INSTRUCTIONAL

STRATEGIES

WE THINK TOO MUCH ABOUT EFFECTIVE METHODS

OF TEACHING AND NOT ENOUGH ABOUT EFFECTIVE
METHODS OF LEARNING

JOHN CAROLUS S.J

 INDEX

SL.NO Content Page no

1 Introduction 1

2 Lecture method 3

3 Discussion 6

4 Role play 9

5 Panel discussion 14

6 Seminar 17

7 Symposium 22

8 Demonstration 26

9 Laboratory method 30

10 Simulation 35

11 Micro teaching 39

12 Workshop 45

13 Problem solving 57

14 Conclusion 64
 INTRODUCTION

Since the inception of formal, classroom-based instruction, a fundamental

aspect of teaching has been the way teachers arrange the classroom environment so

students can interact and learn. The instructional strategies teachers use help shape

learning environments and represent professional conceptions of learning and of the

learner. Some strategies consider students empty vessels to be filled under the firm

direction of the teacher; other strategies regard them as active participants learning

through inquiry and problem solving–still others tell children they are social organisms

learning through dialogue and interaction with others.

Contemporary conceptions of instructional strategies acknowledge that the

goals of schooling are complex and multifaceted, and that teachers need many

approaches to meet varied learner outcomes for diverse populations of students. A

single method is no longer adequate. Effective teachers select varied instructional

strategies that accomplish varied learner outcomes that are both behavioural and

cognitive.
 LECTURE METHOD

Lecture method is the oldest method of teaching, based on the philosophy of

idealism. In this the emphasis is on the presentation of content , where, the teacher
clarifies the content matter to the students ,by using gestures, simple devices, changing
voice tone, position and facial expressions, thereby giving the students training in
listening, simultaneously, providing an opportunity for better clarification of the topics
along with laying stress on significant ideas. This method is economical and can be used
among large number of students. It saves time and also covers syllabus.

Definition
A lecture is oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a
particular subject.

Purposes of lecture method

 To motivate, sensitize and to stimulate students in their pursuit of learning
objectives.
 To introduce a new topic or subject as this method aids in close and personal
contact with the students.
 To provide structured knowledge about a determined concept.
 To motivate and guide in haunting knowledge.
 To arouse the student’s interest in a particular subject.
 To promote critical thinking.
 To facilitate good human relationship.
 Develop problem solving on a factual basis.
 Achieve a high order of cognitive objectives.
 Simulate thinking in students.
 Develop concentration in students.
 Influence learners to inculcate the habits of listening and learning.

Plan and structure of lecture method

A lecture has three parts

a) Introduction
The first few words of the lecture should grip the audience, arouse their curiosity
and get their undivided attention. The first impression of the lecturer created by this
goes a long way in assuring the active listening by the audience. It usually lasts for 3 to
5 minutes. The teacher should provide a general idea and framework for the lectures
content in this stage.

b) Body of the lecture

The body of the lecture covers the content in an organised way. It lays more
emphasis on presentation of the content. The teacher is more active while students are
relatively passive participants. The teacher uses question answer techniques to keep
students attentive in class. Teacher controls and plans all student activities. Since this
component is allotted the greatest amount of time in a classroom, it includes many more
teaching procedures than in introduction and conclusion. The teacher generally uses
maxims of teaching to make the students understand the concept using various
examples, situations etc.

c) Conclusion
This helps the teacher summarise and reemphasize the key points of the lecture.
The teacher can motivate the students to ask questions by focusing their mind to
specific points.

Advantages of lecture method

 A well-presented lecture motivates the students.
 It is good to introduce a new topic.
 It creates enthusiasm and interest among the students.
 It makes the student feel secured as they are under proper guidance from
teacher.
 Factual information is presented in direct and logical manner.
 It saves time and energy by teaching a large number of students at a time.
 It enables the teacher to have a complete control of the classroom.
 It gives the opportunity to their personal contact with the students.
 Is aids in monitoring the progress of each and every student by being thin and
alert.
 It is easier to create than any other methods of instruction.
 Familiar Method-It is a method familiar to most teachers because it was
typically the way they were taught.
Disadvantages of lecture method
 Content or subject centred.
 One sided affair.
 Need proficient oral skills.
 Passive audience.
 Failure with the student of lower class.
 Group strategy.
 Leaves gaps in understanding.
 Attention span of the students decreases considerable after 20 minutes with a
reduction of information assimilated.
 This method pays little attention to needs, interest and abilities of the individual
students.

Though this method has much limitation but still it is the most used method. The
teacher should encourage the students to ask questions. Teaching aids should also be
used to make the lecture effective.
 DISCUSSION

A discussion method is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and
attitudes

Definition
Discussion method of teaching is a group activity involving the teacher and the
student to define the problem and seek its solution discussion method is also described
as a constructive process involving listening, thinking, as well as the speaking ability of
the student.

Principles of Discussion
 Objectives should be clearly defined and understood by all participants.
 The teacher should prepare carefully as a facilitator to guide
 Question outline should be carefully
 The members of the group should come prepared; have a basic knowledge about the
topic to be discussed.
 Leader need to guide and coordinate the proceedings so that the discussion should be
kept to the point.
 Record the main point of the discussion.
 Each one in the group should feel free to participate and a shy person should be
encouraged to contribute
 Discussion should properly end with a report.

 Preparation of Conduct Discussion Method

 a) Orientation
a. Provide the discussion topic.
b. Clearly describe the question
c. Explain how students have to prepare for discussion
d. Explain how the discussion will be conducted
e. Encouraged the students to think

b) Engagement
a. Develop an environment
b. Present clear question to focus the discussion
 c. Start by asking students to define the terms
d. If necessary, help the students.
e. Wait for each student to answer the question
f. Refocus discussion
g. Keep a progressive record
h. Close discussion by summarizing or evaluating

c) Debrief
a. Allow time for students to make their own notes.
b. Facilitate student reflection on what they learnt.

Forms of discussion

a) Role play
Role play is a discussion technique that makes it possible to get maximum participation
of a group through acting out an example of some problem or idea under discussion

b) Participatory learning method

Engages students as active participants in the full life cycle of homework, project, and
examinations

c) Formal group discussion

Formal group discussion is held by small group as well as the large group. It is useful
when it is necessary to discuss various aspects of a subject

d)  Panel discussion
Panel discussion is a discussion in which 4-8 persons who are qualified to talk about the
topic, sit and discussing a given problem or the topic, in front of the large group

e) Seminar
A seminar is a discussion based on information presented by experts under guidance of
an eminent resource person for the benefit of group members

f) Symposium
It is a technique serve as an excellent device for informing an audience discussion. The
procedure is like straight lecture form, symposium consist of a program of prepared
speech followed by the audience discussion
Advantages
- Emphasis on learning instead of teaching
- Participation by everybody
- Fostering democratic way of thinking
- Training in reflective thinking
- Training in self expression
- Made interest

Disadvantages
- More time and effort
- May not be end with solution
- Teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership
- Success of discussion is based on good preparation
- It may create emotional stress
- Not effective in describing procedures
- Few students may dominate in discussion

  Discussion is the one of the important teaching learning method. Discussion give
importance both teachers and students. Which is using nowadays very often and gives
the students an opportunity to learn how to adjust to social situation.
 ROLE PLAY

One of the methods used in teaching learning is 'role play'. Role play is an
instructional technique which involves a spontaneous acting out of a certain situation or
condition. Role plays are important learning activities in which students assume role to
practice a variety of language skills.

Definitions
Role play is an educational technique in which people spontaneously act out problems
of human relations and analyse the enactment with the help of other players or
observers.

Purposes of role play

 To convey information
 To develop specific skills
 To develop a situation for analysis
 To develop understanding of points of view of others
 To increase insight into typical way of dealing with a problem
 Provides an opportunity for social interaction among members.

Preparation of role play

 Preparation and explanation by teacher-Before commencing role play, the
teacher needs to provide the students with brief explanation regarding the
procedure
 Student preparation-The students need to be prepared as per the protocol of role
play.
 Role playing- Clearly define the role each student should portray.
 Debriefing- Debriefing is an information-sharing and event-processing session
conducted as a conversation between peers. Group members become informants
to each other about a situation or event that occurred to them as a group.

