AXIAL DEFORMATIONS

INTRODUCTION

• An important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deforma ons caused by the loads
applied to the structure.
• It is important to avoid deforma ons so large that they prevent the structure from fulfilling the purpose for which
is intended.
• This presenta on deals with the deforma ons of a structure member such as rod, bar or plate under axial loading
FREE BODY DIADRAM

• The first step towards solving an engineering problem is drawing the free body diagram of element/ structure
considered.
• Removing an exis ng force or including a wrong force on the free body will badly affect the equilibrium
condi ons and hence the analysis
• Clear decision is to be made by the analyst on the choice of the body to be considered for free body diagram
• Then that body is detached from all of its surroundings members including ground and only their forces on the
free body are represented.
• The weight of the body and other external body forces like centrifugal, iner a, etc., should also be included in the
diagram and they are assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the body.
• The known forces ac ng on the body should be represented with proper magnitude and direc on.
• If the direc on of unknown forces like reac ons can be decided, they should be indicated clearly in the diagram.
• A er comple ng free body diagram, equilibrium equa ons from sta cs in terms of forces and moments are
applied and solved for the unknowns.
CONSTRUCTION OF FREE BODY DIAGRAMS

• A free body diagram is a simple diagram that shows the size and direc on of all forces ac ng upon an object.
NORMAL STRESS

• Stress is a measure of the internal forces ac ng within a deformable body. Quan ta vely, it is a measure of the
average force per unit area of a surface within the body on which internal forces act. These internal forces arise
as a reac on to external forces applied to the body
• The stresses are ac ng normal to the sec on XX that is perpendicular to the axis of the bar. These stresses are
called normal stresses.
SAINT – VENANT’S PRINCIPLE

• It states that except in the immediate vicinity of the points where the load is applied, the stress distribu on may
be assumed to be uniform and is independent of the mode of applica on of loads. This principle is called Saint-
Venant's principle.
SHEAR STRESS

• The internal forces i.e. V are called shear forces and when they are divided by the corresponding sec on area, we
obtain the shear stress on that sec on.
SHEAR STRESS

• Here the shear stress is reduced by half in double shear when compared to a single shear
• Shear stresses are generally found in bolts, pins and rivets that are used to connect various structural members
and machine components
BEARING STRESS

• In the bolted connec on, a highly irregular pressure gets developed on the contact surface between the bolt and the plates.
• The average intensity of this pressure can be found out by dividing the load P by the projected area of the contact surface.
This is referred to as the bearing stress.
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
STRESS ON INCLINED PLANES UNDER AXIAL LOADING

• the normal stress reaches its maximum when θ = 0o and becomes zero when θ = 90o.
• But, the shear stress assumes zero value at θ = 0o and θ = 90o and reaches its maximum when θ = 45o.
STRAIN

• The deforma on per unit length of the rod along its axis is defined as the normal strain. It is denoted by ε
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Stress Strain of structural steel (Duc le Material)

• To obtain the rela onship b/w the stress & strain, the uniaxial load is applied to the specimen and increased
gradually. The corresponding deforma ons are recorded throughout the loading.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

• Ini al part of the loading indicates a linear rela onship between stress and strain, and the deforma on is
completely recoverable in this region for both duc le and bri le materials.
• This linear rela onship, i.e., stress is directly propor onal to strain, is popularly known as Hooke's law.

E is called the modulus of elas city or Young's modulus.

• A er the stress reaches a cri cal value, the deforma on becomes

irrecoverable. The corresponding stress is called the yield stress or yield
strength of the material beyond which the material is said to start yielding.
• The load required to yield the material beyond its yield strength increases
appreciably and this is referred to strain hardening of the material.
• A er the stress in the specimen reaches a maximum value, called ul mate
strength, upon further stretching, the diameter of the specimen starts
decreasing fast due to local instability and this phenomenon is called
necking
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

• The load required for further elonga on of the material in the necking region decreases with decrease in
diameter and the stress value at which the material fails is called the breaking strength.
• In case of bri le materials like cast iron and concrete, the material experiences smaller deforma on before
rupture and there is no necking.
• Bri le materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore
the ul mate strength and breaking strength are the same.
TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN

= Actual area
POISSONS RATIO

• As the material elongates in the x direc on due to the load P, it also contracts in the other two mutually
perpendicular direc ons, i.e., y and z direc ons.
• Hence, despite the absence of normal stresses in y and z direc ons, strains do exist in those direc ons and they
are called lateral strains.
• The ra o between the lateral strain and the axial/longitudinal strain for a given material is always a constant
within the elas c limit and this constant is referred to as Poisson's ra o. It is denoted by ν
POISSONS RATIO

The lateral strain in the material can be obtained by

• Poisson's ra o can be as low as 0.1 for concrete and as high as 0.5 for rubber. In general, it varies from 0.25 to
0.35 and for steel it is about 0.3.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY

• If the strain disappears completely a er removal of the load, then the material is said to be in elas c region.
• The stress-strain rela onship in elas c region need not be linear and can be non-linear as in rubber like materials.
• The maximum stress value below which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elas c limit. It is represented
by point A
• When the stress in the material exceeds the elas c limit, the material enters into plas c phase where the strain
can no longer be completely removed.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY

• If the material has crossed elas c limit, during unloading it follows a path that is parallel to the ini al elas c
loading path with the same propor onality constant E.
• The strain present in the material a er unloading is called the residual strain or plas c strain and the strain
disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elas c strain.
• If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the previous unloading path and line CB becomes its new
elas c region with elas c limit defined by point B.
CREEP AND FATIGUE

• Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of stresses.
It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the
material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and near mel ng point.
Creep always increases with temperature.
CREEP AND FATIGUE

• For sta c loading, we know that the specimen will not fail when the stress in the material is with in the elas c
limit.
• But if the applied load fluctuates or reverses then the material will fail far below its yield strength. This
phenomenon is known as fa gue

• It is learnt from the graph that the number of cycles to failure increases with
decrease in magnitude of stress.
CREEP AND FATIGUE

• For steels, if the magnitude of stress is reduced to a par cular value, it can undergo an infinitely large number of
cycles without fa gue failure and the corresponding stress is known as endurance limit or fa gue limit.
• On the other hand, for non-ferrous metals like aluminum alloys there is no endurance limit, and hence, the
maximum stress decreases con nuously with increase in number of cycles.
STRAIN ENERGY
• Strain energy is an important concept in mechanics and is used to study the response of materials and structures
under sta c and dynamic loads.
• This recoverable energy stored in the material in the form of strain is called elas c strain energy.
• Strain energy stored per unit volume of the material is referred to as strain energy density
• When the stress in the material reaches the yield stress σ.y, the strain energy density a ains its maximum value
and is called the modulus of resilience.
• The area under the en re stress strain diagram is called modulus of toughness, which is a measure of energy that
can be absorbed by the material due to impact loading before it fractures.
ANY QUESTIONS ?