Coating Ingredients PDF
Coating Ingredients PDF
Coating Ingredients PDF
Coating Ingredients
Susana M. Fiszman
Introduction
R. Tarté (ed.), Ingredients in Meat Products: Properties, Functionality and Applications 253
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-71327-4_12, © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009
254 S.M. Fiszman
process, there is a choice between cooking fully before the application of the coat-
ing (95°C, 99% RH) or after it (180°C, 5% RH); in both cases the coating stage is
followed by a prefrying step. The choice depends on the industrial machinery, the
type of meat or other product to be coated, and its size, shape, etc., but it must also
be remembered that yields can differ considerably, as can the final product
quality.
While the batter is raw it must create a homogeneous layer that covers the food,
which is normally also raw, and must adhere to it before and after coagulation –
which takes place during the prefrying step – and during final frying; after the batter
coagulates it must withstand freezing temperatures and normal handling (packag-
ing and transportation) without cracking or breaking and without losing any portion
of the external layer; during the final frying performed in the consumer’s home it
must create an outer crust with good acceptability in terms of texture (particularly
crispness), flavor, and color. Coatings might also need to prevent oxidation, limit
moisture and oil transfer, give freeze/thaw stability, and extend shelf life. Of course,
they must also be cost-effective (Kuntz, 1997a). To achieve these objectives,
research into the behavior of flours and starches has traveled a long way and a
considerable array of ingredients with a broad range of functionalities has begun to
be used. Methods for controlling the physical properties of both the raw and the
fried products have also seen a tremendous boost in recent decades.
Although the fascinating world of battered or breaded foods involves many
technological aspects, this chapter will pay particular attention to the use of ingre-
dients and their properties in relation to good coated product performance and,
more specifically, to the uses of polysaccharide hydrocolloids or gums, which have
such a wide-ranging functionality that they feature in practically every approach
to improving the quality of coated products. Most of the available information for
studying the ingredients used in these types of coatings does not differ greatly
between meat products and other types of foods although, in fact, most of the
developments have been made for protein substrates. Nevertheless, developments
involving specific aspects of meat products will be cited in detail in this
chapter.
Types of Batter
The adhesion coating or interface batter is used as an intermediate layer between the
food to be coated and the exterior layer of bread crumbs or breading. It acts as the
“glue” that holds the breading to the substrate. In this type of batter, stickiness is
important and the viscosity must be strictly controlled, as the purpose of the batter is
to hold a sufficiently thick layer of dry food coating made from flour, starch, season-
ings, etc. uniformly in place. The ingredients, the batter characteristics, the uniformity
12 Coating Ingredients 255
of the layer, its color, etc. do not need to be controlled so strictly, however, as all the
final characteristics of the food depend on the outer layer of breading.
Predusting
Predust is a dry ingredient or mixture of ingredients that is dusted onto the moist
surface of the frozen, fresh, or steam- or heat-cooked food substrate before any
other coating is applied. It improves batter adhesion because it absorbs part of the
256 S.M. Fiszman
water on the surface of the substrate, avoiding migration (Yang & Chen, 1979). If
the batter is applied to a surface that is too moist, it can slip, leaving some areas
uncovered or covered with a diluted material that will then form too thin a layer.
The contrary occurs when a predust is applied on very dry product surfaces or deep
frozen substrates, as the dust will not be absorbed by the product but will be dis-
persed in the liquid batter, increasing its viscosity, and resulting in the batter pick-
up being too high.
In a pioneering work, Baker, Darfler, and Vadehra (1972) evaluated the predust
material capacities of a series of ingredients from three large groups: starches, pro-
teins, and gums. They concluded that the proteins produced crusts with better adhe-
sion and, of these, dried egg albumin produced the best results in terms of yield and
visual scores.
Predusting also reduces the voids that may be caused by entrapment of air pockets
between the substrate and the batter during batter application, and also tends to
increase batter pick-up. On occasion, consecutive layers of predust, batter, and bread-
ing are used to achieve the desired textural or functional results. The predust most
commonly used is wheat flour. Native and modified starches, gums (hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose or methylcellulose), and proteins (whey protein concentrate, egg
albumin or gluten), alone or in combination, have also been used to absorb moisture
and to help form a barrier against moisture and fat migration (Kuntz, 1997a;
Usawakesmanee, Chinnan, Wuttijumnong, Jangchud, & Raksakulthai, 2004; Zhang,
2001). Not much research in this area has been published.
Wheat Flour
commonly makes up 80–90% (by weight) of dry batter mixes; and approximately
70–80% of breading formulas. The main contribution of wheat flour is body or
structure (Van Beirendonck, 2001). Various characteristics of this flour base –
moisture content, functionality of its proteins, and its amylose and amylopectin
contents – have been correlated with the texture characteristics, oil absorption,
appearance and overall acceptability of the external crust. In brief, higher water or
amylopectin content and excess protein increase oil absorption and decrease crisp-
ness of the fried batter.
Flours from the various major wheat types have different functional properties
that need to be taken into account when formulating a batter with particular proper-
ties. However, generally, no particular type of wheat is suggested in batter formula-
tions, so multipurpose flour should be suitable.
Wheat flour proteins are highly efficient water binders. Owing to the functional
properties that they develop when hydrated, they are able to form cohesive doughs
or batters when subjected to kneading or beating forces. Because of its exceptional
elastic properties, gluten can hold gas and expand during frying, producing a cel-
lular structure and providing a desirable, spongy, porous, cooked coating in tem-
pura-type batters, essential for a good, crispy texture. This type of structure also
facilitates the passage of water and oil (Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Boyle, 2001).
Hard wheat flours have a higher protein content than soft wheat flours and therefore
need more water to produce a comparable viscosity when used to formulate a batter.
Good viscosity will prevent the ingredients that are insoluble at ambient (or refrig-
erated) temperature from settling and causing undesired stratification. The batter
will perform best when all the ingredients are in a balanced suspension.
