Compost Science & Utilization

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In-vessel, Mechanical Rotating Drum Composting

Of Institutional Food Residuals

D.R. Smith, D.L. Cawthon, J.J. Sloan & T.M. Freeman

To cite this article: D.R. Smith, D.L. Cawthon, J.J. Sloan & T.M. Freeman (2006) In-vessel,
Mechanical Rotating Drum Composting Of Institutional Food Residuals, Compost Science &
Utilization, 14:2, 155-161, DOI: 10.1080/1065657X.2006.10702277

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 Compost Science & Utilization, (2006), Vol. 14, No. 2, 155-161

In-vessel, Mechanical Rotating Drum Composting

Of Institutional Food Residuals
D.R. Smith1, D.L. Cawthon1, J.J. Sloan2 and T.M. Freeman1
1. Department of Agricultural Sciences, Texas A&M University – Commerce, Commerce, Texas
2. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Dallas, Texas

Use of composting technology as a treatment/disposal method for food residuals has been investigated
by numerous researchers. This project evaluated the applicability of in-vessel, mechanical, rotating drum
composting for food residuals. Three batches of food residuals (plate scrapings) were collected from a
Texas prison and mixed with fine-textured soft-wood shavings at 2/1, 3/1 and 4/1 (ratios of shavings to
food residual on a volumetric basis) to produce 0.4 m3 of compost blend. Temperature, oxygen, pH, bulk
density and porosity were tracked throughout a fifteen-day composting trial. Volume and weight reduc-
tions were noticed for all blends. All blends reached thermophilic temperatures (> 45°C) while remaining
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aerobic during the trials. Initial pH was low in all blends, occasionally reaching 3.55 before returning to
optimal levels (6.0 to 7.5) for composting. Temperature increases into the thermophilic range during com-
posting corresponded to increases in compost pH. Most nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na and Zn) increased
in concentration during the composting period, with the exception of N, which in some instances de-
creased over time. Composts utilizing the 3/1 ratio of bulking agent/food residual achieved thermophilic
temperatures quickest and maintained temperatures longer than did other blending ratios. From this
study, it appears that use of the mechanical, in-vessel, rotating drum composter may be a viable alterna-
tive for food residual disposal.

Introduction animal mortalities (fish, chicken and swine), hatchery

waste and food residuals (Cawthon, et al. 1997; and
Large quantities of food residuals are generated at Freeman and Cawthon 1999;). Similar techniques have
institutions such as prisons, hospitals and schools. been employed in such applications as large-scale
Many methods of disposal exist for this waste stream, composting of municipal wastes (Haug 1993), or back-
several of which can be costly to the producer. The yard composting of food residuals (Olguin, et al. 1993).
most common method of disposal of food residuals Several studies have focused on procedures to for-
from institutional food services is through wastewater mulate optimum organic blends for composting.
treatment facilities. However, municipalities, which These studies have demonstrated that appropriate
typically operate wastewater treatment facilities have mixing of compost components ensures the best re-
in recent years passed surcharges on to some institu- sults (Olguin, et al. 1993; Liao, et al. 1994 and Donahue,
tions for the increased cost associated with treatment. et al. 1998). Bulking agents including products such as
Currently, other methods of disposal, including in- wood shavings, paper, cardboard, paper mill sludge,
vessel composting, are under investigation. peat moss and yard trimmings are often added to
Several in-vessel composting methods have been compost feedstock to absorb water, add porosity, or
explored (Olguin et al. 1993; Haug 1993; and Donahue, adjust the C/N ratio (Martin et al. 1993; Shin and Jeong
et al. 1998). One of these is a rotating drum method 1996; Cawthon et al. 1997 and Sullivan et al. 1998).
(Haug 1993 and Freeman and Cawthon 1999), which Many studies have found that higher ratios of bulking
provides agitation, aeration and mixing of the com- agent to wet organic matter (such as food residuals,
post, to produce a consistent and uniform end prod- fish mortality, or brewery waste) are more efficient,
uct. Units used for this technology are small enough possibly due to moisture adjustment (Lo, et al. 1993;
that they can be placed at the site of organic waste gen- Liao, et al. 1995; and Cawthon, et al. 1997). In some
eration, can be fitted to handle a continuous flow of composts, carbon can be a limiting factor (Martin, et al.
wastes, and have been used to compost such diverse 1993), due to an excess of materials with low C/N ra-
organic wastes as dairy cattle manure, swine manure, tios. Carbon from bulking agents can increase carbon
municipal biosolids, brewery sludge, chicken litter, availability.