Steps to conduct role play

 Selection of the problem- The problem must be selected within a group consent.
It should be clear and related to human relations situation that shows a useful
purpose within the context of subject matter being studied. Pick a situation that
 learners might experience in day to day life. For example, consequences of
obesity
 Construction of the role-playing situation- The purpose of the role play session
serves as a guide for preparing content to stimulate reality problem. Situations
can be planned by the total group or by a sub- committee or by the teacher.
 Casting the players- Students as players should always be selected among those
willing to act in order to avoid misinterpretation of the role and to preserve their
self-esteem. Explain to learners beforehand that role Play will be one of the
activities that will be performed and will require them to practice. Discuss the
advantages of role play with students and explain how and why it is helpful for
them to learn. Tell them how they can deal with mistakes. Explained that it
could be enjoyable and even fun.
 Briefing- Introduce the basic functions, this change will normally be conducted
as a whole group work. Decide on the number and type of roles and allocate.
 Role playing action- Decide on the tasks, exercises and prompt that will be used
to get learners into their roles. These might include cue or prompt cards, reading
exercises, individual research, briefing sheets or information gap exercises.
Make sure to pick the right kind of prompt from each person. The scene is
played as simply and concisely as possible. The time to be limited to not more
than 15 minutes.
 Discussion and analysis of action- Discussion should not resolve around the
acting abilities of the students. The focus of discussion should be on the
contributions made towards the understanding of the time taken up issue or
problem area.
 Evaluation- The teacher should conclude, evaluate and summarise at the end.
Assess whether the purpose has been achieved or not. Participants responses can
be obtained through discussions or from the checklist of questionnaire

Types of role play

a) Multiple role play

In this type of role play, all trainees are in groups, with each group acting out the role
play simultaneously. After the role play, group analyses the interactions and identifies
the learning points.
 b) Single role play
One group of participants of out the various roles for the rest, providing demonstration
of the situation. Other participants observe the role play, analyse the interaction from
one another and learn the play.

c) Rotation
It starts from a single role play. After the interaction of participants, the trainer will stop
the role play Role and discuss what happened so far. Then the participants are asked to
exchange characters. This method allows a variety of ways to approach the situations
and carry out the roles.

d) Spontaneous role play

In this kind of role play one of the trainees play himself while the other trainees play
people with whom the first person interacted before.

Values of role play

 There is emotional involvement as the actors try to feel the character he or she is
portraying and puts himself in that person's character.
 It is enjoying by people who do it.
 It is a method to involve a group through participation
 It can bring out data human behaviour and human relations which are not made
available by other methods
 The actor really tries to feel the part of a character he is portraying and plus
himself in that person's situation. The audience, by being assigned after actors’
watch, gets some kind of emotional involvement.
 It is enjoyed by people who do it
 It does not need equipment
 It can be used to illustrate casual and the dynamic factors in group process that
frequently are ignored

Principles of role playing

 Role playing is flexible
 The role play should be stimulant to think and not to escape from the discipline
of learning.
 There is no single best method of selecting the characters in the group maybe
assigning.
  Analysis and evaluation is essential to attain the maximum running benefits
 Role play should be brief
 As a teaching technique for my role play is based on the philosophy that
meanings are in people, not in words of symbols. If that philosophy is accurate,
we must have first of all share the meanings then clarify our understanding of
each other’s meanings and finally, if necessary, to change our meanings.
 It should be based on realistic and life related problem situation rather than
through hearing about such situation from others.
 Creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change of self-concept
requires a distinct organisation pattern.
 Role play is flexible
 Role play should be stimulant to thinking and should not be escaped from
discipline of learning
 There is no single method of selecting the character of the group may do the
assigning
 Role should be rehearsed to produce an effective outcome and, on the audience,
to help players interpret their roles
 Analysis and evaluation of essential to attain the maximum learning benefits

Problems in role playing

 The major drawback of teaching by role playing is the insecurity of class
members.
 Some members react negatively in participating in a situation which will discuss
and possibly criticized by another member of the class.
 Role-playing takes time. The class discussion of 4-10 minutes. Role-playing
situations may extend to several times the length of the situation express.
 Sometimes extremely beneficial results may arise to stop. At another time if
nobody cannot perform well it is due to the superficial to rehash of what
everyone already knows about the problem.
 If the relationship between the players is not good then it will put negative effect
on the success of the play.
 The group has people of different status, they may be reluctant to become
involved for fear of being humiliated before the members of the class who are
smarter or more popular.
Advantages of role play
 Role play encourages hands on training
 Role play adds variety, coma reality and specificity to the learning experience.
 It helps to develop problem solving and verbal expression of skills in students
 It enables brainstorming and team building
 It enables to enhance feeling of tolerance and empathy in students
 Role play provides practice to build skills before real-world application and
when real experience is not readily available
 It enables learners to experiment in a safe environment with behaviours which
strike them as potentially useful to identify behaviours which are not.
 It can provide and entirely new perspective of a situation and develop insights
about feelings and relationships

Disadvantages of role play

 Role playing is a means and not an end
 It requires expert guidance and leadership
 Sometimes participants may feel threatened
 Used as an educational technique not as a therapeutic one. Strongly dependent
on student’s imagination
 Time consuming in developing group readiness should not be used when
pressure of time is present.
 Limited to small groups
 Can be time consuming
 Can be embarrassing for the students who have spontaneity and acting skills
 Effective only when learners have knowledge and skill to perform what is
requested

Role play is really on work while learning experience for both the students and
the teacher. Role play enlightens up the atmosphere and brings liveliness in the classes.
Students learn to use the language in a more realistic, more practical way. They can
become more aware of the usefulness and practicality of English.
 PANEL DISCUSSION

Panel discussion is a public exchange of ideas, including experts and audience,

members of the panel will get a chance to discuss a particular topic. People try to learn
about and debate about it in news expressing their views. We have the ability to decide
which is good which is bad and hence we talk about them trying to find a way out of the
issue. A most effective way of talking this issue out is panel discussion.

Definition
Panel discussion is a discussion in which 4to 8 person who are qualified to talk about
the topic, sit and discuss a given problem or the topic, in frond large group or audience.

Purpose of panel discussion

- To produce the features of a small discussion group for benefits of a large group.
- It is a socialized group conversation in which different points of view are
presented.
- To make learning effective by use of different methods of teaching

Objectives of panel discussion

- To provide information and new facts
- To analyses the current problem from different angle
- To identify the values.
- For mental recreation.

Principles of panel discussion

- Equal opportunities are provided to every participant.
- It encourage the active participation with original ideas and independence
- Involves the social and psychological principles of group work.
- It is based on modern theories of organization.
- All group members should have a common understanding of the goals towards
which they are working.
- A procedure, which will best help the group to achieve its goals should be set-up
by the group itself.
- Possible barriers to effective group action and plan should be made to avoid and
overcome these barriers.
- All group members should participate in all the aspects of group functioning.
Types of panel discussion
Public panel discussion: This type are organised for the common people problems.
Three types of objectives are achieved by these kinds of discussion.
- To provide factual information regarding current problems.
- To determine the social values.
- To recreate the common people.
Public panel discussions are organised in television programme on various current
social issues such as illiteracy, educated unemployment, annual budget increase in
prices of things, emerging disease.

Education panel discussion: it is used in educational institutions to provide factual and

conceptual knowledge and classification of certain theories and principles. The
following three objectives are achieved by the educational techniques
- To provide factual information and conceptual knowledge
- To give awareness of theories and principles
- To provide solution of certain problems

Characteristics of panel discussion

- It is used in college and at university level for higher education.
- It develops the ability of problem solving.
- It provides the opportunity to understand the nature of problem.
- It develops the ability of presentation of theme and giving their point of view
logically.
- It develops the right type of attitude and ability to tolerate anti-ideas of others.
- It develops the idea of creative thinking.
- To develop the manner of putting questions and answering questions.

Components of panel discussion

a) Instructor: In panel discussion, most important role is of instructor. The

responsibility of inspector, how, where and when panel discussion will organised.
b) Moderator: moderator should be selected carefully since much of these success of
the panel will depend on its leadership
 He should be a person with wide mental flexibility who has a sense of fair play
and is able to determine the relevance of remarks as they are made.
  He must keep the discussion to the subject and see that all members of the panel
have an equal opportunity to express their views
c) Panellists: there are 4-10 panellists in panel discussion, all seated in
a semicircle facing the audience. The moderator sits in the middle of the panellists.
The panellists must have the mastery on the theme of the discussion.
 The members should be quick thinkers and facile speakers and should
represent different point of view
d) Audience: after the panel discussion audience are allowed to put questions and seek
clarifications. They can present their point of view and their experience regarding
the theme or problems.

Methods of panel discussion

- The moderator begins the panel discussion.
- The member of the panel are introduced by the name and background of
experience.
- The topic is announced, the moderator sits down after which all remains seated and
converse amongst themselves.
- Moderator facilitates this by asking questions to panel members.
- After the conversation, moderator organises discussion with occasional summaries.

Uses of panel discussion

- This technique encourages social learning
- The higher cognitive and affective objectives are achieved
- It is used to develop the ability of problem solving and logical thinking
- It develops the interest and right type of attitude towards the problem

Advantages of panel discussion

- There is a free exchange of opinion
- quick exchange of facts, opinion and plans tend to develop a more critical attitude
and better judgement
- it encourages social learning
- it develops the interest and right attitude towards the problem
- it develops capacity to respect others ideas and feelings and ability of tolerance

Disadvantages of panel discussion

 - it is useless as a teaching tool because it makes no attempt to arrive at a solution
- it may lead to stress, if the topic is difficult to control
- It needs thorough knowledge and expert panellists
- There is a chance to deviate from the themes and there is possibility to split the
groups into two subgroups.

To be concluded panel discussion conducted with a small group of 6-8 persons.

This type of discussion organised for discussing common problems of people
 SEMINAR

The word seminar is derived from the Latin word seminarium, meaning ‘seed
plot’. Seminar is an instructional technique involves generating a situation for a group
to have a guided interaction among themselves on a theme. The seminar is a common
form of discussion employed in teaching nursing. Seminars are used usually for
teaching higher level students like post graduates, research scholars etc.

