Module For The Contemporary World 2020

The Contemporary World: An Outcomes-Based Education Approach
Unit 1 – INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION
“Let me begin with globalization. [...] Narrowly defined, it is meant to mean the instant
movement of capital and the rapid distribution of data and products operating within a politically
neutral environment shaped by multinational corporate demands. Its larger connotations,
however, are less innocent, encompassing as they do not only the demonization of embargoed
states or the trivialization cum negotiation with warlords, but also the collapse of nation-states
under the weight of transnational economies, capital, and labor; the preeminence of Western
culture and economy; the Americanization of the developed and developing world through the
penetration of US culture into others as well as the marketing of third-world cultures to the West
as fashion, film setting, and cuisine… Its disregard of borders, national infrastructures, local
bureaucracies, internet censors, tariffs, laws, and languages; its disregard of margins and the
marginal people who live there; its formidable, engulfing properties accelerating erasure, a
flattening out of difference, of specificity for marketing purposes. An abhorrence of diversity. We
imagine indistinguishability, the elimination of minority languages, minority cultures in its Wake.
We speculate with horror on what could be the irrevocable, enfeebling alteration of major
languages, major cultures in its sweep. Even if those dreaded consequences are not made
completely manifest, they nevertheless cancel out globalism's assurances of a better life by
issuing dire warnings of premature cultural death.”
― Toni Morrison
“One day there will be no borders, no boundaries, no flags and no countries and the
only passport will be the heart.”
― Carlos Santana
The most important challenges facing the world in the 21 st century are associated with
globalization, the growing interconnectedness of people and places through converging
processes of economic, political, and cultural change. Once distant regions are now increasingly
linked together through commerce, communication, and travel.
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This unit introduces the various definitions of globalization, understand its key features,
and familiarize you to a variety of factors which have contributed to the process of globalization,
its benefits and disadvantages, and its history and theories.
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Lesson 1: Globalization
In This Lesson
 Develop a nuanced definition of globalization in order to begin to understand the

processes of globalization.
 View a video and develop their own definition of globalization.
 Understand the key features of globalization.
 Identify the pros and cons of globalization.
The Meaning of Globalization
“Globalization” is a catchphrase familiar to anyone tuned in to social media. Every day

we hear the term globalization on the news, read it in the papers, and overhear people talking
about it. What does this term mean? There is no definite definition of globalization or
globalisation and the term is used to denote a variety of ways in which nation-states, regions and
people, due to advances in transportation and communication systems, are becoming more and
more closely connected and interdependent, not only in the economic sense, but also in the
cultural, political, social, technological, environmental and spatial aspects.
Shalmali Guttal (2007) defined globalization as “the process of interaction and

integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. As a complex and
multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion
which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market
economy.”
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Below are further definitions of globalization:
[Globalization] is “the geographic dispersion of industrial and service activities, for

example research and development, sourcing of inputs, production and distribution, and the
cross-border networking of companies, for example through joint ventures and the sharing of
assets.”
– Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
[Globalization] is “the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the

world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and
services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.” – Peterson Institute for
International Economics
[Globalization] is “the ability to produce any good or service anywhere in the world,
using raw materials, components, capital and technology from anywhere, sell the resulting
output anywhere and place the profits anywhere.” – Peter Jay
[Globalization] is “the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples

and countries, is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of
international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and
the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or
promote such flows. Globalization has the potential for both positive and negative effects on
development and health.” – World Health Organization
[Globalization] is “the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies

to a degree never witnessed before – in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and
nation-states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before
and in a way that is enabling the world to reach into individuals, corporations, and nation-states
farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before.” – Thomas Friedman
[Globalization] is “the process of greater interdependence among countries and their

citizens. It consists of increased integration of product and resource markets across nations via
trade, immigration, and foreign investment – that is, via international flows of goods and
services, of people, and of investment such as culture and the environment. Simply put,
globalization is political, technological, and cultural, as well as economic.” – Robert J. Carbaugh
[Globalization] is “… a process in which geographic distance becomes less a factor in the

