moment of coating them, temperature of the batter, and type of
predusting, if any. In general these aspects have not received much attention as
subjects of study nor have they been described in the literature. Meiron, Marmur,
and Saguy (2004) developed an experimental system that allows the quantification
of the effect of surface roughness on mechanical adhesion. They used a model
system simulating rough hydrophobic food surfaces and coatings to develop a theo-
retical basis for studying related phenomena such as breading and battering.
During frying, a batter can suffer blow-outs as a result of the pressure generated
between the batter and the substrate food, causing the batter to fall off. In this case,
12 Coating Ingredients 277

increasing the mechanical resistance of the exterior layer by adding fiber, for exam-
ple, would improve the appearance of the final fried product (Ang, 1991).
Appearance can also be detrimentally affected by the product’s surface looking
either too smooth (in which case some way of enhancing the effect of the leavening
should be considered) or too rough. Sometimes too many bubbles can appear on the
surface, giving the product a blistered or flaky appearance. All these appearance
properties can be controlled by adjusting the ingredients and water content of the
batter, as well as the temperature of the frying oil.

Control of Final Texture of Battered, Fried Products

The most highly appreciated texture of a fried product is crispness. Chewy tough-
ness and mushy softness are equally undesirable sensations caused by lack of crisp-
ness. Ideally, the coating should exhibit a structure that offers some resistance to the
initial bite but then quickly melts away in the mouth (Loewe, 1993). The crisp final
texture of the fried product can be evaluated by instrumental or sensory techniques.
Parameters such as crispness or crunchiness, fragility, tenderness, etc., however, are
hard to quantify using empirical mechanical methods because what is perceived in
the mouth is a complex combination of sensations.
Measurement of puncture by a plunger is the technique most often used (Fan,
Singh, & Pinthus, 1997; Mohamed et al., 1998). Baixauli et al. (2003) performed
penetration measurements of the final crust removed from the food, and recorded
the maximum force on penetration by a 4 mm diameter cylindrical probe. The test
was performed on recently fried foods 15 and 30 min after frying to ascertain the
retention of crispness over time, a factor of some interest when foods are kept warm
by infrared lamps. In this study, a crisp texture was identified as a penetration curve
with a multipeak profile. Lee et al. (2004) measured crispness as the number of
peaks in a texturometer curve obtained for a deep-fried batter.
The Kramer shear press has been used to measure the instrumental texture
of the fried crust of battered onion rings up to breaking point. Specific shear
force (maximum force/mass) and toughness [work (area under the loading
portion of the curve)/mass] were calculated (Ling, Gennadios, Hanna, &
Cuppet, 1998).
It is hard to imagine that a single instrumental parameter could be capable of dis-
criminating between differences which are sometimes very subtle. Consequently,
Salvador, Sanz, and Fiszman (2002) proposed evaluating the complete penetration
curve of a fried coating in order to appreciate various aspects of texture. To compare
different methods of evaluating fried crusts, Lima and Singh (2001) found that the
results obtained with a puncture test (1.07 mm diameter rigid flat probe) and a three-
point bending cell in a restructured potato model system were sensitive to both frying
time and frying temperature. It should be pointed out that in this case different frying
times (5, 10 and 15 min) and temperatures (170°C, 180°C and 190°CC) were used,
so the differences between the products would be considerable.
278 S.M. Fiszman