Compost Science & Utilization Spring 2006 155

 D.R. Smith, D.L. Cawthon, J.J. Sloan and T.M. Freeman

Elwell et al. (1996) found that various ratios of bulk- University-Commerce. All BA/FR ratios were tested
ing agents would alter the amount of time to compost with each collection of food (batch), but the composter
stability. Using in-vessel techniques, rapid decomposi- chosen for each BA/FR ratio was selected at random.
tion is considered desirable to allow more efficient uti- Composting took place in prototype in-vessel me-
lization of the vessel space. While compost stability and chanical rotating drum mechanical composters, manu-
maturity are goals of the overall process, the goal of the factured by BW Organics, Sulphur Springs, Texas.
in-vessel composting technique used here was to stabi- These composters are of similar design to those de-
lize the compost as rapidly as possible. scribed by Haug 1993. Composter tanks measured 0.91
Stability and maturity are important indices of m in diameter and 1.83 m in length. A center partition
composting, but the terms are only loosely defined. divided the composter into two compartments 0.91m
No single parameter may be employed as an index for in length. At operational capacity each compartment
3
either of these. Inbar et al. 1993, reported that stability held 0.4 m of material. The composter tanks were po-
was indicated by a combination of volume and weight sitioned horizontally on a set of four casters. A 0.373
reduction, increased bulk density, decreased porosity kW motor turned the composters at a rate of 4 rev hr-1.
and increased concentration of elements (excluding The collection period for each batch of food resid-
C). Iannotti et al. (1993) reported that stability could be uals at the Hutchins State Jail, began at 10:00 a.m. and
determined by a reduction in O2 depletion and CO2 ended at 1:00 p.m. Food residuals were transported
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production, and that odor generation, pathogen approximately one hour to the composting site and
blooms, phytotoxicity and plant disease suppression immediately loaded along with appropriate bulking
were all affected by stability. A decrease in biomass agent into the composter.
temperature has also been reported as a good indica- The initial weight of all components was deter-
tor of compost stability (Iannotti, et al. 1993; Inbar et. mined immediately before loading, and the final
al. 1993; and Bernal, et al. 1998). weight was determined at unloading. Initial and final
Maturity can also be expressed in terms of phyto- dry weights were calculated from initial and final
toxicity and the absence of volatile compounds, such weights, and initial and final moisture content. Initial
as short-chain fatty acids and phenols (Liao, et al. volume was known, as feedstocks were loaded on a
1995). Mineralization of C and subsequent immobi- volumetric basis. Final volume was determined at the
lization of N have also been used to estimate compost time of unloading.
maturity (Bernal, et al. 1998). Compost stabilizes be- Compost temperatures and oxygen concentrations
fore it matures but allowing a compost to mature, were monitored at twelve-hour intervals. Temperature
which can require up to several months, may not be readings were taken directly using a handheld
necessary for field application (Sullivan, et al. 1998; Reotemp analog thermometer, Reotemp Instrument
Bernal, et al. 1998). Corporation, San Diego, CA, inserted into the com-
The purpose of this study was to determine the ef- posting mass in three different locations and averaged.
fect of bulking agent to food residual ratio on the com- Oxygen was determined using an A-1 ambient oxygen
posting of food residuals and changes in physico- analyzer from Sensitron Associates, Reading, PA. The
chemical characteristics of the biomass using in-vessel, Oxygen probe was inserted 15 cm into the composting
mechanical rotating drum techniques. The goal of the mass, and left in place for 1 minute while the gaseous
in-vessel rotating drum composting of food residuals environment came to equilibrium.
was to stabilize food residual compost as rapidly as One sub-sample of approximately 100 g was dried
possible. in a microwave oven for determination of moisture. If
moisture was below 40%, water was added to adjust
Methods and Materials moisture percentage to the desired range of 45 to 50%.
If the moisture was >50, no corrective action was taken.
This experiment used a randomized block design, A grab sample (approximately 6 L) was collected
with three batches of food residuals as blocks and the every other day and used for determination of electrical
bulking agent/food residual (BA/FR) ratio as treat- conductivity, pH, porosity and bulk density. Compost
ments. Based on the results of preliminary studies, pH was determined in a 1/1 mixture of compost bio-
three BA/FR were evaluated: 2/1, 3/1 and 4/1 total mass and distilled water using a Digi-Sense digital pH
bulking agent to food residuals (V/V). The bulking meter (model 5938-50, Cole-Parmer Instrument Com-
agent was a fine-textured softwood shaving chosen pany, Chicago, Illinois.). A 3.0 L container was used to
from preliminary studies for its ability to absorb wa- determine porosity. A sleeve was constructed to fit
ter. Food residuals were collected from the Hutchins around the opening of the container and extended 12
State Jail, Dallas, Texas and transported to Texas A&M cm above the container. Compost samples were placed