establishment and sustenance of border-crossing, long distance economic, political, and socio-
economic relations. People become aware of this fact. Networks of relations and dependencies
therefore become potentially border-crossing and worldwide. This potential internationalization
of relations and dependencies causes fear, resistance, actions, and reactions.” – Rudd Lubbers
[Globalization] can thus be defined as “the intensification of worldwide social relations

which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring
many miles away and vice-versa. This is a dialectical process because such local happenings may
move in an obverse direction from the very distanciated relations that shape them. Local
transformation is as much part of globalization as the lateral extension of social connections
across time and space.” – Anthony Giddens
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Now it’s your turn. What is globalization to you? What are the words which are
repeatedly used in the abovementioned definitions? Use the box below to create your
definition of globalization.
My Definition of Globalization
Converging Currents of Globalization
Most scholars agree that the most significant components of globalization is the
economic reorganization of the world. The characteristics of this new world arrangement are:
1. Global communication systems that link all regions of the planet instantaneously and global
transportation systems capable of moving goods quickly by air, sea, and land;
2. Transnational conglomerate corporate strategies that have created global corporations more
economically powerful than many nation-states;
3. International financial institutions that make possible 24-hour trading with new and more-
flexible forms of monetary flow;
4. Global agreements that promote free trade;
5. Market economies that have replaced state-controlled economies, and privatized firms and
services, like water delivery, formerly operated by governments;
6. An abundance of planetary goods and services that have arisen to fulfill consumer demand
(real or imaginary); and, of course,
7. An army of international workers, managers, executives, who give this powerful economic
force a human dimension. (Rowntree, Lewis, Price & Wyckoff, 2008)
Factors That Have Contributed to Globalization
There are a variety of factors which have contributed to the process of globalization.
Some of the most important globalization drivers are numbered below.
1. The price of transporting goods has fallen significantly, enabling good to be imported and
exported more cheaply due to containerization and bulk shipping;
2. The development of the internet to organize trade on a global scale;
3. TNCs have taken advantage of the reduction or lowering of trade barriers;
4. The desire of TNCs to profit from lower unit labor costs and other favorable production
factors abroad has encouraged countries to regulate their tax systems to draw in foreign
direct investment (FDI);
5. Transnational and multinational companies have invested significantly in expanding
internationally;
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6. The collapse of communism in the Soviet Union; and

7. The opening of China to world trade.
Advocates and Critics of Globalization
Globalization is one of the most controversial issues of our times. Supporters generally
believe that it brings in greater economic efficiency that will eventually result in bring prosperity
for the entire world. Critics think that it will largely benefit those who are already rich, leaving
most of the world poorer than before. Economic globalization is generally applauded by
corporate leaders and economists. But opposition to economic globalization is widespread in the
labor and environmental movements for it has promoted exploitation of workers, children,
farmers, and the environment.
Advantages of Globalization Disadvantages of Globalization

 Productivity increases faster when  Millions of workers have lost their jobs
countries produce goods and services in because of imports or shifts in
which they have a comparative production abroad. Most find new jobs
advantage. Living standards can increase that pay less.
more rapidly.
 Global competition and cheap imports  Millions of workers fear getting laid off,
keep a constraint on prices, so inflation is especially at those firms in import-
less likely to disrupt economic growth. competing industries.
 An open economy promotes technological 

Workers face demands of wage
development and innovation, with fresh concessions from their employers,
ideas from abroad. which often threaten to export jobs
abroad if wage concessions are not
accepted.
 Jobs in export industries tend to pay about  Besides blue-collar jobs, service and
15 percent more than jobs in import- white-collar jobs are increasingly
competing industries. vulnerable to operations being sent
overseas.
 Unfettered capital movements provide  Workers can lose their competitiveness
workers access to foreign investment and when companies build state-of-the-art
maintain low interest rates. factories in low wage countries, making
them as productive as those in the
developed countries.
(Business Week “Backlash Behind the Anxiety over Globalization,” 2000)
A number of experts argue that both the anti-globalization and the pro-globalization
stances are exaggerated. Those in the middle ground tend to argue that economic globalization is
indeed unavoidable. They point out that even the anti-globalization movement is made possible
by the Internet and is, therefore, itself an expression of globalization. They further contend that
globalization can be managed, at both the national and international levels, to reduce economic
inequalities and protect the natural environment. Such scholars stress the need for strong yet
efficient governments and international institutions (such as the UN, World Bank, and IMF), along
with networks of watchdog environmental, labor, and human rights groups. (Rowntree, Lewis,
Price & Wyckoff, 2008)
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Globalization is one of the most important and complicated issues of our time. Now it’s
your turn to take a position. Are you in favor or against globalization? Use the box below to
create your position about globalization.
My Stance on Globalization
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Subject and Section ________________________________________________ Date _________
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Essay: “Globalization I - The Upside” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Crash Course World History #41: Globalization I - The Upside hosted by John
Green during your free time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SnR-e0S6Ic and
then read the instructions below carefully and answer the following questions cogently.
I. Reaction (Check the blank below)