Wheat starch is composed of two main fractions: amylose (a linear polymer) and
amylopectin (a branched polymer). The functionality of the starch is determined to
a great degree by the ratio of these two polymers. The linear structure of amylose
has low water retention capacity and adds structure to the layers, while the branched
amylopectin holds water (a possible cause of blow off) and disrupts layers, result-
ing in poor crisping action. In fact, commercially available high-amylose starches
have various applications in batter coatings. Other factors must be borne in mind,
such as the degree of starch damage. In the grains of cereal, starch granules are
found in different sizes and embedded in a protein matrix; their degree of bonding
and the milling process employed will determine the degree of starch damage and
the particle size distribution. Damaged starch (as the granules that suffer mechani-
cal changes during milling are called) is capable of absorbing higher quantities of
water than intact granules (Olewnik & Kulp, 1993). Intact starch granules absorb
around 30% of their weight in water and, because they have a natural tendency to
settle out of solution, steps need to be taken to keep them uniformly distributed
throughout the batter. Since damaged starch granules absorb greater quantities of
water than intact ones, their use requires that the quantity of water in the formula-
tion be increased.
When starch is heated in the presence of water, the gelatinization process begins.
First, the granules swell as they absorb water into their structure. The crystalline
zones of the starch that could not be reached by the water when cold now break and
258 S.M. Fiszman
all areas are exposed to the hydration process, resulting in swelling of the sample.
At the same time, some of the material from the interior of the granule leaks out,
increasing the viscosity of the system as a whole. Upon cooling, the gelatinized
starch molecules rearrange themselves and form a gel that strengthens the firmness
of the system as the temperature falls. The fraction responsible for this process is
mainly amylose, which has a linear structure, rather than amylopectin, which has a
branched structure. It is this heat-gelatinized starch that gives rise to the basic struc-
ture of the batter coating on the final product. Indeed, a formulation composed only
of flour and water can work, even if it does not possess the optimum characteristics
that are perfected by adding a whole series of other ingredients (Davis, 1983).
Mixing native wheat flour with steamed (heat treated) wheat flour (in which the
gluten forming protein is partially or totally denatured), in a 1:1 ratio, has proved
effective for controlling batter viscosity as well as textural and adhesion character-
istics of the final product (Prakash & Rajalakshmi, 1999).
The effect of replacing wheat flour with flour made from other cereals and vegeta-
ble sources has been discussed in terms of changes in the composition and content
of proteins and starch. The GM (genetically modified) issue, which principally
affects corn, should also be considered. Flours from other sources include potato,
rice, tapioca, pea, and barley, among others. The proteins of corn or rice flours are
not capable of forming structures that retain gas or of contributing the viscosity that
wheat proteins develop. Rice starch or corn starch, for example, are different from
wheat starch in terms of the size and shape of their granules, so their gelatinization
properties, water absorption rate, and swelling capacity are not the same.
Consequently, replacing part of the wheat flour with rice flour changes the rheo-
logical properties of the batter, depending on the replacement ratio and the batter
temperature (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000). Replacement of 50% of the
wheat flour with rice flour, which is a poor thickening agent, leads to a batter that
requires a greater proportion of solids or the addition of a thickener to achieve a
suitable viscosity; this rice flour-based frying batter significantly reduces oil uptake
during the frying process while retaining desirable organoleptic properties (Shih &
Daigle, 1999). Batters composed of wheat–corn blends can be tailored by varying
the ratio of these two ingredients; the diluting effect of corn on wheat gluten (which
can cause leathery coatings) will increase crispness (Burge, 1990).
A recent study found that replacing 5% of the wheat flour with soy flour brought
about an improvement in the quality of chicken nuggets in terms of crispness and
color, while replacement with both soy flour (5%) and rice flour (5%) reduced oil
absorption compared to a control that did not contain these additions; the study was
conducted at different frying temperatures (Dogan, Sahin, & Sumnu, 2005). Biswas
and Keshri (2003) used a batter prepared from mixtures of Bengal gram meal with
other ingredients, including spices, carboxymethylcellulose, whole egg and skim
12 Coating Ingredients 259
milk powder, for covering pork patties, and concluded that this mixture improved
the quality of the final battered, fried patties. Wheat flour has been replaced with
steam jet-cooked barley flour in batter formulations, producing batters with good
rheological properties and coatings with low oil uptake and high moisture content,
which could be related to the high water binding capacity of this ingredient (Lee &
Inglett, 2006).
As ingredients, native starches present a wide range of functionalities that
include improved adhesiveness, changes in tenderness and crunchiness, textural
modifications, improvements in crispness, holding time under heat lamps, freeze/
thaw stability, better moisture retention and decreased greasiness (Van Beirendonck,
2001).
Corn starch-based batters require continuous mixing during processing because
the solids have a tendency to settle out easily, leading to changes in batter viscosity
throughout the production period, and resulting in irregular batter pick-up
(Suderman, 1993). The addition of a thickener to keep the solids in suspension
helps to solve this problem.
High-amylose hybrid starches result in increased gelatinization temperatures; a
film is formed in seconds, creating a uniform appearance and the desired final brit-
tleness and crispiness of the coating (Bertram, 2001). These high-amylose starches,
alone or in combination with other ingredients such as rice flour or flour from other
cereals, dextrin, etc., have good film-forming properties, and help reduce oil
absorption in fried, battered products (Higgins, Qian, & Williams, 1999; Van
Beirendonck, 1998). In one study, native starches – high-amylose corn starch
(HAC), normal corn starch (NCS), waxy corn starch (WCS), rice starch (RS), and
waxy rice starch (WRS) – were used in wheat flour batter (20% starch). The crisp-
ness and hardness of the fried batter correlated positively with the amylose content
of the starch (HAC > NCS > RS > WRS > WCS) and negatively with residual
moisture content; however, WCS was the most effective in reducing oil uptake (Lee
& Lim, 2004).