Definition
A seminar is an instructional technique involves generating a situation for a group to
have guided interaction among themselves with different aspects or components of a
topic, which is generally presented by one or more members

Types

a) Mini seminar
Its coverage and scope are small and simple. A small population is enough to hold this
seminar. A discussion held over the topic taught or to be taught with the students is
known as Group discussion. Such group discussions held in an organized way within a
class room, it is called mini seminar. This mini seminar gives the students training in
questioning skills, organizing the information and presentation skills of seminar. A mini
seminar is felt necessary because it gives good experience to conduct a major seminar at
Institutional level.

b) Main seminar
The seminar conducted at an institutional or departmental level for a specific topic or
subject is known as Major seminar. Usually students and teachers are participating in
this type of seminar. This major seminar can be organized at department level for every
month. A specific topic or subject is selected for the theme of the seminar.

c) National seminar
An association of any kind particularly with academic or professional interest or an
organization (Government, Firm, etc.,) conducts the seminar at National level is called
National seminar. The subject experts are invited to the seminar for discussion. The
Secretary of the seminar prepares the schedule and functionaries for seminar
d) International seminar

Usually the seminar conducted by an international organization or agency is known as

International seminar. Theme of this seminar has wider aspects. Globalization,
Renovation, Atomic energy agreements, Policies implementation and modification etc.,
are examples for themes of International seminars. A Nation or its body can conduct or
organize the international seminar.

Role of different personnel

a) Role of organizers
- It is the organizer who decides the topic of the seminar. Usually topics are related to
current trends or recent developments in the clinical practice of nursing education
- Once the topic is decided and objectives are formulated, organizers start searching
for a suitable chairperson and Select an eminent person who is well versed in the
concerned topic and select speakers
- In case of National and International seminars, large scale preparation is needed and
organizers have to form various committees like invitation committee, finance
committee, academic committee, etc. And coordinate effectively for the successful
conduction of the seminar

b) Role of chair person

- Chairperson should possess in-depth knowledge regarding the topic and his duty is
to guide the seminar in a fruitful manner
- Seminar begins with an introductory speech by the chairperson. In introductory
talk, he justifies the topic selection by stating his relevance and importance in the
current context and introduces the speakers by highlighting their achievements
- After introductory speech, chairperson invites speakers according to the order
- When one speaker completes his speaker completes his speech, he gives a brief
summary of it and invites the next speaker to present his view points
- Once all speakers complete their presentations, chairperson opens the discussion
session by inviting participants to come out with their doubts, clarifications and
contributions
c) Role of speaker
- The success of the seminar depends on how well the discussion is utilized by the
participants
- The quality and quantity of the information presented by the speakers have a direct
role in preparing the participants for the discussion session.
- Speakers have to prepare and hand over the study materials to the organizers in
advance so that organizers can combine all study material in a user friendly way
- Speakers are expected to present the relevant information in an interesting and
comprehensible manner with the help of suitable audiovisual aids

d) Role of participants
- The objectives of the seminar are framed in accordance with the learning needs of
the participants.
- Participants make the seminar very live and interesting.
- They have to prepare themselves well in advance and the study material issued by
the organizers before the seminar will also provide the required information in a
condensed form.
- They have to utilize the discussion session by asking questions, seeking
clarifications, and expressing their view points.
- Participants should use discussion to enrich their knowledge rather than testing the
knowledge of the speakers or the chairperson.

Seminar technique

- Organizers make necessary arrangement for seminar and distribute study material to
the participants one or two hours before the seminar.
- Seminar begins with an introductory speech by the chairperson.
- Chairperson then invites the speakers to present the latest information about
different aspect of the seminar topic.
- After each speech chairperson has to summarize it before inviting the next speaker.
- After all speakers presented the information on various aspects of the topic,
chairperson opens the discussion session by inviting the questions, clarification and
contributions
- Questions and clarifications should be addressed to the chairperson instead of
addressing directly to the speaker.
- Chairperson then invites the concerned speaker to give the reply.
- If the doubts persist even after clarification by the speaker, chairperson himself can
clear the doubts.
- The seminar will come to an end after the discussion sessions with a concluding
note by the chairperson.
- In the concluding note, chairperson summarizes the whole information exchanged in
the seminar and congratulates the organizers, speakers and participants.

Advantages
- This seminar method gives good motivation and learning experience.
- Help to evaluate the learn-ability of learners.
- Regulate the creating and organizing of facts and information.
- Dissemination and retrieval of information is scientifically managed.
- Develop the self-reliance and self-confidence.
- Also inculcates the responsibility and cooperative nature.
- This method is the best for socialization.
- Students’ interaction is possible in participation and production of teaching learning
process.
- Traditional monotony is abolished in this method.
- Ensures the understandability and enhances the capability of the students learning.
- Seminar is always subject / theme specific, so that sufficient knowledge about the
Concerned subject can be developed.
- The presenter or the reader of the article can get further clarifications in his subject.
- Develop the questioning skills.
- The data processing and analysis also play a vital role in this method.
- This makes teaching and learning process lively.
- The student receives good information from his teacher and the fellow students.
- A seminar does not end in the premises after the completion of discussion, the
group in smaller groups carries on the discussion in informal settings in off campus.
This is certainly a strong advantage of using seminar method.

Disadvantages
- Cost, of course, as all attendees must absorb their own costs. The seminars
themselves sometimes also have an entry fee that can be quite high. All travel cost,
 food costs, hotel costs, and other miscellaneous costs must be absorbed by the
attendees.
- The chance that the speakers may be sharing incorrect knowledge, or not at all
knowledgeable themselves (it pays to make your own assessments of presented
topics, not just blindly 'follow the pack'). Tips, tricks, and strategies need to be
weighed as to 'worth' and 'accuracy' before using these. Careful thought rules here.
- The time spent away from your actual business, or life, to attend. Time is always a
concern when scheduling activities and some individuals simply can't spare the
time away from their lives for activities such as this.
- The chance that the topics may not actively help your business or your concerns,
and that the seminar will be a waste of time, where nothing you learn is of any use
to you.
- The chance that attendees will expect too much from a seminar and thus be
disappointed. Realism must rule here. These are not 'instant answers' to anything.
A seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at an academic
institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the
function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each
time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to
participate
 SYMPOSIUM
Symposium is a type of discussion, in which two or more speakers, talk from ten to
twenty minutes, and develop individual approaches or solutions to a problem or present
aspects of a policy, process or program.

Definition
Symposium is "a method of group discussion in which two or more persons under the
direction of a chairman present separate speech which gives several aspects of one
question". ( Elakkuvana Bhaskara Raj
D)

Objectives of the symposium

- To identify and understand the various aspects of theme and problem
- To develop the ability to decision and judgment regarding the problem
- To develop the value and felling regarding the problem
- To enable the listener to from policies regarding a theme or problem

Principles of symposium
- The speech may be persuasive argumentative and informative.
- Original presentation is objective and accurate.
- Always include a summary at conclusion.
- Each speech without interruption.
- The chairman of the symposium introduces the topic, suggests its importance
and sometimes indicates the general approaches.

Characteristics
 It provides the broad understanding of a topic or a problem.
 The opportunity is provided to the listeners to take decision about the problem.
 It is used for higher classes to specific theme and problem.
 It develops the feeling of co-operation and adjustment.
 The objectives as synthesis and evaluation are achieved by employing the
symposium.
 It provides the different views on the topic of the symposium.
Purpose of the symposium
 To investigate a problem from several point of view
 To boost up the student to speak in group.
 To make the student to study independently
Mechanism of symposium technique
The speeches may be persuasive, argumentative, informative or evocative. Each
speech proceeds without interruption. The chairman of the symposium introduces the
topic, suggests something of its importance, and sometime indicates the general
approaches. The speeches are followed by questions or comments from the audience, as
in the panel forum. The symposium forum serves an excellent device for informing an
audience, crystallizing opinion, and in general preparing the listeners for arriving at
decision, policies, value judgment or understanding.

Since there is no need of interaction other than careful listening (unless the
symposium members are to discuss the topic after the delivery of their speeches) all
members of the performing group can sit in a straight line behind a table or adjoining
chairs, with a chairman in the middle or to one side of the speakers. Or if the
symposium is to present two conflicting point of view, the sitting arrangement can
separate the speaker on the platform in order to indicate difference in opinion or in order
to preserve peace.

Precautions of symposium
Three conditions are in the use of the symposium technique:
 Firstly, the moderator should be sure to prepare the speakers or see that they are
prepared. They should know the rules of procedure, sequence of speaking, and way
in which the forum will be conducted, and they should be aware of the ideas, and
background of the other performers. Like panellist, they might benefit from a brief
warm up.
 Secondly, the chairman or two ever is responsible for preparing the agendas, should
not attempt to stack the cards by omitting or ignoring vital phases of the problem as
he selects or delegates his speakers. It is not good to face up to an inadvertent
misinterpretation or omission. To distort or omit an important point of view
deliberately is to invite disaster.
 Thirdly, the chairman in all the forum situation must plan very carefully for the
questioning period that followers the prepared speeches, unless he wishes to risk
boredom or bed lain.