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
II. Your response to the video in six words:
_______________________________________________________________________________
III. In just six words, explain the purpose/theme/aim of the video as you see it.
_______________________________________________________________________________
IV. Make a summary of the video in ten words.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
V. In ten words, what are the values you learned from this video?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
3 - Full Participation - Students wrote their reflection essays about the video in a clear and
consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Participation - Students wrote their reflection essays about the video and do so in
a somewhat consistent manner.
1 - Little or Partial Participation - Students have difficulty writing their reflection essays about
the video consistently.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Essay: “Globalization II - Good or Bad?” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Crash Course World History #42: Globalization II – Good or Bad? hosted by John
Green during your free time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=s_iwrt7D5OA&t=497s and then read the instructions below carefully and answer the following
questions cogently.

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Quiz: Essay
Explain the process of globalization in the given figure below. Answer in exactly 140
words.
Lesson 2: History/Theories of Globalization
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In This Lesson
 Discuss the periodization of globalization by considering when globalization began.

 Compare and contrast the three waves of globalization.
 Differentiate the competing theories of globalization.
Globalization is not a new phenomenon because there have been many instances in the
periods in history when there were contacts between diverse individuals and countries.
However, the pace of globalization has accelerated significantly over the last three decades. To
know more about the history/theories of globalization, read the ensuing articles in this lesson.
A Brief History of Globalization

from World Economic Forum
by Peter Vanham
When Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba in 2018 announced it had chosen the ancient
city of Xi’an as the site for its new regional headquarters, the symbolic value wasn’t lost on the
company: it had brought globalization to its ancient birthplace, the start of the old Silk Road. It
named its new offices aptly: “Silk Road Headquarters”. The city where globalization had started
more than 2,000 years ago would also have a stake in globalization’s future.
Alibaba shouldn’t be alone in looking back. As we are entering a new, digital-driven era
of globalization – we call it “Globalization 4.0” – it is worthwhile that we do the same. When did
globalization start? What were its major phases? And where is it headed tomorrow?
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This piece also caps our series on globalization. The series was written ahead of the 2019
Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum in Davos, which focuses on “Globalization 4.0”. In
previous pieces, we looked at some winners and losers of economic globalization,
the environmental aspect of globalization, cultural globalization and digital globalization. Now we
look back at its history. So, when did international trade start and how did it lead to
globalization?
Ancient silk roads: Silk roads (1st century BC-5th century AD, and 13th-14th centuries AD) /
Image: Flickr
People have been trading goods for almost as long as they’ve been around. But as of the
1st century BC, a remarkable phenomenon occurred. For the first time in history, luxury products
from China started to appear on the other edge of the Eurasian continent – in Rome. They got
there after being hauled for thousands of miles along the Silk Road. Trade had stopped being a
local or regional affair and started to become global.
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That is not to say globalization had started in earnest. Silk was mostly a luxury good, and
so were the spices that were added to the intercontinental trade between Asia and Europe. As a
percentage of the total economy, the value of these exports was tiny, and many middlemen were
involved to get the goods to their destination. But global trade links were established, and for
those involved, it was a goldmine. From purchase price to final sales price, the multiple went in
the dozens. The Silk Road could prosper in part because two great empires dominated much of
the route. If trade was interrupted, it was most often because of blockades by local enemies of
Rome or China. If the Silk Road eventually closed, as it did after several centuries, the fall of the
empires had everything to do with it. And when it reopened in Marco Polo’s late medieval time,
it was because the rise of a new hegemonic empire: the Mongols. It is a pattern we’ll see
throughout the history of trade: it thrives when nations protect it, it falls when they don’t.
Arabic calligraphy in Asilah medina, Morocco: Spice routes (7th-15th centuries)