Modified starches find many applications in this area as a result of their wide-
ranging functionality. Oxidized starches, for example, have functional carboxyl
groups that bind with proteins in the substrate, and this bonding makes the batter
stick (Shinsato, Hippleheuser, & Van Beirendonck, 1999). Lenchin and Bell (1985)
used flour and corn starch with a high-amylose content to formulate a mix for coat-
ing prefried food products suitable for final cooking in a microwave oven which are
characterized by improved crispness. Cold water-swelling, oil-resistant, rice-based
starch products, such as pregelatinized rice flour, phosphorylated rice starch, and
pregelatinized acetylated rice starch, are used in formulations to enhance viscosity
and textural and sensory quality of the fried batter. Addition of pregelatinized rice
flour gives a high crispness value but also increases oil absorption (Mohamed,
Hamid, & Hamid, 1998). The effect of amylomaize, corn, waxy maize, and prege-
latinized tapioca starches on the texture, moisture content, oil content, color, coat-
ing pick-up, cooking yield, volume, and porosity of deep-fat frying chicken nuggets
was studied by Altunakar, Sahin, and Sumnu (2004). They concluded that starch
addition to the formulation increased the crispness of the final product in the last
260 S.M. Fiszman
stages of frying, and the highest porosity and oil content were obtained when corn
starch was used; pregelatinized tapioca starch resulted in the lowest oil content and
the highest moisture content, coating pick-up and volume. Lee and Lim (2004)
found that modified (oxidized, acid-treated, cross-linked, hydroxypropylated and
acetylated) starches provided texture improvements (crispness and hardness) in
fried products.
One of the main challenges with the use of gums and hydrocolloids is that these
perform functions that influence every stage of the manufacturing process: blend-
ing of the mix, coating, prefrying, freezing (if applicable), and final frying by the
end consumer.
The use of gums has been one of the central issues in experimentation with bat-
ters to cover pieces of food. Their primary use is based on their ability to retain or
immobilize water and their direct effect on the control of viscosity.
The addition of hydrocolloids is generally effective at levels as low as 1% or less
(dry weight), of the formulation, so their addition does not “dilute” the functionality
of proteins in the flour base. However, many gums are highly hydrophilic, so the
formulation requires adjustment of the solids to water ratio, modifying the charac-
teristics of the entire system. When hydrocolloids are used in a formulation, com-
plete incorporation and hydration are essential if they are to be effective. Moreover,
many authors recognize the need to study the numerous interactions that compo-
nents of this kind develop in the presence of lipids, proteins, other hydrocolloids,
or other batter ingredients. Since these components display the combined effect of
surface tension, hydrophilic capability, ability to gel on heating, and ability to form
films, it is necessary to take all these properties into account when predicting their
performance in relation to the other ingredients of the batter (Annapure, Singhal, &
Kulkarni, 1999).
The choice of the most appropriate gum for a particular function basically
depends on its effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, ease of incorporation into the
manufacturing process, and the sensory properties of the final product.
From the standpoint of their technological application also, there are several
factors that are important to consider when choosing a gum for a specific effect
within the batter. One of the most important of these is to achieve correct hydration.
In this regard, when different alternatives are available, the preferred gum will be
the one that can be incorporated into the batter by dry blending, as this requires no
modification of the normal process.
The correct choice should also consider that other ingredients in the batter sys-
tem can also affect gum performance, so the compatibility of the gum with those
components must also be assessed. For example, the presence of soluble solids (i.e.,
sugar, salt, etc.) can reduce the solubility of hydrocolloids because of competition
for available water (Meyers, 1990).
12 Coating Ingredients 261
The preferred gum will also be cost-effective and that which gives the final
batter-coated food the most suitable sensory characteristics.
The use of ingredients that do not develop much viscosity, such as rice flour,
makes it necessary to incorporate a gum to ensure a quality similar to a classic
formulation (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000).
ways to lower the oil content of fried foods. Different ingredients have been proven
to reduce oil absorption in fried foods. Among these, gums are of considerable
interest, as they are the most effective. The gelling ability of hydrocolloids, together
with their usually hydrophilic nature, makes them suitable for reducing oil uptake
during frying of battered products (Annapure et al., 1999).
Use of MC and HPMC. Among the different gums employed as fat barriers, the
cellulose ethers MC and HPMC, which possess the unique property of reversible
thermal gelation, have been more widely investigated than other gums.
In contact with hot oil, the MC or HPMC in the batter gels to form a film.
Together with their high water-retention capacity, this protects against moisture loss
and the entry of oil during the frying process (Balasubramaniam, Chinnan,
Mallikarjunan, & Phillips, 1997; Mallikarjunan, Chinnan, Balasubramaniam, &
Phillips, 1997; Meyers, 1990).
The use of MC and HPMC in batters has been shown to be effective in a wide
range of applications, such as chicken nuggets (Meyers & Conklin, 1990; The Dow
Chemical Co., 1991), mushrooms, chicken breast strips and codfish fillets (Ang,
1993), chicken balls (Balasubramaniam et al., 1997), mashed potato balls
(Mallikarjunan et al., 1997), and chicken strips (Holownia, Chinnan, Erickson, &
Mallikarjunan, 2000).
Gelation of MC and HPMC is mainly caused by hydrophobic interaction
between molecules containing methoxyl groups. However, the presence of a
hydroxypropyl substitution significantly alters gelation properties. For the same
degree of methoxyl substitution, an increase in hydroxypropyl substitution raises
the gelation temperature and diminishes the strength of the resulting gel; therefore,
gelation temperature is higher and gel strength is lower for HPMC than for MC.
Regarding the influence of molecular weight, gel strength increases in line with
molecular weight up to a molecular weight of approximately 140,000, at which
point it stabilizes. Molecular weight does not affect gelation temperature
(Sarkar, 1979).
Despite the differences in gelation properties between MC and HPMC, the stud-
ies currently available do not enable these to be linked to the barrier efficiency of
the two hydrocolloids.
What has been linked to effectiveness as a barrier is the MC content of the batter.