156 Compost Science & Utilization Spring 2006

 In-Vessel, Mechanical Rotating Drum Composting of Institutional Food Residuals

into the container with sleeve attached to ensure an ad- agitation, aeration and mixing produce a uniform bio-
equate amount of material after compaction. Then the mass (Huag 1993; Freeman and Cawthon 1999).
container with sleeve was dropped five times from a
height of 10 cm to compact the material uniformly. The Compost Physicochemical Properties
sleeve was then removed and a straight edge was used
to remove excess compost. Water was poured into the Generally, lower BA/FR ratios produced higher
container slowly enough to keep the compost from initial dry weights, however upon regression, this rela-
floating and to ensure that air was not entrapped with- tionship was not significant (r2 = 0.14, Figure 1). The
in the biomass. At the end of a three hour filling period, lower BA/FR ratio resulted in lower initial porosity (r2
water was level with the top of the container. The vol- = 0.39, P < 0.10; Figure 1), most likely as a result of ad-
ume of water added was recorded as the available pore ditional pore space in the wood shavings being filled
space. Porosity was calculated by dividing the volume with food residuals. Increasing the BA/FR significantly
of water added by the total volume of the container. increased the initial C/N ratio (r2 = 0.48, P < 0.05), due
After measuring porosity, the same sample was to the overall increase of C added to the biomass. Due to
used to determine dry bulk density. The sample was the high variability in the food waste collected, there
drained and placed in a drying oven at 60°C for 72 h, was a high degree of variability in these parameters.
and weighed at the end of the drying period. Bulk Volume reduction likely occurred not only due to
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density was determined by dividing the mass of the the microbial degradation of the biomass, but also
dried compost by the volume of the container. through mechanical reduction of particle size due to
Additional samples from the first and last day of continuous agitation. Upon initial loading, the food
composting were divided into six equal sub-samples. waste had a tendency to form aggregates, approximate-
Three were sent to the Soil Testing Laboratory at ly 3 to 8 cm in diameter. After 2 to 4 days of rotation, the
Stephen F. Austin University, Nacogdoches, Texas, for majority of these food aggregates were broken apart. In-
determination of total P, K, Ca, S, Mg, Zn and Mn by creasing the BA/FR ratio significantly decreased vol-
wet digestion. Three samples were sent to the Texas ume reduction (r2 = 0.68, P < 0.01; Figure 2). Volume re-
A&M University Analytical Laboratory, El Paso, Texas, duction was generally higher in batch B of compost
for determination of C/N ratio using a NCHS-O com- except at the 4/1 BA/FR ratio. The food residuals used
bustion analyzer. At the end of each trial, volume re- for batch B were more liquid in consistency than those
duction and dry weight reduction were calculated by used for the other two batches. The higher volume re-
subtracting the final values from the initial values. duction in this batch could have resulted from food
waste more effectively filling the bulking agent pore
Results and Discussion

The variability was high between batches of food

residuals. The food waste collected in Batch A was of a
fairly thick consistency containing beans, cabbage,
peas, mustard, frankfurters, and buns. The food residu-
als collected in Batch B was of a thinner consistency,
and was composed mainly of vegetables including
corn, green beans, tomato sauce and a small amount of
bread. Batch C was much thicker than either of the pre-
vious batches, and was mainly composed of biscuit
dough, with some bread, beans, cabbage and rice. Due
to this variability, it was difficult to group bulking ra-
tios across batches. Therefore, the three bulking agent
ratios were compared against each other for each batch.
Physicochemical properties for composts were exam-
ined between each batch, since an important factor in
selecting a bulking agent ratio is its ability to perform
consistently under many different circumstances.
Following in-vessel composting for the 15 d peri-
FIGURE 1. Effect of bulking agent/food residual ratio on initial
od, the final biomass was relatively uniform. This find- physicochemical properties of precomposted blends. (NS, §, * -
ing is in agreement with previous work using in-vessel Not significant, and significant at the 0.10 and 0.05 levels of proba-
composters, which indicated that this process provides bility, respectively.)