/ Image: Pierre-Yves Babelon/Shutterstock.com/Unesco
The next chapter in trade happened thanks to Islamic merchants. As the new religion
spread in all directions from its Arabian heartland in the 7th century, so did trade. The founder of
Islam, the prophet Mohammed, was famously a merchant, as was his wife Khadija. Trade was
thus in the DNA of the new religion and its followers, and that showed. By the early 9th century,
Muslim traders already dominated Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade; afterwards, they
could be found as far east as Indonesia, which over time became a Muslim-majority country, and
as far west as Moorish Spain.
The main focus of Islamic trade in those Middle Ages were spices. Unlike silk, spices
were traded mainly by sea since ancient times. But by the medieval era they had become the
true focus of international trade. Chief among them were the cloves, nutmeg and mace from the
fabled Spice islands – the Maluku islands in Indonesia. They were extremely expensive and in
high demand, also in Europe. But as with silk, they remained a luxury product, and trade
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remained relatively low volume. Globalization still didn’t take off, but the original Belt (sea route)
and Road (Silk Road) of trade between East and West did now exist.
Age of Discovery (15th-18th centuries) / Image: BLR
Truly global trade kicked off in the Age of Discovery. It was in this era, from the end of
the 15th century onwards, that European explorers connected East and West – and accidentally
discovered the Americas. Aided by the discoveries of the so-called “Scientific Revolution” in the
fields of astronomy, mechanics, physics and shipping, the Portuguese, Spanish and later the
Dutch and the English first “discovered”, then subjugated, and finally integrated new lands in
their economies.
The Age of Discovery rocked the world. The most (in)famous “discovery” is that of
America by Columbus, which all but ended pre-Colombian civilizations. But the most
consequential exploration was the circumnavigation by Magellan: it opened the door to the Spice
islands, cutting out Arab and Italian middlemen. While trade once again remained small
compared to total GDP, it certainly altered people’s lives. Potatoes, tomatoes, coffee and
chocolate were introduced in Europe, and the price of spices fell steeply.
Yet economists today still don’t truly regard this era as one of true globalization. Trade
certainly started to become global, and it had even been the main reason for starting the Age of
Discovery. But the resulting global economy was still very much soloed and lopsided. The
European empires set up global supply chains, but mostly with those colonies they owned.
Moreover, their colonial model was chiefly one of exploitation, including the shameful legacy of
the slave trade. The empires thus created both a mercantilist and a colonial economy, but not a
truly globalized one.
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The Industrial Revolution in Britain propelled the first wave of globalization / Image: Wikipedia
First wave of globalization (19th century-1914)
This started to change with the first wave of globalization, which roughly occurred over
the century ending in 1914. By the end of the 18th century, Great Britain had started to
dominate the world both geographically, through the establishment of the British Empire, and
technologically, with innovations like the steam engine, the industrial weaving machine and
more. It was the era of the First Industrial Revolution.
The “British” Industrial Revolution made for a fantastic twin engine of global trade. On
the one hand, steamships and trains could transport goods over thousands of miles, both within
countries and across countries. On the other hand, its industrialization allowed Britain to make
products that were in demand all over the world, like iron, textiles and manufactured goods.
“With its advanced industrial technologies,” the BBC recently wrote, looking back to the era,
“Britain was able to attack a huge and rapidly expanding international market.”
The resulting globalization was obvious in the numbers. For about a century, trade grew
on average 3% per year. That growth rate propelled exports from a share of 6% of global GDP in
the early 19th century, to 14% on the eve of World War I. As John Maynard Keynes, the
economist, observed: “The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning
tea in bed, the various products of the whole Earth, in such quantity as he might see fit, and
reasonably expect their early delivery upon his doorstep.”
And, Keynes also noted, a similar situation was also true in the world of investing. Those
with the means in New York, Paris, London or Berlin could also invest in internationally active
joint stock companies. One of those, the French Compagnie de Suez, constructed the Suez Canal,
connecting the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean and opened yet another artery of world
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trade. Others built railways in India, or managed mines in African colonies. Foreign direct
investment, too, was globalizing.
While Britain was the country that benefited most from this globalization, as it had the
most capital and technology, others did too, by exporting other goods. The invention of the