Other approaches to measuring the crispness of foods include ultrasound or sound


measurements, alone or in combination with mechanical determinations. However,
studies related to crispness in high-moisture breaded or battered foods have been very
limited. Antonova, Mallikarjunan, and Duncan (2003) investigated the relationship
between ultrasonic and mechanical parameters for chicken nuggets and sensory crisp-
ness results obtained with a trained panel. They found significant differences in
ultrasonic velocity, transmission loss, peak force, and total energy in the breaded
chicken nuggets cooked by different methods, and concluded that sensory crispness
could be reasonably well predicted by ultrasonic velocity. An attempt to correlate
mechanical and acoustic measurements with the moisture content of the different
layers of breaded fried shrimps has been described by Tahnpoonsuk and Hung
(1998). These investigators used a modified Warner-Bratzler blade to cut through
breaded fried shrimps (after holding under heat lamps for different lengths of time)
while simultaneously recording the sound with a microphone. The sound was then
analyzed by Fast Fourier Transformation; however, no clear results were obtained
since the authors found that the crispness loss in this multilayer food did not correlate
with the changes in mechanical properties. This was mainly due to the occurrence of
a middle layer between the outer and inner crust layers, which developed after 30 min
of holding and with an intermediate moisture level.
Since there is a causal connection between structure and functionality, knowl-
edge of a food’s microstructure can be very useful for understanding, and hence
controlling, its physical properties. From a structural viewpoint, battered foods are
very complex systems, as they tend to contain a wide range of different kinds of
components, with both the coating and the food substrate undergoing substantial
changes as a result of frying. Very few studies have analyzed the microstructure of
these food types. Llorca, Hernando, Pérez-Munuera, Fiszman, and Lluch (2001)
evaluated the effects of frying on the microstructure of battered squid rings and
observed that in the prefried products the batter and the squid muscle were intercon-
nected, whereas in the final fried product the two layers were separated. The same
team also used electron microscope techniques to investigate how formulation ingre-
dients (corn flour, salt, leavening, etc.) affected fat absorption (Llorca et al., 2003).
Results showed that a leavening agent significantly increased fat content (due to the
generation of gas cells that lodge oil), salt also increased the fat content, but replace-
ment of wheat flour by corn flour caused fat content to decrease. The batter–substrate
interaction can also be investigated by electron microscopy, which has shown the
adherent structures that form between the two, depending on the ingredients used
(Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Rausch, 2000). In a study of breaded, fried chicken
breasts, scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) demonstrated greater merging
between the breadcrumbs and the batter with decreasing breadcrumb particle size
(Maskat & Kerr, 2004a). The field of microscopic observation is a point that
requires greater attention from researchers of batter or bread-coated products.
Factors such as degree of adhesion and types of batter/substrate bond could be
analyzed in greater depth.
Sensory methods are very valuable for assessing various attributes of batter
or bread-coated products. Attributes such as greasiness, juiciness, oiliness, and
12 Coating Ingredients 279

mealiness of coatings have been assessed with trained panelists (Prakash &
Rajalakshimi, 1999). A specially trained sensory panel to evaluate sensory
crispness was able to determine significant differences in crispness intensity
among breaded fried chicken samples cooked by different methods and stored
under different conditions (Antonova, Mallikarjunan, & Duncan, 2004). In
some products attention should be given to moistness, since the product pro-
gressively becomes drier over time, resulting in poor acceptability. In one study,
different moisture-releasing ingredients (milk and vegetable ingredient combi-
nations, several moisture levels) in mackerel mince-based nuggets were evalu-
ated by a sensory panel for firmness, moistness, and overall desirability (Lee,
Joaquin, & Lee, 2006). A consumer study evaluated the acceptability of fried
batter-coated squid rings prepared by an innovative method that reduces their
fat content, and examined how the provision of favorable nutritional informa-
tion (nil industrial fat content and lower absorption of frying oil) or a familiari-
zation period (home consumption) influences the sensory acceptability of fried
batter-coated squid rings (Salvador, Hough, & Fiszman, 2005). Specifically, the
exterior batter layer attributes evaluated were appearance, crispness, and coat-
ing thickness. Another study compared the characteristics of nuggets made
from emulsion or restructured buffalo meat. Results showed that despite higher
overall acceptance for freshly prepared emulsion nuggets, panelists rated them
considerably lower compared to restructured nuggets after subsequent storage
(Thomas, Anjaneyulu, & Kondaiah, 2006).