Techniques of symposium in a class room

 The teacher should plan the program ahead of time
 The teacher and members should know the objective of the symposium
 Each student should prepare on the given or accepted topic
 The teacher should have a conference with each of the student speakers
 The teacher or student may function as chairman
 The symposium starts with the chairman speakers
 Then the topic is presented by the students taking 15-20 minute
 As a conclusion at the end, the chairman gives brief summary of the speeches
and opens the discussion to the students
 Any question or contributions addressed through the chairman

Scope for the use of symposium

 Use of television for education
 Scope for the distance education in our education
 Use of essay and objective type of test
 Semester system in education
 Cause of student unrest
 Quality control of education research
 Use of microteaching in teacher education
 Use of team teaching in school
 Use of action research in classroom teaching
 Scope of education technology in our education

Advantages of symposium
 It is suitable to a large group of classes
 This method can be frequently used to present board topic for discussion at the
convention and the organization meeting
 Organization is good because of the set speeches prepared before head
 Give deeper insight into the topic
 Directs the student to continue independent study
  Lends itself to the teaching of the clinical subject
 This method can be used in the political meeting

Disadvantage of the symposium

Inadequate opportunity for all the students to participate actively
 The speech is limited audience participation
 The speech is limited to 15or 20 min
 Question and answer limited to 3or4 min
 Possibility of overlapping of the subjects
 Lack of time

Role of symposium in nursing education

The symposium will provide a valuable opportunity for nurses from different
cultural background and diverse field to changing role of nurses in community and
home care from international perspective to promote the generation and implementation
of evidence based practice in community and home nursing through sharing and
exchange of information on the latest development in the discipline among expert from
across the globe, this symposium will contribute formulating global and regional
strategies in advancing nurses role as well as developing policy initiative in as it relates
to nursing practice, nursing education nursing management and disaster management.

Symposium as a method of teaching is suitable for a large or smaller group , a

number of papers are read dealing with different aspects of the same subject, or
different points of view on one topic. The symposium method has highly valuable
benefits in that it promotes reflective thinking, improves self-expression, social
attributes and encourages group thinking and cooperative effort. Hence, it is an
important method of teaching in the education of nursing.
 DEMONSTRATION

A demonstration is the process of teaching someone how to make or do

something in a step-by-step process. As you show how, you “tell” what you are doing.

Definition
A practical exhibition and explanation of how something works or is performed

Purposes

- To carryout experiments related to nursing practical

- To teach nursing procedure in the classroom and clinical setting
- To equips the patients and family members with skills to provide health related
self-care
- To enable establishment of effective nurse patient relationship
- To show the learner why certain things occur. Here the behavior is intended
only as a strategy to aid the learners to understand concepts and principles
- To show the learners how to perform certain psychomotor skills. Here the
learner must produce exactly the behavior of demonstration
- A demonstration is useful either by itself or to accompany a formal lecture or
informal talk in the classroom, a laboratory or clinical area
- In respect of a procedure in which the student needs to gain a degree or skills
she should ask to make a return demonstration is out of proportion to its value
- In nursing, it is used for the purposes and also for clinics conferences etc.

Characteristics

- The demonstrator should understand the entire procedure before attempting to

perform
- All equipment should be needed to assembled and pretested before
demonstration
 - Knowledge about the procedure should be given to the students, before starting
the procedure
- A positive approach should be used
- Everybody should have a good view of demonstration
- The person in charge of the demonstration should accompany it with running
comments related to materials used, amount necessary, process taking place
and anticipated results
- The setting for the demonstration should be as true to life as possible,
wherever possible

Steps of Demonstration method

a) Planning and preparation

- Thorough preparation of subject matter.

- Lesson planning
- State the objective to the learner
- The entire group, maximum of 15 students need to be in a single row so that the
procedure can be viewed clearly
- It should be planned and rehearsed by the teacher beforehand
- State the purpose
- Demonstration should held in steps
- Collection of material related to the demonstration.

b) Performance

- Proceed with the demonstration slowly

- Whenever possible involve the students in demonstration
- Make sure after every step whether the students have grasped the meaning,
contents and explanation. Repeat if they have not followed
- Give suitable verbal explanation for heightening the interest of the student
- Encourage students to analyze, record and tabulate the results of their
observation
- Make an assignment based on the demonstration
- The teacher should make sure that the demonstration lecture methods leads to
active participation of the students in the process of teaching
- The demonstration should be quick and slick, and should not appear to linger on
 unnecessarily
- It would be better if the teacher demonstrated with materials or things the
children handle in everyday life
- For active participation of students, the teacher may call individual students in
turn to help him with the demonstration
- The teacher should write the summary of the principles arrived at as a result of
the demonstration, on the blackboard
- The blackboard can also be used for drawing

c) Evaluation

- Evaluate through return demonstration by observing students. Good and

effective demonstration will result in good feedback of return demonstration
- This is done by taking return demonstration and comparing steps of procedure
with planned set criteria of the procedure
- As a teacher receives feedback from the students, the goals can be established
for improving skills
- Strengthen positive behavior and elimination of limitations

Return demonstration

An educational technique in which someone demonstrates what they have just

been taught, or had demonstrated to them

Guidelines to return demonstration

 Teacher should remain silent and should offer cues, when required
 Breaking steps of procedure and doing will produce good re-demo
 Practice should be supervised by the teacher
 Return demo should be planned close to the demonstration class
 Teacher should encourage the students, which improves psychomotor skills.
These are some of the requirements of good demonstrations

Phases

a) Explanation phase

Must be clear, pertaining to the objectives of the particular lesson pertaining to

be presented and based on the known experiences and knowledge of the students. In
teaching the instructor must convey to the students the precise actions they are to
perform. Before leaving this phase the instructor should encourage students to ask
questions about any step of the procedure that they do not understand.

b) Demonstration phase

The instructor must show the students the actions necessary to perform a skill.
A little extraneous activity as possible should be included in the demonstration. If,
due to some anticipated circumstances the demonstration does not closely conform to
the explanation, this deviation should be immediately acknowledge and explained.

c) Student performance phase

This phase requires students to act and do. To learn the skills, students must
practice. It is important that the students must be given opportunities to perform the
skills as soon as possible after a demonstration. Prior to terminate this phase they
should be allowed to independently complete the task at least once, with supervision
and coaching as necessary.

d) Evaluation phase

The instructor judges the student’s performance. The student displays

whatever competence has been attained, and the instructor discovers just how well
the skill has been learned. To test each student’s ability to perform, the instructor
requires students to work independently throughout this phase. From this
measurement of student’s achievement the instructor determine the effectiveness of
the instructions.

Advantages of demonstration
- Demonstration enables the student to acquire firsthand information.

- It brings close relationship between theory and practice and helps to bridge this
gap.
- Everybody should have a good view of the demonstration strategy improves
the understanding of complex skills and principles.
- Students can pay their attention and follow along with the learning process.
- Knowledge becomes permanent because this method requires different human
senses.
- Students are motivated to study and gain necessary skills.
 - The psychomotor objective is easily achieved through this method.
- No time is wasted because students see the process live and understand how to
apply theoretical knowledge practically.

Disadvantages

- Number of students is limited

- Keeps the students is in passive situation
- High cost in personnel and time
- Students are not allowed to ask questions or start discussions during the
demonstration.
- Only technical and training skills can be taught this way.
- Universities and colleges often lack the equipment necessary for making the
‘demonstrative’ models.
- This method requires a significant effort from the teacher.
- The method is limited to particular teaching situations only

Demonstration is the process of teaching someone how to make or do

something in a step by step process. The effect can be even better if the teacher can
encourage students to listen and watch. It’s also better to discuss the presentation,
model or skills afterwards for a better understanding of the concept. This way,
students will find it easier to apply the new knowledge step-by-step in the practical
field
 LABORATORY METHOD

A popular Chinese proverb says “what I hear I forget, what I see I remember,
what I do, I understand”. The Dewey philosophy, ‘learning by doing’ led to the gradual
application of the term laboratory methods in other field, particularly the social
sciences. Laboratory method are chosen depending on the learning needs of the student,
time available to teach, the setting, the resources and the teacher’s own comfort.

Definition
Laboratory method is a planned learning activity dealing with original or raw data in the
solution of problem.

Purposes
 Provide first-hand experience with material
 Provide experience with actual situation
 Make student become skilful
 Help students to acquire scientific attitude and scientific approach

Objectives
 Verify facts taught in theory classes
 Develop the habit of doing independent work among student.
 Create interest in science
 Prepare students for higher studies and science careers
 Develop skills in handling specific apparatus and equipment
 Create interest in research
 Have a clear understanding of science concept

Functions of laboratory teaching method

 Verification activities
 Explorative activities
  Inductive activities
 Deductive activities
 Psychomotor skill development activities
 Problem solving activities

Types of Laboratory in general

Laboratories require a deep understanding of the specific needs, purposes and risks
associated with each of them. Some of these requirements are specific to an industry
(e.g. pharmaceutical, chemical), or to an activity (e.g. small volume manufacture of
high potent products, work with biological agents).

a) Analytical and Quality Laboratories: In analytical and quality laboratories products

and materials are tested against conformity to specifications and the absence of
impurities. These laboratories form an essential component within the production and
the supply chain.
b) Bio safety Laboratories: The purpose of bio safety laboratories and suites is the
containment of potentially harmful biological agents. The containment is achieved
through a thoughtful combination of methods, facilities and equipment.
c) Clean rooms: In clean rooms the number of dust particles permitted per volume of
air defines the classification of the clean room. All aspects of the people and
materials flows, the mechanical systems and the room finishes are to be consistent
with each other.
d) Clinical and Medical Laboratories: These laboratories are equipped for diagnostic
tests on tissue, blood and other patient samples. They can be subdivided into various
processes such as pathology, serology, histology, virology, bacteriology and
molecular biology with PCR-technologies.
e) Incubator Laboratories: Laboratories conducting microbiological, and cell or tissue
culture work require incubators to protect these cultures from the environment.
Parameters such as temperature, humidity, and O2 and CO2 levels need to be
controlled.
f) Production Laboratories: Pilot production or small volume laboratories as a scale-up
and commercial production, or for the production for clinical trials, form a category
on their own. Such laboratories can be found in the pharmaceutical, biotech, and the
 science and technology sectors. Quite often special attention needs to be given
towards containment and air quality.
g) Research & Development (R&D) Laboratories: This category covers a broad
spectrum of laboratories with various risk qualifications and containment
requirements. Bio Safety Laboratories, laboratories with radio-active risks etc. Also
specialized laboratories for seed, crop, material, and life sciences research are part of
this category.