refrigerated cargo ship or “reefer ship” in the 1870s, for example, allowed for countries like
Argentina and Uruguay, to enter their golden age. They started to mass export meat, from cattle
grown on their vast lands. Other countries, too, started to specialize their production in those
fields in which they were most competitive.
But the first wave of globalization and industrialization also coincided with darker
events, too. By the end of the 19th century, the Khan Academy notes, “most [globalizing and
industrialized] European nations grabbed for a piece of Africa, and by 1900 the only independent
country left on the continent was Ethiopia”. In a similarly negative vein, large countries like India,
China, Mexico or Japan, which were previously powers to reckon with, were not either not able
or not allowed to adapt to the industrial and global trends. Either the Western powers put
restraints on their independent development, or they were otherwise outcompeted because of
their lack of access to capital or technology. Finally, many workers in the industrialized nations
also did not benefit from globalization, their work commoditized by industrial machinery, or their
output undercut by foreign imports.
The world wars
It was a situation that was bound to end in a major crisis, and it did. In 1914, the
outbreak of World War I brought an end to just about everything the burgeoning high society of
the West had gotten so used to, including globalization. The ravage was complete. Millions of
soldiers died in battle, millions of civilians died as collateral damage, war replaced trade,
destruction replaced construction, and countries closed their borders yet again.
In the years between the world wars, the financial markets, which were still connected
in a global web, caused a further breakdown of the global economy and its links. The Great
Depression in the US led to the end of the boom in South America, and a run on the banks in
many other parts of the world. Another world war followed in 1939-1945. By the end of World
War II, trade as a percentage of world GDP had fallen to 5% – a level not seen in more than a
hundred years.
Second and third wave of globalization
The story of globalization, however, was not over. The end of the World War II marked a
new beginning for the global economy. Under the leadership of a new hegemon, the United
States of America, and aided by the technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car
and the plane, global trade started to rise once again. At first, this happened in two separate
tracks, as the Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of influence. But as of 1989, when
the Iron Curtain fell, globalization became a truly global phenomenon.
In the early decades after World War II, institutions like the European Union, and other
free trade vehicles championed by the US were responsible for much of the increase in
international trade. In the Soviet Union, there was a similar increase in trade, albeit through
centralized planning rather than the free market. The effect was profound. Worldwide, trade
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once again rose to 1914 levels: in 1989, export once again counted for 14% of global GDP. It was
paired with a steep rise in middle-class incomes in the West.
Then, when the wall dividing East and West fell in Germany, and the Soviet Union
collapsed, globalization became an all-conquering force. The newly created World Trade
Organization (WTO) encouraged nations all over the world to enter into free-trade agreements,
and most of them did, including many newly independent ones. In 2001, even China, which for
the better part of the 20th century had been a secluded, agrarian economy, became a member
of the WTO, and started to manufacture for the world. In this “new” world, the US set the tone
and led the way, but many others benefited in their slipstream.
At the same time, a new technology from the Third Industrial Revolution, the internet,
connected people all over the world in an even more direct way. The orders Keynes could place
by phone in 1914 could now be placed over the internet. Instead of having them delivered in a
few weeks, they would arrive at one’s doorstep in a few days. What was more, the internet also
allowed for a further global integration of value chains. You could do R&D in one country,
sourcing in others, production in yet another, and distribution all over the world.
The result has been a globalization on steroids. In the 2000s, global exports reached a
milestone, as they rose to about a quarter of global GDP. Trade, the sum of imports and exports,
consequentially grew to about half of world GDP. In some countries, like Singapore, Belgium, or
others, trade is worth much more than 100% of GDP. A majority of global population has
benefited from this: more people than ever before belong to the global middle class, and
hundred of millions achieved that status by participating in the global economy.
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Globalization 4.0
That brings us to today, when a new wave of globalization is once again upon us. In a
world increasingly dominated by two global powers, the US and China, the new frontier of
globalization is the cyber world. The digital economy, in its infancy during the third wave of
globalization, is now becoming a force to reckon with through e-commerce, digital services, 3D