Control of Coating Adhesion in Final Product

As previously discussed, coating adhesion is one of the main quality factors for
coated products. The batter or coating pick-up of the final product is defined as
(Baixauli et al., 2003):

% Batter pick-up = (B/B + S)× 100

where B = mass of batter coating of food item after final frying


S = mass of food item excluding batter (“peeled”) after final frying
The final product batter or coating pick-up index expresses the proportion of the
final weight of the fried product comprised by the coating. It should be remembered
that these weights obviously include the weight of oil absorbed and that both the
food and the external crust have lost moisture during the frying process. The same
index can be calculated after prefrying, where it provides a more faithful picture of
the yield of the coating process as it indicates how much of the weight of the prod-
uct, batter-coated and ready for final frying (as it reaches the end user), is made up
of the external crust. This index is of great practical value to manufacturers.
In breaded products there is a natural tendency for the bread crumbs or particles
to fall off the coated product. The % cooked yield and % overall yield (Hsia et al.,
1992) have been defined as
280 S.M. Fiszman

% Cooked yield = CM × 100/S


% Cooked yield = S × 100/I

where CM = mass of cooked breaded food item


S = mass of cooked breaded item after shaking (normalized sieve and process)
I = initial mass of raw unbreaded food item
In this case, the % overall yield takes into account possible losses in the adhered
breading layer due to postcook handling. Many studies on coated products have
calculated how the addition of certain products affects some of these indices.
Higher fat content has been suggested as a possible cause of higher coating loss
during shaking in fried, battered, and breaded chicken breasts prepared with differ-
ent levels of surfactant (Tween 80) and batter mix to solvent ratios (Maskat & Kerr,
2004b).
In tempura-type batters, a thin, not very viscous batter produces a weak, porous
coating that is capable of absorbing large quantities of oil. It is a well-studied fact
that there is a strong relationship between oil uptake and water removal (Gamble,
Rice, & Selman, 1987), so a layer that is too thin is difficult to handle and has a
poor barrier effect, which means that it is not very good at retaining food juices
during frying.

Control of Color: Raw and Final Product

Depending on the market, coated products are sold with the final appearance of a
“raw” food or with golden tones that simulate the color of fully fried foods. The
former are usually sold with instructions for a final frying step, during which they
acquire their final golden color (although their color will already range from yel-
lowish to orangey), whereas the latter may allow the final stage to take place in a
conventional or microwave oven as well as by the traditional final frying. Prefrying
is the stage of the manufacturing process that gives the food its initial slightly
golden color; for this, the coating must possess certain characteristics. Products
covered with tempura-type batters acquire a yellowish color when yellow corn
flours or starches are used (Burge, 1990) and a golden-brown note when potato
starch is used. Color may also be controlled by adjusting the balance between the
types of flour, starches, and other ingredients that tend to take part in browning
reactions (reducing sugars in milk solids, for instance) (Suderman, 1983). In these
products, it is normal to use colorings to obtain yellow or orange tones, which are
more attractive than the pale white of a raw batter. Baixauli, Salvador, Fiszman, and
Calvo (2002) reported that the final color of battered squid rings depended signifi-
cantly on frying times and temperatures. These investigators also observed that,
although the color of the frying oil darkened to a certain extent as the number of
fryings increased, this factor did not affect the color of the final fried product, con-
trary to the belief that dark oil is detrimental. Most of the color present in an oil
comes from the food and not from oil breakdown products; therefore, the poor
12 Coating Ingredients 281

cooking performance of an older oil is not directly related to the fact that it is dark
(Friedman, 1991). Color evenness is also an important factor; therefore, it is impor-
tant that spices or small lumps not be allowed to darken during frying and impart a
“spotted” final color; this could be prevented by adjusting frying temperature.