Raising the MC concentration from 1% to 2% has led to lower oil absorption and
greater moisture reduction in the crust of batter-coated squid rings, both after the
first 30 s of frying and after the final frying subsequent to freezing. At the three
concentrations studied, the barrier effectiveness was more evident after 30 s of
prefrying (Sanz et al., 2004a). Similar results regarding higher barrier effectiveness
in the first 30 s of frying were found in batter-coated/breaded chicken nuggets con-
taining HPMC levels from 0.25% to 1.0% w/w on a wet batter basis (The Dow
Chemical Co., 1991).
When incorporating MC and HPMC into the batter, the two main ways of
achieving correct hydrocolloid hydration provide two main alternatives. The sim-
plest method is to disperse the hydrocolloid by dry blending with the other batter
ingredients; it is then hydrated when they are mixed with water. When this method
12 Coating Ingredients 265
is used, it must be remembered that for correct hydration, cold water must be used;
the required temperature decreases as the number of methoxyl substitutions in the
anhydroglucose ring rises. The other method is to hydrate the hydrocolloid before
mixing it into the batter (The Dow Chemical Co., 1996).
These ways of blending MC or HPMC into the batter have been linked to their
efficiency in reducing oil absorption. The barrier effect of HPMC in various batter-
coated foods (pieces of chicken, fish, vegetables and cheese) has been found to be
more efficient when using the prehydrated hydrocolloid method than when hydrated
together with the other batter ingredients. The viscosity of the batters was also
greater, which was linked to greater hydration efficiency and its effect on functional
properties (Meyers & Conklin, 1990). Another factor that has been linked to barrier
efficiency is the batter temperature at the moment of applying the coating. In batters
with differing MC concentrations stored at 5°C, 15°C, and 25°C for an hour after
preparation (dry-blending technique), a reduction in the barrier efficiency was
observed as the temperature increased (Sanz et al., 2004a). Subsequent Cryo-SEM
observation of the batters showed a greater density of eutectic artifacts at 5°C. This
was associated with the development of greater viscosity and water-retention
capacity by the batters which, in turn, was associated with the presence of a hydro-
colloid that was more unfolded and, therefore, more efficient at performing its
function (Llorca et al., 2005).
As an alternative to adding the hydrocolloids to the batter mix, another possibility
that has been tested is to form an edible film around the pieces of food by dipping
them in a solution of MC or HPMC. The influence of applying HPMC and MC as a
film before breading or adding these substances to the breading formulation in order
to reduce the amount of oil absorbed by the crust has been evaluated in marinated
chicken strips (Holownia et al., 2000). The most efficient method was to add the
dry hydrocolloid to the breading formulation. In this work, application as a film
before breading did not reduce the amount of oil absorbed by the crust but did
reduce its moisture; this was associated with an inhibition of moisture migration
from the substrate into the crust. Applying the film after breading was rejected
owing to adhesion problems.
Use of Other Cellulose Derivatives. Although less efficient than MC and HPMC,
another cellulose-derived hydrocolloid that has also been used to reduce oil absorp-
tion is sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Adding CMC to the formulation of
“boondis,” a deep-fried batter-based legume snack food popular in India reduced
the amount of oil in the final product (Priya, Singhal, & Kulkami, 1996). This study
analyzed different concentrations of CMC (0.5–3%), adjusting the proportion of
water to obtain adequate viscosity. The greatest barrier efficiency was obtained at a
concentration of 2%; higher concentrations (3%) were not effective.
Microcrystalline cellulose codried with whey (to allow it to be used in dry form)
increased moisture retention and reduced the oil absorbed by the bread coating of
fried batter-coated and breaded fish (Anonymous, 1980).
Cellulose derivatives are not always the most effective barriers to oil absorption.
A study that evaluated the oil uptake barrier efficiency of various gums at concen-
trations between 0.25% and 2% in model systems based on chickpea flour (gram
266 S.M. Fiszman
flour) classified HPMC as the most effective at 0.25%, although its efficiency fell
as concentration increased. For a 2% admixture, gum arabic proved the most effec-
tive, followed by carrageenate and karaya gum. Similarly to HPMC, CMC showed
decreased effectiveness with increasing gum concentration. In both cases, the effect
was thought to be the consequence of the formation of a thick coating at higher
concentrations resulting in rupture of the film from excessive pressure built up dur-
ing frying. Other gums studied, such as xanthan gum, ghatti gum, tragacanth gum,
and locust bean gum, were not effective. In this study all the gums were incorpo-
rated by dry-mixing with chickpea flour and the water level was adjusted to obtain
a soft dough (Annapure et al., 1999).
Noncellulose Hydrocolloid Barriers. In addition to MC and HPMC, other gel
forming hydrocolloids which have been employed as barriers against fat absorption
are gellan gum and pectin.
Gellan gum, the anionic linear heteropolysaccharide produced by Pseudomonas
elodea, can be applied as a hot solution. The food is dipped into the solution and
the film forms as it cools. Another possibility is to dip the food into a cold gellan
solution; gelation takes place after ions such as Na+, Ca++, Mg++ or K+ have been
added (Duxbury, 1993).
Gellan gum has also been added with calcium chloride to the dry ingredient
mixture of batters for chicken, fish, cheese, and vegetables, resulting in low oil
absorption and the development of appropriate crispness, and gellan solutions have
been used to coat the crumbs used for breading. The use of these rather than con-
ventional breading crumbs resulted in a final product with excellent crispness and
lower oil absorption (Chalupa & Sanderson, 1994).
Pectin, a substance that gels in contact with calcium, forms a film that has
proven effective for reducing oil absorption in a batter-coated and breaded
product. Ca ++ is added to the breading (by dry blending, spray drying,
agglomerating, baking the calcium source into the bread crumb or any com-
bination of these methods) and the batter-coated and breaded food is treated
with a solution of calcium-reactive pectin. A hydrophilic film that reduces oil
absorption forms during the reaction between Ca++ and the pectin. The level
of Ca ++ added to the breading is critical, as sufficient calcium must be avail-
able for efficient reaction with the pectin. The preferred pectin types are
characterized by very strong calcium reactivity, selected from the group of
conventional low methoxy pectins and amidated low methoxy pectins
(Gerrish, Higgins, & Kresl, 1997).