printing. It is further enabled by artificial intelligence, but threatened by cross-border hacking
and cyberattacks.
At the same time, a negative globalization is expanding too, through the global effect of
climate change. Pollution in one part of the world leads to extreme weather events in another.
And the cutting of forests in the few “green lungs” the world has left, like the Amazon rainforest,
has a further devastating effect on not just the world’s biodiversity, but its capacity to cope with
hazardous greenhouse gas emissions.
But as this new wave of globalization is reaching our shores, many of the world’s people
are turning their backs on it. In the West particularly, many middle-class workers are fed up with
a political and economic system that resulted in economic inequality, social instability, and – in
some countries – mass immigration, even if it also led to economic growth and cheaper products.
Protectionism, trade wars and immigration stops are once again the order of the day in many
countries.
As a percentage of GDP, global exports have stalled and even started to go in reverse
slightly. As a political ideology, “globalism”, or the idea that one should take a global perspective,
is on the wane. And internationally, the power that propelled the world to its highest level of
globalization ever, the United States, is backing away from its role as policeman and trade
champion of the world.
It was in this world that Chinese president Xi Jinping addressed the topic globalization in
a speech in Davos in January 2017. “Some blame economic globalization for the chaos in the
world,” he said. “It has now become the Pandora’s box in the eyes of many.” But, he continued,
“we came to the conclusion that integration into the global economy is a historical trend. [It] is
the big ocean that you cannot escape from.” He went on to propose a more inclusive
globalization, and to rally nations to join in China’s new project for international trade, “Belt and
Road”.
It was in this world, too, that Alibaba a few months later opened its Silk Road
headquarters in Xi’an. It was meant as the logistical backbone for the e-commerce giant along
the new “Belt and Road”, the Paper reported. But if the old Silk Road thrived on the exports of
luxurious silk by camel and donkey, the new Alibaba Xi’an facility would be enabling a
globalization of an entirely different kind. It would double up as a big data college for its Alibaba
Cloud services.
Technological progress, like globalization, is something you can’t run away from, it
seems. But it is ever changing. So how will Globalization 4.0 evolve? We will have to answer that
question in the coming years. (Vanham 2019)
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Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Activity: Essay Analysis Chart
Apply this chart to Peter Vanham’s “A Brief History of Globalization” from World
Economic Forum. Check your understanding of this essay by filling in the chart below. Use a
separate sheet of paper if necessary.
Introduction (identify the work)
Thesis Statement
Part 1 (explanation and details)
Conclusion
Essay Rubric
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5 points  has a strong central idea (thesis) that is related to the topic;
 provides compelling support to the thesis topic;
 has a clear, logical organization with well‐developed major points that are
supported with concrete and specific evidence;
 uses effective transitions between ideas;
 uses appropriate words composing sophisticated sentences;
 expresses ideas freshly and vividly;
 is free of mechanical, grammatical, and spelling errors.
 is not more or less than required page length.
4 points  has a strong central idea that is related to the assignment;
 has a clear, logical organization with developed major points, but the supporting
evidence may not be especially vivid or thoughtful;
 uses appropriate words accurately, but seldom exhibits an admirable style while
the sentences tend to be less sophisticated;
 has few mechanical, grammatical, and spelling errors that do not distract from the
overall message.
 is substantially more or less than required page length.
3 points  not quite a 4‐point essay, but better than a 2‐point essay.
 is not related to the assignment
2 points  is not related to the assignment
 has a central idea that is presented in such a way that the reader understands the
writer’s purpose;
 has an organization that reveals a plan, but the evidence tends to be general rather
than specific or concrete;
 uses common words accurately, but sentences tend to be simplistic and
unsophisticated;
 has one or two severe mechanical or grammatical errors.
1 point  lacks a central idea (no thesis);
 lacks clear organization;
 is not related to the assignment;
 fails to develop main points, or develops them in a repetitious or illogical way;
 fails to use common words accurately;
 uses a limited vocabulary in that chosen words fail to serve the writer's purpose;
 has three or more mechanical or grammatical errors.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
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Activity: Three Circle Venn Diagram
Use the Venn diagram below to compare and contrast the three waves of globalization.
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First Wave
Venn Diagram Rubric
Objects being compared in the Venn diagram:

__________________________________ , ____________________________________________
and ___________________________________________________________________________
Second Wave Third Wave
Strong Grasp Progressing Not in Evidence

Text support All statements are Most statements Few or none of
of comparison supported by the are supported by the statements are
statements text. the text. supported by the
text.
Placement of All statements Most statements Few statements

statements within noting similarities are placed in the are placed in the
the Venn diagram are placed in the correct circle, but correct circle.
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center circle and student mixed up a

all statements that few statements.
note differences
are placed in the
correct outer circle.
Number of quality Student is able Student is able Student makes

statements to make five or to make 3–4 two or fewer
more comparison comparison comparison
statements in each statements in each statements in each
circle. circle. circle.
Comments
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Research: Globalization 4.0
Use the library and the Internet to gather information for a report about Globalization
4.0. To gather ideas for research, use the following chart. Be sure to keep track of where you find
your information. Use a separate sheet of paper if necessary.
Subject Ideas Internet Search Library Search

What is Globalization 4.0?
1
Globalization 4.0 and its

antecedents
Operating System Upgrade
The 8 General Design

Parameters
Specific Architectural
Innovations and
Improvements
Trade and Investment
Financial and monetary

system
Global public goods and the

environment
Technology
Cybersecurity
1
Industry and corporate

governance
Geopolitical and geo-

economic cooperation
Theories of Globalization
from PoliticalScienceNotes.com
All theories of globalization have been put hereunder in eight categories: liberalism,
political realism, Marxism, constructivism, postmodernism, feminism, Trans-formationalism and
eclecticism. Each one of them carries several variations.
1. Theory of Liberalism
Liberalism sees the process of globalization as market-led extension of modernization.

At the most elementary level, it is a result of ‘natural’ human desires for economic welfare and
political liberty. As such, transplanetary connectivity is derived from human drives to maximize
material well-being and to exercise basic freedoms. These forces eventually interlink humanity
across the planet.
They fructify in the form of:
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(a) Technological advances, particularly in the areas of transport, communications and

information processing, and,
(b) Suitable legal and institutional arrangement to enable markets and liberal democracy
to spread on a trans-world scale.
Such explanations come mostly from Business Studies, Economics, International Political
Economy, Law and Politics. Liberalists stress the necessity of constructing institutional
infrastructure to support globalization. All this has led to technical standardization,
administrative harmonization, translation arrangement between languages, laws of
contract, and guarantees of property rights.
But its supporters neglect the social forces that lie behind the creation of technological
and institutional underpinnings. It is not satisfying to attribute these developments to ‘natural’
human drives for economic growth and political liberty. They are culture blind and tend to
overlook historically situated life-worlds and knowledge structures which have promoted their
emergence.
All people cannot be assumed to be equally amenable to and desirous of increased

globality in their lives. Similarly, they overlook the phenomenon of power. There are structural
power inequalities in promoting globalization and shaping its course. Often they do not care for
the entrenched power hierarchies between states, classes, cultures, sexes, races and resources.
2. Theory of Political Realism
Advocates of this theory are interested in questions of state power, the pursuit of
national interest, and conflict between states. According to them states are inherently acquisitive
and self-serving, and heading for inevitable competition of power. Some of the scholars stand for
a balance of power, where any attempt by one state to achieve world dominance is countered by
collective resistance from other states.
Another group suggests that a dominant state can bring stability to world order. The
‘hegemon’ state (presently the US or G7/8) maintains and defines international rules and
institutions that both advance its own interests and at the same time contain conflicts between
other states. Globalization has also been explained as a strategy in the contest for power
between several major states in contemporary world politics.
They concentrate on the activities of Great Britain, China, France, Japan, the USA and
some other large states. Thus, the political realists highlight the issues of power and power
struggles and the role of states in generating global relations.
At some levels, globalization is considered as antithetical to territorial states. States,