Breadings

Breading, as currently understood, can be defined as a covering made of bread


crumbs that are applied in dry form to a previously moistened or batter-coated food.
While batters may be similar to glue, breadings are compared to the icing on the cake
(Gerdes, 2001). This covering uses particles of different sizes to form crusts with
particular textures; normally, the larger the particle size the crunchier the bite and the
higher the pick-up rate. The product’s surface appearance depends on breading granu-
lation or the size of the crumb pieces; greater than 4.0 mm in diameter for coarse
breadings, between 1.4 and 4.0 mm for medium ones and below 1.4 mm for fine
breadings. The bread crumb shapes can create a coating that is both attractive and
economical. The current industry trend is towards more textural variety.
The raw material breadings is generally regular bread, both fresh and that which
is returned by shops after the sell-by date. Another option is to bake breads with
certain properties that the manufacturers require (e.g., spices, higher shortening
content, cheese, flavor enhancers, etc.). The loaves go through a tempering stage
that makes them firm and hard so that they can handle the machines without stick-
ing. This is done by leaving them unwrapped for a couple of days at ambient refrig-
eration temperatures, or by blowing dehumidified air over the loaves as they
circulate on conveyor belts. The following step is to cut up the loaves, normally into
cubes, and dry them in an oven (conventional or otherwise) to a moisture content
of 3–6% (Jackel, 1993).
Particle size is important for the preparation process because fine breading has
a high area to volume ratio and absorbs moisture very fast, so it becomes embedded
more easily in the matrix, which then needs to be dried before further handling. At
the other extreme, very coarse particles provide weight and are visually very attrac-
tive but have a small area to volume ratio, so their moisture absorption rate is low
and they also require longer drying times. Porosity is another factor that needs to
be taken into account. A breading with a more open and porous structure absorbs
moisture more rapidly and exchanges it more rapidly for oil during the frying proc-
ess; however, excess frying oil also drains out faster during the postfrying draining
stage. Bouchon and Pyle (2005) established that the largest proportion of oil which
ends up in a deep-fried food is sucked into the porous crust region after the product
is removed from the oil bath, highlighting the relevance of both the characteristics
of the crust and the time interval. Evidently, a balance between all these stages
needs to be struck by adapting the ingredients to the type of end product required.
As regards the shape of the substrate (where this can be modified), a high area
to volume ratio is preferable to achieve good coverage without negative effects on
282 S.M. Fiszman

appearance. Breaded products are highly dependent on the size and shape of the
particles and on their tolerance to frying; a mixture of particles of different sizes is
often the best choice.
Many particle sizes and shapes have been tested in recent years and different
breading styles are beginning to appear, such as “home-made,” “country,” etc., with
large particle sizes. Characteristics of coatings formed from breadings of three
particle sizes were investigated in breaded, fried chicken breast by Maskat and Kerr
(2002). They found that smaller breading produced smoother and more uniform
coatings, but acoustic measurements taken during compression of coatings did not
show any significant differences due to different particle sizes. In another study
(Maskat & Kerr, 2004a), the same researchers found that coating adhesion was
highest in a coating formed from smaller particles that also had a higher moisture
content in the surface of the meat as well as in the coatings; no significant differ-
ences were found in coating pick-up, cooking loss or yield between samples with
different breadcrumb particle sizes.
A recent development is the use of fresh Japanese-style bread crumbs or “nama
panko,” which give a special texture and appearance. The bread is made by passing
an electric current through the dough, so it does not develop a crust. The bread-
crumb product has much higher spike levels (sliver-like texture) than those of a
standard dry crumb.
Some alternative breading materials to bread or other wheat-flour products have
been described. For example, precooked rice dried to moisture content of 11–12%
before milling (1 mm particle size) was used on chicken breast. The resulting prod-
uct had better sensory acceptability and lower fat absorption than that made with a
commercial breader, in addition to other good performance features (Gastélum-
Benavides, Félix-Gocobachi, Fimbres-López, Vargas-Robles, & Cinco-Moroyoqui,
2004).
The use of certain particulates adds interest to coated foods, enhancing some
finished product attributes. They act synergistically with ethnic flavors, as in the
case of sesame seeds in oriental foods, contribute to texture (e.g., shredded coco-
nut), or add color (e.g., visible green parsley particles).