The most recent application of gums to batter-coated products involves the ther-
mogelling property of MC to create a new industrial manufacturing process for
frozen batter-coated foods that eliminates the prefrying stage and thus provides a
healthier and more environmentally friendly alternative (Fiszman et al., 2003; Sanz,
Salvador, & Fiszman, 2004b).
12 Coating Ingredients 267
In a batter system, adhesion can be defined as the chemical and physical bonding
of a food coating with the food substrate (Suderman & Cunningham, 1983). The
batter must cover the substrate evenly and remain adhered to it throughout all the
stages of the manufacturing process. It must then withstand the frozen storage and
transport conditions without becoming detached from the substrate. Finally, during
final cooking by the consumer, the batter must continue to remain attached to the
substrate and must not have any holes or cracks in its surface. Factors affecting
batter adhesion to food products include the properties of the food used (Suderman
& Cunningham, 1980), cooking methods (Baker et al., 1972; Hale & Goodwin,
1968), and batter ingredients (Baker et al., 1972; Hale & Goodwin, 1968; Hanson
& Fletcher, 1963).
Adhesion is another critical characteristic of batter-coated foods which has been
associated with gums. Similarly to their use as barriers against fat absorption, the
effectiveness of gums in improving adhesion has been linked mainly to their gel-
forming properties. The gels or films they form provide strength and integrity,
which have a positive effect on adhesion, preventing “blow-off” and “pillowing.”.
In the particular case of MC and HPMC, cohesion is conferred to the raw dough in
a primary state; structural integrity is then conferred by the activation of thermal
gelation during frying. Gelling of gellan gum, pectin, carrageenan, and alginates in
the presence of ionic salts has also been associated with improved adhesion (Kuntz,
1997b). The method of adding gellan and pectin to a batter-coated food is the same
as described above for their use as oil absorption reduction agents. For alginates, a
possible method of application is that described by Earle and McKee (1985); the
food substrate is first coated with an algin solution and is then dusted with a dry
mixture which contains Ca++. Subsequently, once the algin gel has formed, the food
is dipped into the tempura batter and prefried.
Although it does not possess gel forming properties, CMC has also been sig-
nificantly correlated to improvements in the adhesion of a commercial breading
mix to poultry skin, as measured by a mechanical method. Other nongelling gums
tested in the study (guar, tragacanth and xanthan) did not significantly affect
adhesion. In no case were significant differences in adhesion found when the
concentration of the gums was increased (Suderman, Wiker, & Cunningham,
1981). In another study that evaluated the relationship between the rheological
properties of batters and the breading adhesion properties of different nongelling
hydrocolloids (xanthan, guar and CMC), a high correlation between apparent
viscosity and breading adhesion (measured as overall yield and cooking yield)
was found. Xanthan gum was the only one that significantly improved adhesion.
12 Coating Ingredients 269
In this case adhesion was found to increase with hydrocolloid concentration (Hsia
et al., 1992).
The use of gums to improve adhesion, however, is not without controversy. For
example, the addition of MC to a rice flour-based batter provided good adhesion
immediately after frying but was not suitable for frozen storage (Mukprasirt et al.,
2001). Langan (1988) found that in the presence of adhesion starches (e.g.,
hypochlorite-treated dent corn starch; cross-linked and pregelatinized waxy corn
starch), some gums may actually inhibit adhesive strength. Similarly, the addition
of MC alone at 0.3% has been found to not form a film that adhered to chicken skin,
as was the case for xanthan gum at 0.2%. In contrast, the combined effect of oxi-
dized cornstarch, xanthan gum, and MC significantly improved the binding force
between the rice flour-based batter and the chicken drumsticks. In this study, adhe-
sion was evaluated by texture analysis and laser scanning confocal microscopy
(Mukprasirt, Herald, Boyle, & Rausch, 2000). The negative effect on adhesion was
explained by excessive moisture binding by the batters, which may cause excessive
steam pressure to build up between the batter and the substrate during frying.
Freezing stability is another property that has been generally associated with the
use of gums in batter-coated products. This property has been mainly attributed to
their ability (associated with their hydrophilic nature) to bind the free water gener-
ated during freeze–thaw cycles, thereby preventing ice crystal formation and
growth, and water migration from the substrate to the coating, which are the main
causes of quality loss during frozen storage or freeze/thaw cycles.
There is currently a need for more scientific research in this area, as there con-
tinues to be disagreement regarding the use of gums for the purpose of adhesion.
For example, lack of adhesion in rice flour-based batters during frozen storage has
been explained as being due to their sensitivity to freezing damage; structural
analysis has shown that number and size of voids increased within the fried batter
due to water retention, which upon slow freezing would lead to ice crystal growth,
however the MC-added batter exhibited more damage compared to other rice-flour
based formulations (Mukprasirt, Herald, & Flores, 2000).
The frying process exposes the oil to conditions that cause its degradation if good
hygienic practices are not followed, and can give rise to undesirable constituents
that can not only jeopardize the quality and nutritional value of the food, but also
pose a potential occupational hazard. The chemical reactions that contribute to
these unwanted by-products include triacylglycerol hydrolysis, oxidation, and
polymerization. Heating the oil to high temperatures in the presence of air and the
degree of unsaturation of the oil are among the major factors that contribute to the
progress of these breakdown reactions. The food being fried may also accelerate
these reactions, when moisture and other constituents migrate from the food into
the oil. A basic tool to assure food and oil quality is oil filtration. Filter materials
help maintain oil quality by preventing solid particles from accumulating in the
bottom of the fryer. By the other hand use, but not abused, frying oils may be
topped up or diluted with fresh oil.
The film and gel forming ability of certain gums has also found an application
in extending the useful life of frying oils. By conferring batter integrity barrier
properties, they are able to prevent the migration of moisture and other components
from the food into the frying medium.