Laboratories in nursing
a) Science laboratory: Science laboratory used to teach the science subject, widely
used in physiology, physical science, chemistry, microbiology for teaching these
subjects.
b) Nutrition laboratory: Nutritional laboratory used to teach the basic knowledge about
food and for practice of cooking food for normal as well as invalids.
c) Nursing art laboratory of demonstration room: It is used for demonstration of some
techniques in nursing. Student may practice to become familiar with nursing
procedure.

Steps in the laboratory method

a) Preparation
- It requires establishment of objective and plan of work
- Teacher prepare the plan with the cooperation of the students considering
objective for nor wasting time
- Teacher allow time for the maximum use of lab
b) Actual working period
- It refers to that period when demonstration, experimentation or practice for a skill
in nursing procedure.
- To ensure an effective work period there must be adequate equipment and
facilities including basic tools
- There must be adequate supply of specimens and material
- There should be sufficient space, light and ventilation
c) Culminating activities
 After the lab work, the class should meet together for discussion of common
problems, for the organization of findings, for the presentation of work of individuals or
group problem solving activities.

Advantages
Student’s point of view;
 Students learn by doing
 Develops the power of observation and reasoning
 Develops the scientific attitude
 Provides opportunity to contact with real life situations, it can be a preparation
for solving real life problem.

Teacher’s point of view;

 Can observe the students in action
 Assess student’s worth
 Correct student’s mistake
 Guide students in promising direction

Limitations
 Poor planning and lack of teacher may result in wasting of time and can create
complication
 Lack of budget can create insecurity in teacher regarding laboratory equipment
 Most expensive because separate instrument is used for each student
 More time consuming compare to demonstration method

Laboratory is the place where the individual’s effective learning skills were learned
and practiced. When we specially use laboratory in the nursing practice, e.g. teaching
method, the place should be clean, comfortable, comfortable, well ventilated, it will
influence the teacher and a student to practice well.
 SIMULATION

According to international dictionary of education, simulation is a teaching

technique used particularly in management education and training in which a “real life
situation and values” are simulated by “substitute” displaying similar characteristics.

Definition
Simulation has been defined as an operating representation of central features reality as
an attempt to give appearance and or to give the effect of something else.

Purpose of simulation
- Simulation intends to help students practice decision making and problem solving
skills
- To develop human interaction abilities in a controlled and safe setting
- To achieve cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcome through an active
involvement in simulation
- It provides a chance to apply principles and theories that students have been
trained and to see how and when these principles work
- Through simulation students can learn and test various approaches in a setting
where patients would not be hurt and where wrong decision can always be remind

Value of simulation
- simulation ensures safe nursing practice by nursing students through bridging the
gap between theory and practice
- simulation is an effective technique to learn psychomotor skills
- Simulation helps the students to develop critical thinking abilities and problem
solving skills.
- Simulation not only help the students to learn the decision making process but also
provides feedback regarding the consequences of the decisions made.
 - Simulation, especially the role play enables students to empathise with the real life
situations.
- By way of simulation teacher can easily inculcate proper attitude among nursing
students
- Simulation can also be used to evaluate students.

Types of simulation equipment

- Low fidelity simulator- helps to introduce and practice psychomotor skill. E.g.;
foam intramuscular injection later
- Moderate fidelity simulator – it offers more realism than a static, low fidelity
motor offer breath sounds, heart sounds and pulse but may lack corresponding
chest movements
- High fidelity simulator – produces most realistic simulated patient experiences.
They include details that give the unit personality and are used to identify more
closely with the unit as something they might actually encounter in real life.

Characteristics of simulation
- Mirror real situations while providing control over extraneous variables that might
interfere with learning
- Provide a mix of experience that can replicated for successive learners
- Provide a safe environment in which learning has priority over patient care or
system demand.
- Focus on application rather than uncertain recall of knowledge
- Provide immediate feedback on performance

Uses of simulation
- To achieve many learning objectives
- Helps the nursing students gain skill in applying the nursing process
- Learn to solve problem efficiently with minimal wasting of time and resources
- Students can improve their communication skills
- Improve decision making skills through simulation
 - Simulation technique can be applied to the learning of psychomotor skills. E.g.
when student practices skills in college lab using manikins and hospital type
equipment, they are being involved in patient care simulation
- Used to evaluate students competencies and learning
- Used to synthesis cognitive psychomotor and affective content in the analysis and
solution of real life problems
- Simulation provide opportunities for the practice of problem solving and decision
making as well as psychomotor and interactive skills within a controlled, low risk
setting.
Role of a teacher in simulation
Teacher’s role in simulation has three facets;
a) Planning: While planning develop an appropriate simulation capable of
achieving course objectives. Before using teacher should ensure the usefulness
of the simulation. She can help students to prepare themselves for simulation by
proving reference and directing to other source of information. Teacher should
try to involve all the students in one way or other.
b) Facilitating: As a facilitator, she has to observe carefully the behaviour of
students and take down the important pieces of conversation among them so that
she can substantiate or modify the viewpoints of students in a better manner
during the debriefing session. As a facilitator, the teacher has to maintain a non-
judgemental attitude by not giving quick suggestions or advice.
c) Debriefing: Debriefing session should be conducted immediately after the
simulation. Initially, teacher summarises the whole event and then encourages
the participants to do a self- analysis and give their opinion regarding the roles
played by them and value of experience they gained through enacting the role.
Finally, teacher explains the concepts and principles applied in simulation and
how the students are benefited from the experience gained through simulation.

Preparation of simulation
- Initiate the problem in realistic manner
- Reflect problem solving process by requiring a series of sequential
interdependent decisions
- Enable the learner to obtain the necessary observation and feedback related to a
previous decision as input to the next step
 - The consequences of error should be built into the situation
- The simulation should accommodate alternative solutions if these are possible in
real life

Procedure of simulation process

- Select the role players: a small group of 4-5 students are selected. The role
assignments are rotated within the group to give chance to everyone. Every
member of the group gets an opportunity to become an actor and the observer.
- Selecting and discussing skills: the skills to be
- Practiced are discussed and the topic that fit in skills is suggested. One topic each
is selected by group members for exercise
- Planning: it has to be decided who starts the conversation, who will take the
interaction and when.
- Deciding the procedure of evaluation: how to record the interaction and how to
present it to actor has to be decided so that a proper feedback on his performance
could be given.
- Provide a practical lesson: the role players should be provided reinforcement in
their performance to give them training for planning their part well

Advantages of simulations
- It actively engages learners in the application of knowledge and skills in realistic
situation
- Dynamic framework
- Bridging the gap to reality
- It is useful in promoting the transfer of learning from the classroom to the clinical
setting
- Simulation permits application of theory to practice when access to clinical
settings is limited or impossible
- Students can receive feedback on the appropriateness of their action during
simulation
- Students can learn without harming the patient
Disadvantages of simulations
- Time consuming
- Requires the use of sophisticated materials
- Not economical
- Learners may not find the simulation relevant to their situation.
- It cannot be made in all subject of the curriculum
- Requires specific skill
- The process and outcome of simulation may not always be predicted
To be concluded that simulation training as one strategy that can be used to
prevent errors in the clinical setting. The report says that simulation training of
beginner nurses must be compulsory as new and potentially hazardous procedure and
equipment are introduced.
 MICRO TEACHING

Teaching is a complex process but it can be analysed into simple skills. Micro
teaching is a device which provides the novice and experienced teach the rand
experienced teacher alike new opportunities to alike new opportunities to improve
teaching. It is a real teaching with a scaled down time and size of the class.

Definition
"Micro teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in adown teaching encounter in a
class time". The number of students is from 5-10, and the duration of period ranges
from 5-20 minutes. ALLEN
(1996)
.
The concept
 A single skill for practice.
 One concept of content for teaching.
 A class of 5-10 students.
 5-10 min of practice time.