Alternative Cooking and Modified Frying Methods

Microwave

In food consumption, the increasing trend towards preparation in less time has
given rise to a great demand for frozen products that are ready to heat and eat. The
microwave oven is now a well-established method for cooking or heating food,
primarily because of its quickness. However, prefried products cooked in micro-
wave ovens tend to be undesirably soft and soggy, because in this type of heating
water is conducted from the inside to the outside. There is a need for more research
12 Coating Ingredients 283

focused specifically on developing batter mix formulations that develop crispness


during microwave cooking or heating. Several patents have made advances in this
direction. Lenchin and Bell (1985) developed a dry mix containing 60–70% high-
amylose corn flour, which provides generally acceptable prefried foodstuffs that
have crispy coatings after microwave cooking. Pickford (1993) presented a method
of producing a coated fried foodstuff which may be heated by microwave radiation
prior to consumption; in addition to a high-amylose starch, the predust and the bat-
ter dry mix contain a cellulose derivative that gels when heated; the product was
prepared following a standard manufacturing process (prefrying in oil at 180–200°C
for approx. 30 s and subsequent freezing, or direct frying and freezing).

Cooking Method Modifications

New possibilities and improvements in conventional cooking methods have been


researched recently. One is to use nitrogen instead of the vapor generated by the
product to create the necessary pressure in the fryer; this avoids the limitation of
working with a large food load (necessary to create the proper pressure). The
increase in pressure applied during frying in a restaurant-type fryer resulted in more
tender and juicier fried product, due to a reduction in both moisture loss and oil
uptake by the product, and in an extension of oil (Innawong and Mallikarjunan,
2002). Alexander and Alexander (2000) presented a method for preparing a frozen,
battered food product which, in order to shorten the final cooking process, involves
steam and heat-cooking and chilling the substrate prior to the battering, prefrying,
and freezing steps. The effects of changes in formulation or in ingredient propor-
tions when utilizing these innovative cooking methods need to be studied.

Future Research Needs

Research on batters is tending towards the creation of highly complex systems that
incorporate combinations of increasingly sophisticated ingredients, developed for
their multifunctionality. The incorporation of dietary fibers that absorb less fat,
starches that develop crisp textures and are less susceptible to human digestion,
celluloses that eliminate the prefrying step and also absorb less fat during final fry-
ing, edible films and coatings that preserve frying oil quality by creating a barrier
against migration of food marinades or juices, or minor ingredients with antioxi-
dant properties that extend the shelf life of the final product are already a reality.
The dramatic increase in the development of new ingredients brings with it a
need for research to clarify their mechanisms of action and the interactions between
their functionalities. Improved methods for the control of raw batters need to be
applied, such as the current dynamic rheology techniques used to characterize
complex rheological behavior, associated in many cases with the development of
284 S.M. Fiszman

three-dimensional structures that condition the entire performance of the coating.


In addition, quality control of final products involves the development of trained
sensory panels to determine their most important attributes and how they are
impacted by changes in ingredients and cooking methods, as well as their shelf life.
Nowadays, the use of a combination of several microscopic techniques and the
application of modern digital image acquisition and analysis techniques are essen-
tial tools for studying the structures that are developed.
On the other hand, no satisfactory answer has yet been found to such a simple
question as “what is the best wheat flour for a wheat flour-based batter?’’ This is
an indication of the need for research in an area that has been based on empiricism
for many decades.
More research needs to focus on frozen, coagulated fat-free or low fat products,
microwaveable products or products that can be cooked in conventional ovens,
ways of improving crispness and juiciness and of maintaining these characteristics
over long storage times, and batter adhesion and performance during frozen storage
including the effect of gum use.
With regard to the new trends, consumer studies based on well-planned surveys
assist in centering the market preferences. Nowadays, the concern about health
embraces a number of driving issues, needs, and opportunities which may be
approached by designing specific products based in different food raw materials.
These tailor-made products provide physiological benefits that could be targeted at
particular consumer groups.
The ultimate goal that should inspire research in the field of coated products today
is a greater choice of meat products that add value and are safe for consumers.

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