Holownia et al. (2000) and Holownia, Erickson, Chinnan, and Eitenmiller
(2001) evaluated the effectiveness of using HPMC as a barrier in marinated chicken
strips to extend the useful life of frying oil. It was found that the application of
HPMC, either as a film or as a breading mix ingredient, created an effective barrier
to the migration of water and acetic acid from the food into the frying oil. Through
the resulting reduction in the pro-oxidant action of the acetic acid, the useful life of
the frying oil was extended.
The application of a pectin solution around a breaded food and of calcium to the
breading has been found to reduce batter/breading detachment and fall-off into the
12 Coating Ingredients 271
oil, as well as to maintain batter and breading integrity and adhesion during the
prefrying and final frying stages (Gerrish et al., 1997).
The hydrocolloids most commonly used as barriers are MC and HPMC (Ang,
1989; Lee & Han, 1988; Stypula & Buckholz, 1989). Meyers and Conklin (1990)
proposed the use of a prehydrated solution of HPMC to ensure its effectiveness.
Clearly, one must not lose sight of the fact that oil absorption also depends on factors
such as the shape, porosity, composition (especially initial water content), weight to
surface ratio, and surface roughness of the product, as well as oil composition, frying
time, and oil and food temperature (Pinthus, Weinberg, & Saguy, 1993).
Proteins
The use of proteins in batter formulations also has a long history. Egg derivatives are
among the most utilized proteins in these applications. The use of egg white in batters
to coat broiler drumsticks was reported to improve coating pick-up, final yield values,
and sensory scores, compared to formulations without this ingredient (Baker & Scott-
Kline, 1988). Mohamed et al. (1998) observed that adding ovalbumin to a batter
increased its crispness and improved its color, and attributed this to the presence of
protein amino groups that take part in the Maillard reaction. On the subject of using
egg in coating batters, Loewe (1993) considers that albumin helps bond the coating
to the substrate while the lecithin in the yolk could act as an emulsifier, improving the
stability of the system. Soy concentrate has produced good adhesion, although not as
high as albumen or gluten (Baker et al., 1972). The rheology of batters containing
dried whole egg has been studied, with the observation that the proteins contributed
a more pronounced shear-thinning behavior during flow and a higher elastic com-
ponent value in oscillatory dynamic measurements of the systems studied (Baixauli,
Sanz, Salvador, & Fiszman, 2003).
According to Baker and Scott-Kline (1988), batters with high protein contents
produce coatings that may be perceived as more nutritious (some nutrition-conscious
consumers feel that high carbohydrate coatings contribute to obesity). Egg albumen
batters have a lower caloric content (due to lower solids contents than control sam-
ples) than batters based purely on flour. However, a high proportion of egg albumen
in batter formulations for coating chicken nuggets can cause gummy texture or color
problems, so in order to formulate acceptable coating batters it has proven necessary
to make certain process modifications (e.g., to the cooking system). Coating pick-up
values, final fried product yield, and sensory scores were found to be slightly better
in formulations containing egg white than in those that did not. Mohamed et al.
(1998) found that egg yolk increased the hardness of the coating as well as oil absorp-
tion, probably because the proteins largely take the form of lipoproteins and phospho-
proteins, which can reduce the surface tension between water and oil. Other proteins,
such as powdered milk or whey solids, also provide structure and contribute lactose,
a reducing sugar that takes part in nonenzymatic browning reactions. Bhardwaj
(1990) proposed a batter with a high concentration of a pulse (Moong Dal, a
272 S.M. Fiszman
leguminose seed) of a particular particle size in order to obtain fried battered products
of high quality with a crispy, chewy crust.
Soluble proteins extracted from animal or fish muscle by a concentration and
ultrafiltering process were used to obtain products with high moisture and protein
contents that blocked the absorption of fats; these liquid proteins were added to the
batter or applied as a coating by waterfall or spraying over the substrate prior to
frying, or by dipping the product after it had been breaded, forming a barrier that
avoided water evaporation during final frying (Pszczola, 2005). Fully cooked,
breaded chicken patties treated with NutraPure® (proteins extracted from pollock
fish) applied either as a batter additive or as a coating have been observed to contain
23– 48% less fat than a similar commercial product; their flavor was rated clean by
a sensory panel, the substrate food was found to be moist, the final product under-
went little shrinkage and held up well under lamps, and the crumb had increased
crunch and bronze color (Kelleher, 2005).
Other developments have used soy protein isolate, egg white or whey protein
isolate applied as a postbreading dip. In formed chicken patties that were battered/
breaded and then dipped in these protein solutions (10%), the best results were
obtained with egg white proteins, which reduced oil pick-up by 34% and caused an
11% increase in moisture retention (Brannan & Teyke, 2006).
Dextrins
Powdered cellulose with specific fiber lengths (>100 mm) has also been described
as a batter ingredient that reduces oil absorption and increases moisture retention in
the final product after frying (Ang et al., 1991). As the result of a strong interaction
due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the cellulose fibers in the
12 Coating Ingredients 273
batter, the displacement of water by oil during drying is restricted. The nonenzy-
matic browning properties of powdered cellulose can also be advantageous for
controlling the development of color (Ang, 1993). Other dietary fibers, such as oat,
soy, pea, or sugar beet fibers, can be used for the same purpose. These substances
develop greater mechanical resistance than conventional batters, making it easier
for the coagulated product to stay intact during handling, and they improve product
appearance by giving the coating an even, golden color after frying (Ang, 1991).
Microcrystalline cellulose codried with whey demonstrated a similar function-
ality in tempura-battered food items (Anonymous, 1980). Fibers have been used
to promote adhesion of batter to the substrate. Polydextrose, considered a soluble
fiber, has also been shown, alone or in combination with other fibers, soy protein,
or a cellulose derivative, to reduce absorption of oil in a batter formulation
(Kilibwa, 1999).
Other Ingredients
Seasonings
The current market for coated products is being driven by convenience, and diver-
sity of seasoning adds value and influences the growth of this product sector. Herbs
and spices are widely used in predusting systems, as are oleoresins and extracts.