Objectives
 To enable the teacher trainees to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under
controlled conditions.
 To enable the teacher trainees to gain confidence in teaching and mastering a
number of teaching skills on a small group of pupils.
 To utilize the academic potential of teacher trainee for providing much needed
feedback.
 To give the teacher trainees training in the component skills of teaching at the
pre-service level.
 To gain maximum advantage with little time, money and material.
Principles underlying micro-teaching
a) Principle of One Skill at a Time: In Micro-Teaching, training of one skill is given
till the person has acquired mastery over it. Then the second skill is taken up and
so on. Thus, we find that Micro-Teaching is based on the principle of giving
training of one skill at a time.
b) Principle of Limited Contents: Micro-Teaching, limited contents are taken up and
the teacher is required to use those contents only. It helps the beginner teacher
teach that limited material easily and confidently.
c) Principle of Practice: Micro-Teaching is based on the sound principle of practice.
Here lot of practice is given by taking up on is skill at a time. Practice makes a
man perfect. It helps the pupil- teacher in becoming better and better.
d) Principle of Experimentation: The pupil-teacher and the supervisor conduct
experiment on teaching skills under controlled conditions. Variables like time
duration of the lesson, contents of the lesson to be taught, number of students
sitting in the class etc., can be easily controlled.
e) Principle of Immediate Feedback: The micro lesson lasts for four or five minutes
only. Thereafter, feedback is provided to the pupil-teacher. It helps the pupil-
teacher to know his drawbacks and improve them effectively without any delay.
f) Principle of Evaluation: In Micro-Teaching, each micro lesson is supervised by the
supervisor or the peers. Drawbacks in teaching are pointed out and suggestion for
improvement is given. Self-evaluation is also possible. Thus, evaluation ensures
good learning by the pupil-teacher.
g) Principle of Continuity: Learning of different skills of teaching is a continuous
process in Micro-Teaching programme. The pupil-teacher is learning one skill at a
time and learning continues till he has mastered the skill. For each skill, the
principle of continuity is implied. It makes the teacher good and effective.
h) Principle of Individualised Training: In Micro-Teaching, each trainee is given
training very thoroughly. There is individual attention by the supervisor. The
drawbacks in teaching are pointed out, suggestions given one by one and thus
improvement is brought about.
Steps of micro teaching

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Plan
 This involves selection of a topic and related content.
 The topic is analysed into different activities of the teacher and the students.
 The activities are planned in logical sequence.

Teach
 This involves the attempts of the teacher trainee to use the components of the
skill in suitable situations in the process of teaching – learning as per the role or
the planning activities.
 If the situation is not different and not as visualized in the planning of the
activities, the teacher should modify his or her behaviour as per the demand of
the situation of the class.
  The teacher should have the courage and confidence to handle the situations
arising in the class effectively.

Feedback
 Refers to the giving information to the teacher trainee about his performance.
 This helps the teacher trainee to improve his or her performance in the desired
direction.

Re-plan
The teacher trainee re-plans his lesson incorporating the points of strength and
removing the points not skilfully handled during teaching in the previous attempt
either on the same topic or on another topic suiting the teacher trainee for
improvement.

Re-teach
 This involves the teaching the same group of student if the topic is changed or a
different group of students if the topic is same.
 This is done to remove boredom or monotony in the students.
 The teacher trainee teaches the class with renewed courage and confidence to
perform better than the previous attempt.

Re-feedback
 This is the most important component of micro teaching for behaviour
modification of the teacher trainee in the desired direction in each and every
skill practice.

Phases of micro teaching

a) Knowledge acquisition phase

 The trainee teacher learns about the skills and its components through
discussion, illustrations and demonstration of the skill given by the expert.
 The trainee teacher's analysis of the skill into components leads to various
types of behaviours to be practised.
 The trainee teacher tries to gain the skill from the demonstration activity given
by the expert.
 He discusses and clarifies each and every aspect of skill.
 b) Skill acquisition phase
 On the basis of the demonstration presented by the expert, the teacher trainee
plans a micro – lesson plan for practicing.
 He practices the teaching skill through the micro teaching cycle and continues
his efforts till he attains the mastery levels.
 The feedback components of micro teaching contribute significantly towards
the mastery level acquisition of the skill.
 These skills are called the "core skills" because of their extensive use in
classroom teaching.
The core skills are as follows.
i) Probing questions: Prompting, seeking further information, re direction,
focusing, and increasing critical awareness
ii) Explaining: Clarity, continuity, relevance of content, covering essential
points.
iii) Illustrating with examples: Simple, relevant and interesting examples and
use of appropriate media.
iv) Stimulus variation: Body movements, gestures, changes in speech pattern,
change in style of interaction, pausing, focusing, and oral-visual switching.
v) Reinforcement: Use of words and statements of praise, accepting and using
students ideas, repeating and rephrasing, extra vertical cues, use of pleasant
and approving gestures and expressions, writing students response on the
black board.
vi) Classroom management: Call students by name, makes norms of classroom
behaviour, attending behaviour reinforced, clarity of direction, check non
attending behaviour, keep students in eye span, check inappropriate
behaviour immediately.
vii) Use of black board: Legible, neat and adequate with reference to content
covered.
c) Transfer phase
 Evaluating performance leading to feedback
 Re-plan, reteach and transfer of skill to actual class teaching in macro-
sessions.

Advantages
  Visual feedback (watching a recorded session) has been found to provide one of
the most effective means of evaluating teaching strengths.
 Micro teaching enables both intrinsic (self-assessment) and extrinsic (peer
assessment) review.
 Micro teaching provides opportunity for practicing part of lecture activity,
practicing a guest lecture, before delivering a course, demonstration in lab for
first time, practicing a job talk, practice public speaking skills before you
address students for the first time, polishing your skills if you are an experienced
person.
 Expansion of the normal knowledge
 Effective teaching behaviour
 Individualizes teaching training
Limitations
 Time consuming.
 Trainee teacher may get a feeling of saturation or get bored with repeated
teaching sessions.
 Trainee teacher may lose self-confidence if she or he is asked to repeat the
classes several times.
 Scope is narrow
 It is a real life situations are quite different
 Minimum of feed back

Microteaching is a teacher education technique which allows teacher to apply

clearly defined teaching skills to carefully prepared lesson in planned series of 5-10
minutes encounters with a small group of real students often with an opportunity to
observe the result on video tape.
 WORKSHOP

Educational process has two aspects- theoretical and practical. Learning takes
place in a friendly, happy and democratic under expert’s guidance. The workshops are
organized to develop the psychomotor aspects of the learner regarding practices of new
innovations in the area of education. Workshop helps to each participant opportunities
to improve his effectiveness as a professional worker.

Definition
The workshop is a meeting of people to work together in a small group upon
problems which are of concern to them and relevant to them in their own sphere of
activity and to find suitable solutions. (L. Ramachandran)

Objectives

a) Cognitive Objectives
The workshop is organized to
- Solve the problems of teaching profession.
- Provide the philosophical and sociological background for instructional and
teaching situation.
- Develop an understanding regarding the use of a theme and problem.
- Identify the educational objectives in the present context.
b) Psychomotor objectives (Skill development)
- To develop the proficiency for planning and organizing teaching and
instructional activities.
- To develop skills to perform a task independently.
- To determine and use of teaching strategies effectively.
- To train the person for using different approaches of teaching.
c) Affective objective (Attitude Development)
- To develop professional relationship between participants and resource person.
 - To permit the extensive study of a situation its background and its social and
philosophical implication.
- To take necessary steps to solve the problem of education.

Purposes of workshop
a) To put teachers in situations that will break down the barriers between them to
facilitate communication.
b) To give opportunity for personal growth through accepting and working towards
a goal held in common with others.
c) To give teachers an opportunity to work on the problems those are direct,
current, concern to them.
d) Teachers will learn new methods and techniques which they can use in their own
classrooms.
e) To place teachers in a position of responsibility for their own learning
f) To put teacher in situation where they will evaluate their own efforts.
g) To give the teachers an opportunity to improve their own morale.

Principles of workshop
a) Workshop should focus on the current issues in the profession to be discussed.
b) Workshop should be conducted with full co-operation within organizers.
c) Giving the participants an active role will make teaching more effective.
d) Every individual has worth, and has a contribution to make to the common goal.

Scope of workshop technique

The workshop technique is used mainly in the following areas of education;

- Action research project for classroom problems.

- New format of lesson plan.
- Preparing instructional material or teaching model.
- Workshop on preparing research synopsis and proposals.
- Workshop for non formal education.
- Workshop for designing programme for teacher education at any level.