Compost Science & Utilization Spring 2006 157

 D.R. Smith, D.L. Cawthon, J.J. Sloan and T.M. Freeman

space. Volume reductions have been used as one indi-

cator of compost stability (Inbar et al. 1993), and these
results indicate that the stability objective was achieved.
Dry weight reductions in this study approached
50% and were higher than might be expected during a
15-day composting period. This high reduction rate
could be partially due to the high C bio-availability in
food residuals and the presumed rapid decomposition
rate facilitated by continuous aeration and excess heat
ventilation achieved by the in-vessel system used in
this study. Dry weight reductions tended to be higher
in batches with higher initial dry weight, however this
relationship was not significant (Figure 2). Dry weight
reductions observed here are consistent with other
studies, which suggest that these reductions are an in-
dicator of compost stability (Inbar et al. 1993).
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Temperature and Oxygen

FIGURE 2. Effect of bulking agent/food residual ratio on volume Results from temperature and oxygen data for each
and dry weight reduction of compost blends. (NS, ** - Not signifi- batch and BA/FR ratio can be seen in Figure 3. The 4/1
cant and significant at the 0.01 level of probability, respectively.) ratio did not generally maintain sustained tempera-
tures in the thermophilic range (> 45°C) as well as the

FIGURE 3. Changes in temperature and oxygen levels during the composting of three food residuals batches (1, 2 and 3) at three bulking
agent ratios using wood shavings (2/1, 3/1 and 4/1 wood shavings/food residuals, V/V).

158 Compost Science & Utilization Spring 2006

 In-Vessel, Mechanical Rotating Drum Composting of Institutional Food Residuals

other ratios. The 3/1 ratio generally achieved ther-

mophilic temperatures and/or reached its maximum
temperature sooner than the 2/1 ratio in each batch.
Achieving higher temperatures in a shorter period of
time could require a shorter in-vessel retention time to
reach compost stability, and allow more efficient use of
in-vessel technology. It was noted that the 2/1 ratio was
still thermophilic after fifteen days in batches A and C,
suggesting that a BA/FR ratio that is too low may in-
crease the time required for compost stabilization.
Oxygen levels were generally inversely propor-
tional to the temperature. This would be expected
since oxygen is consumed at a rate that is proportion-
al to the rate of microbial respiration. In the majority
of the batches and BA/FR ratios studied, oxygen lev-
els were rarely below 5.0%, the minimum requirement
for aerobic activity (Rynk 1992). These results indicate
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that the in-vessel composter effectively aerated the

biomass under most circumstances.
Reduction in compost temperature and increase
in oxygen level are both indicative of stabilization
(Iannotti et al. 1993; Inbar et al. 1993; and Bernal et al. FIGURE 4. Changes in compost pH during the composting of
1998) as long as other environmental factors remain three food residuals batches (1, 2 and 3) at three bulking agent ra-
appropriate. As with Elwell et al. (1996), altering bulk- tios using wood shavings (2/1, 3/1 and 4/1 wood shavings/food
residuals, V/V).
ing agent ratios appears to affect the time to reach
compost stability. Evaluation of temperature and oxy-
gen data in this study indicate that compost blends neously, suggesting a relationship between these pa-
utilizing the 3/1 and 4/1 ratios were approaching sta- rameters. Subsequent unpublished data by the au-
bilization within the fifteen day period. thors have shown that initial addition of lime to adjust
pH of very acid food residuals to near neutral shortens
Compost pH the time to reach thermophilic composting conditions
by as much as 10 days. These data suggest that the ini-
The initial batch pH of all blends ranged from 4.1 to tial compost pH was too low to achieve aerobic ther-
4.7 with an average of 4.34 (Figure 4). These low values mophilic respiration; but once the sub-optimal pH im-
were probably the result of an acid fermentation process proved, desirable microbial species could populate
that occurred during transport, and perhaps during the the compost mass.
first couple of days of the composting process. CO2 evo-
lution was observed from all batches upon arrival at the Dry Bulk Density and Porosity
composting site. As previously mentioned, the food
residuals had a tendency to form aggregates during the Changes in bulk density for food residuals dur-
initial few days of composting, which would also tend ing the 15 day composting process were minimal and
to promote anaerobic processes inside the aggregates. inconsistent. However, compost blends containing
During this period (3 to 5 days), strong fermentation more food per unit of bulking agent generally had
odors were observed. It was also observed that the higher dry bulk densities. Increased bulk density has
breakdown of food aggregates, loss of fermentation been used as an indicator of compost stability (Inbar
odors, increase of pH to near optimal range (6 to 8) for et al. 1993). While bulk density did not change during
composting, and the attainment of thermophilic tem- this composting process, it was likely a result of con-
peratures occurred almost simultaneously. stant agitation from the rotating drum. Whereas sta-
Compost pH generally increased during the com- tic pile or windrow composting would likely result
posting process (Figure 4). The 4/1 and 3/1 BA/FR ra- in reduced bulk density as the materials pack togeth-
tios tended to increase in pH more rapidly than the er with time from heating/cooling or wetting/dry-
2/1 ratio possibly due to attainment of aerobic condi- ing cycles, it is probably that the constant agitation of
tions more quickly. the rotating drum could mask differences observed
Compost temperatures and pH increased simulta- as stabilization is achieved.