The predusting stage is a good point at which to add flavorings, as they remain
reasonably protected from the cooking process and do not penetrate into the sub-
strate, as in a marinade. Adding flavorings to the batter is another possibility, but it
must be remembered that insoluble ingredients can give the batter a gritty texture
and can cause blockages in pump tubes, volatile oils can easily escape during the
frying step, and although they add sweetness, sugars can also dramatically affect
the external color during frying. If the product is to be breaded, the addition of deli-
cate and volatile components should be avoided and it should be remembered that
the presence of sugars can cause spotting upon frying. Breadings frequently contain
white, red, and black peppers. Cayenne pepper is popular in many Cajun dishes. A
good option is to use vegetable powders like onion or garlic, due to their low vola-
tility and neutral color. The color that can be imparted by some oleoresins should
also be taken into account, if they give the batter a green color, for instance, the
product will not be attractive. On the other hand, flavor is developed during frying
even without flavor addition, particularly via Maillard and browning reactions.
Flavors transfer from the product into the cooking oil and then back to the product
again. Because of this, and also because frying is a great contributor to flavor loss,
strict oil management procedures must be used if on e is to maintain a certain load
of flavor profiles (Calver, 2001).
274 S.M. Fiszman
In such a wide realm as seasonings and flavor systems, it will be deduced that
while some general remarks can be made, each case must be studied individually.
The current trend is diversity, adding visual appeal and unique flavors (cereal
crumbs, tortilla crumbs, potato shreds, bean thread noodles, etc.). Golden brown
has always has been the benchmark color for fried foods; but now consumers are
demanding more variety, so designers can also add caramel colors to enhance
brown notes, paprika to enhance redness, or annatto to contribute yellow or orange
notes (Gerdes, 2001).
Antioxidants are another category of ingredients that could have interesting
technical applications. Biswas, Keshri, and Bisht (2003) used a 50:50 mixture of
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) in a batter
mix for coating pork patties and evaluated product quality after long refrigerated
and frozen storage times. Instrumental quality attributes and sensory scores of the
final battered, fried products were higher for the treated simples than for the con-
trols throughout storage.
hap = kg n–1
The importance of viscosity in raw batter coatings has already been mentioned. In
principle, the better the raw batter adheres to the substrate food, the lower the losses
from breakage or partial detachment of the batter during the subsequent steps
276 S.M. Fiszman
(freezing, packing, transport, etc.). From this point of view, it is important for sub-
strate proteins to be available for setting up protein/starch interactions. The avail-
ability of substrate proteins can be increased by extraction through mechanical
treatments such as mincing, tumbling, etc.
On the other hand, it is important that pieces of food be prevented from sticking
together and forming what are known as “marriages,” “twins,” “doubles,” or “clus-
ters”; for this, as well as for avoiding excessive stickiness, it is very important to
use mechanical handling methods that do not allow the batter-coated pieces to
touch or overlap prior to freezing or final cooking. The thickness of the adhered
layer is also important financially, as it is directly related to yield and to sensory
acceptance by consumers.
Various indices are commonly used to express the degree of batter adhesion.
Pick-up is defined as the percentage of raw batter that adheres to an uncoated piece
of food:
increasing the mechanical resistance of the exterior layer by adding fiber, for exam-
ple, would improve the appearance of the final fried product (Ang, 1991).
Appearance can also be detrimentally affected by the product’s surface looking
either too smooth (in which case some way of enhancing the effect of the leavening
should be considered) or too rough. Sometimes too many bubbles can appear on the
surface, giving the product a blistered or flaky appearance. All these appearance
properties can be controlled by adjusting the ingredients and water content of the
batter, as well as the temperature of the frying oil.
The most highly appreciated texture of a fried product is crispness. Chewy tough-
ness and mushy softness are equally undesirable sensations caused by lack of crisp-
ness. Ideally, the coating should exhibit a structure that offers some resistance to the
initial bite but then quickly melts away in the mouth (Loewe, 1993). The crisp final
texture of the fried product can be evaluated by instrumental or sensory techniques.
Parameters such as crispness or crunchiness, fragility, tenderness, etc., however, are
hard to quantify using empirical mechanical methods because what is perceived in
the mouth is a complex combination of sensations.
Measurement of puncture by a plunger is the technique most often used (Fan,
Singh, & Pinthus, 1997; Mohamed et al., 1998). Baixauli et al. (2003) performed
penetration measurements of the final crust removed from the food, and recorded
the maximum force on penetration by a 4 mm diameter cylindrical probe. The test
was performed on recently fried foods 15 and 30 min after frying to ascertain the
retention of crispness over time, a factor of some interest when foods are kept warm
by infrared lamps. In this study, a crisp texture was identified as a penetration curve
with a multipeak profile. Lee et al. (2004) measured crispness as the number of
peaks in a texturometer curve obtained for a deep-fried batter.
The Kramer shear press has been used to measure the instrumental texture
of the fried crust of battered onion rings up to breaking point. Specific shear
force (maximum force/mass) and toughness [work (area under the loading
portion of the curve)/mass] were calculated (Ling, Gennadios, Hanna, &
Cuppet, 1998).
It is hard to imagine that a single instrumental parameter could be capable of dis-
criminating between differences which are sometimes very subtle. Consequently,
Salvador, Sanz, and Fiszman (2002) proposed evaluating the complete penetration
curve of a fried coating in order to appreciate various aspects of texture. To compare
different methods of evaluating fried crusts, Lima and Singh (2001) found that the
results obtained with a puncture test (1.07 mm diameter rigid flat probe) and a three-
point bending cell in a restructured potato model system were sensitive to both frying
time and frying temperature. It should be pointed out that in this case different frying
times (5, 10 and 15 min) and temperatures (170°C, 180°C and 190°CC) were used,
so the differences between the products would be considerable.