Planning for a workshop

 a) Selection of a theme
Select the theme on workshop has to be organized.
- The theme must be based on pre existing problem for which we should identify the
solution.
- Theme must be useful for the in-service workers for giving awareness and training
of new practice in their working situation and which has a solution.
- Theme must be directed towards the participants because to motivate their interest.
After selecting a theme for workshop, following have to be planned.

b) Open a file
Correspondence relating to the planning, running and evaluation of workshop will soon
reach proportions that call for proper filing. A suitable system might be a loose leaf file
with the following subdivisions:
- Budget
- Workshop site
- Selection of participants
- Documentation
- Equipment checklist
- Publicity, press etc
- Evaluation

c) Selection of Resource Person

In organizing a workshop resource person plays following important roles:
- They should provide theoretical and practical aspects of the theme.
- Resource person must have much more practical and theoretical exposure in
their work field.
- Resource person should able to provide guidance to participants at every stage
of and train them to perform the task effectively.
- Resource person should be able to supervise and also control the trainees.

d) Selection of the Participants

Criteria for selecting the participants:
- Type of Participants: Homogeneity: Participants should be homogeneous
(same group).
 - Select the p participants who will benefit by the theme of workshop and
objectives.
- Number of participants: It can be found from experience that as many as 35
participants (seven groups of five) can be handled by one organizer.
- Select the participants 60 days before the workshop.
- 45 days before confirm the participants who are going to participate who are
going to participate in the workshop.
- Voluntary participation and willingness to innovate. Select the participants
those who attend the workshop voluntarily
- Each participant should already have demonstrated his desire for change by
having adopted new methods of his own.

e) Selection of the Dates for the workshop

- Date of workshop should not coincide with public or religious holidays,
sports events.
- At least one working day will preside the open of the workshop.
- It should be planned prior to prevent inconvenience in conducting
workshop.

f) Selection of the place for workshop

- Select the place where the Participants can stay and attend total activities of
workshop on a full time basis.
- Place should be far away from where the Participants live to enable them to
participate in activities without interruption.
- The place should be pleasurable one (Quiet, adequate seating, well ventilated,
good lighting, etc.)
- Booking a meeting room and hotel accommodation
- Book the room for conduction workshop and accommodation 6 months priorly
to the day.
- Take it in writing and insist in writing confirmation detailing the conditions
you have specified, particularly as regards to meeting room.
g) Selection of Language

In workshop national Language must be the working language. It must be

known by all Participants.
 h) Selection of Committees:
While organizing a workshop Committees must be formulated such as:

Organizer Committee
- Should plan for programme
- They should schedule the programme
- They must select the days, dates, venue of workshop
- They should plan for budgeting

Assistant organizers Committee

- selection must be done 4 months before the day
- organizer should select assistant organizers from another school or faculty
- Select each assistant organizer for every 10 participants.
- The assistant organizers will have the task of finding answers to questions
put forward by the participants.

Sponsors Committees
- Sponsoring Committee should be found by organizers to share the expenses
of workshop
- Sponsors can extend their helping hand to provide place for workshop, sound
media, food and snacks, printing material etc

Volunteers Committee
Serves the following
- Receiving the guests
- Orienting the place to the participants and experts
- Seating arrangement
- Serving food
They have to formulate Committees for- registration, transportation,
food, stage, reception, publicity Committee etc.

i) Budget for Workshop

Organizers should plan the budget according to their plan of conducting
workshop.
Following simple formula is suggested to estimate the expenditure:
E = (T+S) NX 1.25
 E- Estimate
T- Cost of return travel
S- Living expenses (accommodation, food)
N- Number of participants

j) Invitation of the participants

The main points to be covered in the invitation are:
- Aim of the workshop
- Theme of the workshop
- Working method of the workshop
- Get a deadline for application

k) Preparing Workshop Pamphlet / Booklet

Print pamphlets / booklets- chart specifying the
- Aim of the workshop
- Registration fees for the workshop
- Activities of programme in workshop
- Facilities arranged for the workshop
These all help the participants to prepare physically and mentally before coming to the
workshop. Content which the experts are going to present must be given at the time of
documentation. This helps them to have reference copy of content for their future.

Immediate preparation for workshop (ie 2-3 days before)

a) Review of the list of participants and resource persons

- After getting the application we should prepare the finalizing the number of
participants, list of participants should be prepared.
- Resource persons also must be properly reminded.
b) Arrangement of room
- Two days before the workshop it should be arranged
- The meeting room should be arranged so as to allow participants to sit at
tables in small groups of three to five.
- Allow the use of overhead projector it would be preferable in order to allow
two documents to be compared together.
- Make sure that everyone has a good view of the projection screen and
discussion leader.
 - Room must be quite and that is arrangement is preferable to separate groups
in different rooms.
- Make sure that the room is away from the source of noise.
- Room must be adequately darkened to project the overhead projector.
- Make sure that electric power point that works and have an electrical
extension flex and spare projector lamp available.
- In addition have a stock of transparent cellulose sheets and marker crayons
available that may be used to illustrate any remarks that may be in plenary
(An intensive examination testing a student's proficiency in some special
field of knowledge) sessions.
c) Arrangement of Staff and Equipment
Staff and equipment needed for documentation must be arrangement one
month before the day.
Staffs: such as typist for typing the documents resulting from group work.
Equipment: one month before itself should be arranged with all the needed
equipment and prior to the workshop it should be checked that the things by
using checklist.
Equipment Checklist:
- Note Pads(One for each Participants)
- Pencils and sharpener (One for each Participants)
- Rubber (One for each Table)
- Two hold punch (1)
- Adhesive tape (2 rolls)
- Stapler (1)
- Waste paper basket (One for each Table)
- Drawing pins (2 packets)
- File
- Overhead projector (2)
- Sharp projectors (2)
- Electric extension flex (6 meter)
- Electric adapter plugs (2)
- Transparent cellulose sheets (50)
- Crayon markers
- Black board for flip charts
 - Dictionary
d) Arranging for press relations
Depending on the local situation, it may be worth deciding to inform the
press.

e) Coordinating the Assistant organizers

All the assistant organizers should arrive at the site of the workshop without fail
at least two whole days before the workshop and should have been told how
important this coordination period is.

f) Time Table of Work

- It is not recommended to arrange more than five hours of structured sessions
a day.
- There should be provision of Teas break and lunch break at appropriate time
interval and it should be planned through out the workshop.
- Last day don’t forget to have a group photo snaps taken during the break.

Roles in workshop technique

In organizing workshop the following four roles are performed.

a) Organizers of the workshop

Whole programme and schedule is prepared by the organizer. He has to
arrange boarding lodging facilities for participants as well as the experts. The
date, days, and venue of workshop are decided by him. The workshops are also
organized by the institutions such as NCERT, DGHS sponsored workshop on
nursing development.

b) Convener or chairman in first stage

At first stage of the workshop theoretical aspects are discussed by the
experts on the theme of the workshop. Therefore a convener (the member of a group
whose duty it is to bring together) is nominated or invited who is well acquainted
with theme of the workshop to observe the work of the participants along with the
expert and has to carry out the formalities and keynote of the workshop.

c) Experts or Resource Person

In organizing a workshop resource person plays following important roles:
- They should provide theoretical and practical aspects of the theme.
 - Resource person must have much more practical and theoretical
exposure in their work field.
- Resource person should able to provide guidance to participants at every
stage of and train them to perform the task effectively.
- Resource person should be able to supervise and also control the
trainees.

d) Role of Participant or Trainees

The participant should be interested or keen in theme of the workshop.
At the first stage they have acquire understanding of the theme and at second
stage have to practice and perform the task with great interest and seek proper
guidance from the experts. They should carry the concept to their classroom to
evaluate its workability in actual situation. They may suggest some modification
in using the concept in classroom. The effectiveness of any workshop technique
depends upon the involvement of the participants in the task.

Stages in conducting workshop

Generally workshops are organized for 3 to 10 days duration. The period of
workshop may be 40 days. It depends on the nature of task assigned to the workshop. It
is organized in four stages
i. First Stage
ii. Second stage
iii. Third stage
iv. Fourth stage

i. First stage
- Registration: Participants will pay their fees and they will register their names
in registration counter. After that they will be given a identity card and
workshop content handwork.
- Inauguration: it is starting function of the workshop. In this all committee
members, participants, resource persons will be gathered along with the chief
guest. Chief guest will start the function with lighting the lamp and gives his
guest speech regarding the theme. After to him organizer delivers his speech.
 - Preliminary introductory session: Organizer will give brief introduction about
the workshop, which they are going to conduct. He will give orientation
towards theme of the workshop and objectives.
- Pre-test: Pre-test will be given to the participants, which will be based in the
theme of the workshop that is background knowledge about theme of the
workshop. And it will be evaluated.
- Break: Tea break and Lunch break in between the sessions.
- Presentation of the theme of providing awareness: the resource person or
experts are invited to provide the awareness and understanding of the topic.
This stage is like a seminar.
The paper reading is also done to discuss the different aspects of the
theme. The trainees or participants are given opportunity to seek clarification. The
experts provide the suitable illustration steps for using it in practice such as
classroom teaching in education.

ii. Second stage

- Formation of the Groups: in the second stage the total group is divided in to small
groups.
- Assignment sessions and practical exercise: Groups will be given assignment
related to the theme. Practical exercise also will be given.
- Guidance and Supervision: A resource person is assigned to provide guidance to
the work to perform. Along with guidance the expert also supervises each
participants work. Every participant has to work individually and independently
and has to complete the task within given time limit.
- Clarifying session: The participant while doing his work if finds any difficulty or
doubt can be clarified with the help of expert.
- Group discussion: If group members have completed their assignment at the end
they meet together and discuss their task within their group.
- Preview of the next day: At the end of the each day all group members will join
together and discuss the programmes of the next day.

iii. Third stage

There are four phases
- Presentation: at this phase all group meet at one place and present their report of
work done at second stage.
 - Evaluation: Post-test: It will be given to the participants based on the content
which was given by the experts during the presentation phase. That will be
evaluated.
- Open suggestions: the participants are given opportunity to comment and give
suggestions for further improvement.
- Expert Suggestion: the experts also provide suggestion on different aspects of the
reports.
- Validation: it is the end phase of the workshop. In this organizer will conclude the
workshop after providing certificates to the experts and participants and also
distribute the prizes to those perform well in their group activities. Chief organizer
or assistant organizer will give vote of thanks and programme will end with
National anthem.