Compost Science & Utilization Spring 2006 159

 D.R. Smith, D.L. Cawthon, J.J. Sloan and T.M. Freeman

TABLE 1.
Nutrient concentrations in compost biomass samples collected at days 0 and 15 for the three BA/FR blends.
N P K Ca Mg S Na Fe Mn Zn Cu
Rate % mg Kg-1

Initial
2/1 1.68 0.170 0.231 0.143 0.039 0.108 2210 950 24.2 12.5 5.42
3/1 1.58 0.143 0.180 0.148 0.036 0.101 1700 210 19.9 11.1 5.46
4/1 1.66 0.159 0.203 0.161 0.040 0.099 1910 430 21.9 11.2 5.29
Final
2/1 1.92 0.306 0.446 0.483 0.106 0.179 4000 3150 61.6 22.8 7.55
3/1 0.98 0.204 0.258 0.301 0.071 0.106 2480 1340 54.6 17.1 8.04
4/1 1.11 0.192 0.263 0.241 0.070 0.108 2440 2590 60.9 17.9 7.45

Compost porosity changed little over time and was for stabilizing food residuals. All blends tested reached
rarely below 50% (data not shown). However, higher thermophilic temperatures during the fifteen-day com-
BA/FR ratios tended to have higher porosity at any posting period. Most of these blends decreased in tem-
given time. As with bulk density, porosity data is not perature prior to the end of the project. Dry weight re-
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consistent with the results as an index for stability as re- ductions, volume reductions, decreases in temperature,
ported by Inbar et al. (1993). Agitation would maintain reduction in oxygen depletion and increased concentra-
high porosity, whereas static composting would result tion of nutrients all suggested that the food residual bio-
in reduced porosity as time and events such as rainfall mass had stabilized in the majority of these trials, par-
would induce a ‘packing’ effect. This consolidation of ticularly those utilizing the 3/1 and 4/1 blending ratios.
loose materials during static composting processes While changes in bulk density and porosity were not ob-
would result in the collapse of macropores in the bio- served, this is most likely an artifact of the agitation pre-
mass. Porosity and bulk density are related, as the par- sent during this particular form of composting, that
ticle density of a material can remain constant, and as would likely mask differences that could be observed
the pore spaces diminish, the bulk density will increase. from static composting processes. A wide range of ma-
terials used in the three batches of food residuals sug-
Nutrient Concentrations gests that this process is viable for many different con-
ditions. The 3/1 ratio performed the most consistently
As would be expected, concentrations of P, K, Ca, with various types of food residuals, and would likely
Mg, S, Na and Zn increased over time during the com- be the best ratio for composting this waste stream, pro-
posting process due to the loss of C (Table 1). Average vided that the bulking agent used was a soft wood shav-
concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na and Zn in the fi- ing with similar moisture adsorbing capabilities.
nal samples were 0.23%, 0.32%, 0.34%, 0.08%, 0.13%, Initial compost pH was well below desired levels;
0.30%, and 19 mg/kg, respectively. These results are however the biomass self-adjusted to the optimum
consistent with the stability indices as proposed by In- range within a few days in most cases. Porosity and
bar et al. (1993). Nitrogen responded to composting dif- oxygen data indicate that the rotating drum and bulk-
ferently than the other nutrients reported, with initial ing agents used allowed adequate ventilation of the
and final N concentrations averaging 1.6% and 1.3%, composting biomass to maintain aerobic conditions.
respectively. Nitrogen levels increased in the 2/1 ratio Further studies are needed to identify parameters
during composting; however in the other two ratios, fi- necessary to shorten the time to reach thermophilic
nal N concentrations were lower after composting. temperatures, and this technology needs to be evalu-
This could be partially due to pH influences. With the ated under “continuous-flow” rather than batch oper-
3/1 and 4/1 ratios, pH increased quicker than did the ating conditions. Additional studies may need to
2/1 ratio. Since the pH was higher for a longer period identify other bulking agents that can be used with
of time in these two ratios, there was more time in this technology to produce a comparably stabilized
these blends for N losses through ammonia volatiliza- food residuals compost.
tion, a pH driven reaction.
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