278 S.M. Fiszman
mealiness of coatings have been assessed with trained panelists (Prakash &
Rajalakshimi, 1999). A specially trained sensory panel to evaluate sensory
crispness was able to determine significant differences in crispness intensity
among breaded fried chicken samples cooked by different methods and stored
under different conditions (Antonova, Mallikarjunan, & Duncan, 2004). In
some products attention should be given to moistness, since the product pro-
gressively becomes drier over time, resulting in poor acceptability. In one study,
different moisture-releasing ingredients (milk and vegetable ingredient combi-
nations, several moisture levels) in mackerel mince-based nuggets were evalu-
ated by a sensory panel for firmness, moistness, and overall desirability (Lee,
Joaquin, & Lee, 2006). A consumer study evaluated the acceptability of fried
batter-coated squid rings prepared by an innovative method that reduces their
fat content, and examined how the provision of favorable nutritional informa-
tion (nil industrial fat content and lower absorption of frying oil) or a familiari-
zation period (home consumption) influences the sensory acceptability of fried
batter-coated squid rings (Salvador, Hough, & Fiszman, 2005). Specifically, the
exterior batter layer attributes evaluated were appearance, crispness, and coat-
ing thickness. Another study compared the characteristics of nuggets made
from emulsion or restructured buffalo meat. Results showed that despite higher
overall acceptance for freshly prepared emulsion nuggets, panelists rated them
considerably lower compared to restructured nuggets after subsequent storage
(Thomas, Anjaneyulu, & Kondaiah, 2006).
As previously discussed, coating adhesion is one of the main quality factors for
coated products. The batter or coating pick-up of the final product is defined as
(Baixauli et al., 2003):
Depending on the market, coated products are sold with the final appearance of a
“raw” food or with golden tones that simulate the color of fully fried foods. The
former are usually sold with instructions for a final frying step, during which they
acquire their final golden color (although their color will already range from yel-
lowish to orangey), whereas the latter may allow the final stage to take place in a
conventional or microwave oven as well as by the traditional final frying. Prefrying
is the stage of the manufacturing process that gives the food its initial slightly
golden color; for this, the coating must possess certain characteristics. Products
covered with tempura-type batters acquire a yellowish color when yellow corn
flours or starches are used (Burge, 1990) and a golden-brown note when potato
starch is used. Color may also be controlled by adjusting the balance between the
types of flour, starches, and other ingredients that tend to take part in browning
reactions (reducing sugars in milk solids, for instance) (Suderman, 1983). In these
products, it is normal to use colorings to obtain yellow or orange tones, which are
more attractive than the pale white of a raw batter. Baixauli, Salvador, Fiszman, and
Calvo (2002) reported that the final color of battered squid rings depended signifi-
cantly on frying times and temperatures. These investigators also observed that,
although the color of the frying oil darkened to a certain extent as the number of
fryings increased, this factor did not affect the color of the final fried product, con-
trary to the belief that dark oil is detrimental. Most of the color present in an oil
comes from the food and not from oil breakdown products; therefore, the poor
12 Coating Ingredients 281
cooking performance of an older oil is not directly related to the fact that it is dark
(Friedman, 1991). Color evenness is also an important factor; therefore, it is impor-
tant that spices or small lumps not be allowed to darken during frying and impart a
“spotted” final color; this could be prevented by adjusting frying temperature.
Breadings
appearance. Breaded products are highly dependent on the size and shape of the
particles and on their tolerance to frying; a mixture of particles of different sizes is
often the best choice.
Many particle sizes and shapes have been tested in recent years and different
breading styles are beginning to appear, such as “home-made,” “country,” etc., with
large particle sizes. Characteristics of coatings formed from breadings of three
particle sizes were investigated in breaded, fried chicken breast by Maskat and Kerr
(2002). They found that smaller breading produced smoother and more uniform
coatings, but acoustic measurements taken during compression of coatings did not
show any significant differences due to different particle sizes. In another study
(Maskat & Kerr, 2004a), the same researchers found that coating adhesion was
highest in a coating formed from smaller particles that also had a higher moisture
content in the surface of the meat as well as in the coatings; no significant differ-
ences were found in coating pick-up, cooking loss or yield between samples with
different breadcrumb particle sizes.
A recent development is the use of fresh Japanese-style bread crumbs or “nama
panko,” which give a special texture and appearance. The bread is made by passing
an electric current through the dough, so it does not develop a crust. The bread-
crumb product has much higher spike levels (sliver-like texture) than those of a
standard dry crumb.
Some alternative breading materials to bread or other wheat-flour products have
been described. For example, precooked rice dried to moisture content of 11–12%
before milling (1 mm particle size) was used on chicken breast. The resulting prod-
uct had better sensory acceptability and lower fat absorption than that made with a
commercial breader, in addition to other good performance features (Gastélum-
Benavides, Félix-Gocobachi, Fimbres-López, Vargas-Robles, & Cinco-Moroyoqui,
2004).
The use of certain particulates adds interest to coated foods, enhancing some
finished product attributes. They act synergistically with ethnic flavors, as in the
case of sesame seeds in oriental foods, contribute to texture (e.g., shredded coco-
nut), or add color (e.g., visible green parsley particles).
Microwave
In food consumption, the increasing trend towards preparation in less time has
given rise to a great demand for frozen products that are ready to heat and eat. The
microwave oven is now a well-established method for cooking or heating food,
primarily because of its quickness. However, prefried products cooked in micro-
wave ovens tend to be undesirably soft and soggy, because in this type of heating
water is conducted from the inside to the outside. There is a need for more research
12 Coating Ingredients 283
Research on batters is tending towards the creation of highly complex systems that
incorporate combinations of increasingly sophisticated ingredients, developed for
their multifunctionality. The incorporation of dietary fibers that absorb less fat,
starches that develop crisp textures and are less susceptible to human digestion,
celluloses that eliminate the prefrying step and also absorb less fat during final fry-
ing, edible films and coatings that preserve frying oil quality by creating a barrier
against migration of food marinades or juices, or minor ingredients with antioxi-
dant properties that extend the shelf life of the final product are already a reality.
The dramatic increase in the development of new ingredients brings with it a
need for research to clarify their mechanisms of action and the interactions between
their functionalities. Improved methods for the control of raw batters need to be
applied, such as the current dynamic rheology techniques used to characterize
complex rheological behavior, associated in many cases with the development of
284 S.M. Fiszman
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