iv. Fourth stage

In fourth stage means after the actual programme, organizers as well as
participants have to do their part of work.
Organizers Part
Letter of thanks: Within 15 days after the programme it is time to thank everybody
who has helped, the organizers including those who have provided funds for the
workshop, the members of the committee for sponsors and the assistant organizers.
Inform theme in the letter that they will shortly be sent the report on the workshop.
Report on the workshop: report regarding the workshop must be printed and sent to
the assistant organizers and other persons who helped to successful conduct of the
workshop. The report will contain the following:
- An introduction giving a brief description of the focal context which led
to the organization of the workshop.
- The general aims of the workshop
- Description of the progress of the workshop
- Selected samples of the work done in group
- List of documents used during the workshop
- The evaluation
- List of participants
Part of Participants: They should get ready for the follow-up programme that will be
conducted as a long term evaluation process at least one year after the day.
Follow up
- The trainer has to go back to their institution. They asked to continue their task
and examine the workability and usability in their institution.
- The participants are invited to meet again and present their experience
regarding applicability of the topic or new practice.
- During follow up meeting participants will also be assessed to which level they
reached their objectives by using questionnaire and individual interview.

Advantages of workshop
- Workshop is used to realize the higher cognitive and psychomotor objectives.
- It is a technique which can be effectively used for developing understanding and
proficiency for the approaches and practices in education.
- It is used for developing and improving professional efficiency. Eg, Nursing,
Medical, Dental etc
- Teaching proficiencies can be developed by the workshop technique for nursing
in-service teachers.
- It provides the opportunity and situations to develop the individual capacities of
a teacher.
- It develops the feeling of co-operation and group work.
- It provides the situation to study the vocational problems.
- The new practices and innovation are introduced to in-service teachers.

Limitations of workshop
- The in-service teacher may not take interest to understand and use the new
practices in their classroom.
- The workshop cannot be organized to large number of groups, so the large
number of persons can be trained.
- The teacher may not take interest in practical work or to do something in
productive form.
 - The effectiveness of the workshop technique depends on the follow-up
programme. Generally follow-up programmes are not organized in workshop
technique.

In the workshop the total members may be divided in to small groups and each
group will choose a chairman and a recorder. Learning takes place in a friendly, happy,
and democratic atmosphere, under expert guidance. The workshop provides each
participant the opportunity to improve his effectiveness as a professional worker
 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving ability enables the person to find appropriate solutions of

problem, which confront him Problem solving requires integrated use of thinking skills
which produces novel solution from limited information. The basic purpose of
education is to enable and individual to adopt himself to life in society, which is full of
problems. Being optimist is what is required.

Definition
Problem solving is an instructional technique whereby the teacher and pupil attempt in a
conscious, planned, purposeful effort to arrive at some explanation of solution to some
educational is significant difficulty. (J Dewey)

Purposes
 To train student in the act of reasoning
 To give practical knowledge
 To discover new knowledge
 To solve a puzzle problem (new problem, many solutions
 To improve knowledge of students
 To help overcome the obstacle, interferences in the attainment of objective (Take
challenges
 To help in the progress of an individual as well as the society

Essential features of problem solving

 The problem should be meaningful, interesting, worthwhile
 It should have correlation with life
 It should arise out of the real needs of the student
 Students must possess same background knowledge of the problem
 The problem should be clearly defined
  The solution of the problem should be found by students under the guidance of
the teacher.
 A number of problems are before children and teaching is done through problem.
The children get knowledge now to practical problems of life. It helps Pupil to
tackle problems occurring in natural situation.

Steps in problem solving

a) Recognising the problem

A problem is an obstruction. If individual is not aware of problem and does not
how some general understanding of it, she cannot attack the problem. The nature of the
problem should we made very clear to the students, as they must find, feel the necessity
of finding out solution of the problem. On the contrary, it is more likely to make the
students guess and resort to trial and error methods. It enables clients to learn skills.

b) Defining the problem

It is defining problem is the derivation of the purpose that is

 What is the essence of the problem?

 What are the variables?
 How are the terms defined?

All these questions are essential part of defining a problem. A well-defined problem is
clear, specific, unequivocal, so that problem solver knows exactly what he or she is
doing.

c) Collection of relevant data or information

The student must be stimulated to collect data in a systematic manner. Full
corporation of the student should be secured. The teacher may suggest many points to
them.
Example -to read extra books to get additional information

d) Organisation of data
To arrange relevant material from superficial one to scientific way.

e) Drawing of conclusions
 Discussions should be arranged collectively and individually with each student. the
essential thinking is done by the students themselves and that their education process
produces the particular situation.

f) Testing conclusions
This step calls for the ability to draw valid conclusions and to judge the validity of the
interferences. No conclusion should be accepted without being properly verified also
the correct awareness of the conclusion must be proved.

Stages model for problem solving strategies

1. Problem detection: Problem detection is the process by which people first

become concerned that events may be taking an unexpected and undesirable
direction that potentially requires action.
2. Problem definition: It involves diagnosing the situation so that the focus on the
real problem and not on its symptoms. For example, fear of speaking in public
only becomes a problem when your job is dependent on public speaking.
Frequently finding or identifying a problem is more important than the solution.
3. Identification of alternative solutions: Once a problem has been clearly
identified, all the relevant information has been gathered the alternative
solutions need to be identified.
4. Decision making: Decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing
alternatives based on the values, preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker.
Every decision-making process produces a final choice, which may or may not
prompt action.
5. Execution: Execution is the act of doing or performing something, especially in
a planned way
6. Verification: Verifying solutions is a good way to double-check the work on any
problem. Sometimes it is an essential step to obtaining the correct solution. This
approach would enable clients to learn skill that could contribute to their
personal autonomy. Counsellors should adjust this approach to the unique and
emerging needs of the client.

Methods or approaches to problem solving

a) Inductive method
b) Deductive method
c) Combination of inductive and deductive method
Inductive method: It is a method of development. In this the student is lead to discover
truth himself by-
 Observation of the given material
 Noting similarities and differences
 Abstraction and generalization
 Application and verification

Deductive method: In this method rules, generalization, principles are provided to the
students and then they are asked to verify it with the help of particular examples

Combination of deductive and inductive method: Induction is followed by reduction and

deduction is followed by induction. According to Lee Miller induction is the making of
the tools of thought and deduction is the using of the tools

Role of teacher in problem solving

 To get the students to define the problem clearly
 To aid them to keep the problem in mind
 To get them to make suggestions by encouraging them
 To give them time to evaluate each suggestion carefully
 To give them time to organise materials
 To set up an atmosphere of freedom in class
 Advantages of problem solving
 Improves problem solving abilities
 If student centre rather than teacher centric
 Helps to develop constructivism
 Allows for multiple intelligence development
 Provides a deeper understanding of knowledge
 Helps to develop good study habits
 Encourages participation in social activities
 Student are self-dependent
 Provides opportunities to teachers to know their student
 Meaningful facts are learnt by students that have been discovered by the own
efforts
  Helps in maintenance of discipline
 Learning becomes more interesting
 Power of critical judgement
 Satisfies curiosity
 It helps learn how to act in a new situation

Advantages
 Good study habits
 Student learn to be self-dependent
 Maintenance of discipline
 Power of critical judgement
 It satisfies curiosity
 It helps to learn how to act in a new situation
 Economical method
 Serves time, energy of teacher and students
 Knowledge is self-acquired
 Promotes mental activity of participants
 Makes lesson interesting
 Provides challenging situations to students
 Makes student self-confident and self-dependent
 Students curiosity is well kept up till the end when generalizations are arrived
 The students learn to tackle problems

Disadvantages
 Problem solving involves mental activity only no physical activity
 Lack of suitable references for students
 Time consuming for teachers has become difficult to cover prescribed syllabus
 Need very capable teachers to provide effective guidance Mental activity only
no physical activity
 Lack of reference / source / books
 Takes a lot of time and it is difficult to cover the prescribed syllabus
 Problem method needs very capable teachers to provide effective guidance to
students.
 Problem based learning emphasis on problems as a starting point for acquisition
and integration of new knowledge. This enables the trainees to learn critical thinking
and problem-solving skills which is very essential in nursing practice. Also, problem-
based learning is student cantered.

Conclusion

Instructional strategies serve as a backbone for teaching, and, when applied

correctly, can help students gain a deeper understanding of course material and

encourage critical thinking, beyond basic retention and surface understanding.

Educators, too, can benefit by using different strategies throughout the semester to

determine the efficacy of lesson plans, and how each student is progressing through

each concept. Teaching strategies can engage students in an active learning process. If

teachers use these strategies well, nursing students are more likely to memorize the

information associated with the lesson. It is important for nurse educators to select

appropriate teaching strategies in order to deliver high-quality education. Instructional

strategies are techniques teachers use to help students become independent, strategic

learners. These strategies become learning strategies when students independently select

the appropriate ones and use them effectively to accomplish tasks or meet goals.