they say, are not equal in globalization, some being dominant and others subordinate in the
process. But they fail to understand that everything in globalization does not come down to the
acquisition, distribution and exercise of power.
Globalization has also cultural, ecological, economic and psychological dimensions that
are not reducible to power politics. It is also about the production and consumption of resources,
about the discovery and affirmation of identity, about the construction and communication of
meaning, and about humanity shaping and being shaped by nature. Most of these are apolitical.
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Power theorists also neglect the importance and role of other actors in generating
globalization. These are sub-state authorities, macro-regional institutions, global agencies, and
private-sector bodies. Additional types of power-relations on lines of class, culture and gender
also affect the course of globalization. Some other structural inequalities cannot be adequately
explained as an outcome of interstate competition. After all, class inequality, cultural hierarchy,
and patriarchy predate the modern states.
3. Theory of Marxism
Marxism is principally concerned with modes of production, social exploitation through

unjust distribution, and social emancipation through the transcendence of capitalism. Marx
himself anticipated the growth of globality that ‘capital by its nature drives beyond every spatial
barrier to conquer the whole earth for its market’. Accordingly, to Marxists, globalization
happens because trans-world connectivity enhances opportunities of profit-making and surplus
accumulation.
Marxists reject both liberalist and political realist explanations of globalization. It is the
outcome of historically specific impulses of capitalist development. Its legal and institutional
infrastructures serve the logic of surplus accumulation of a global scale. Liberal talk of freedom
and democracy make up a legitimating ideology for exploitative global capitalist class relations.
The neo-Marxists in dependency and world-system theories examine capitalist

accumulation on a global scale on lines of core and peripheral countries. Neo-Gramscians
highlight the significance of underclass struggles to resist globalizing capitalism not only by
traditional labor unions, but also by new social movements of consumer advocates,
environmentalists, peace activists, peasants, and women. However, Marxists give an overly
restricted account of power.
There are other relations of dominance and subordination which relate to state, culture,
gender, race, sex, and more. Presence of US hegemony, the West-centric cultural domination,
masculinism, racism etc. are not reducible to class dynamics within capitalism. Class is a key axis
of power in globalization, but it is not the only one. It is too simplistic to see globalization solely
as a result of drives for surplus accumulation.
It also seeks to explore identities and investigate meanings. People develop global
weapons and pursue global military campaigns not only for capitalist ends, but also due to
interstate competition and militarist culture that predate emergence of capitalism. Ideational
aspects of social relations also are not outcome of the modes of production. They have, like
nationalism, their autonomy.
4. Theory of Constructivism
Globalization has also arisen because of the way that people have mentally constructed
the social world with particular symbols, language, images and interpretation. It is the result of
particular forms and dynamics of consciousness. Patterns of production and governance are
second-order structures that derive from deeper cultural and socio-psychological forces. Such
accounts of globalization have come from the fields of Anthropology, Humanities, Media of
Studies and Sociology.
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Constructivists concentrate on the ways that social actors ‘construct’ their world: both
within their own minds and through inter-subjective communication with others. Conversation
and symbolic exchanges lead people to construct ideas of the world, the rules for social
interaction, and ways of being and belonging in that world. Social geography is a mental
experience as well as a physical fact. They form ‘in’ or ‘out’ as well as ‘us’ and they’ groups.
They conceive of themselves as inhabitants of a particular global world. National, class,

religious and other identities respond in part to material conditions but they also depend on
inter-subjective construction and communication of shared self-understanding. However, when
they go too far, they present a case of social-psychological reductionism ignoring the significance
of economic and ecological forces in shaping mental experience. This theory neglects issues of
structural inequalities and power hierarchies in social relations. It has a built-in apolitical
tendency.
5. Theory of Postmodernism
Some other ideational perspectives of globalization highlight the significance of

structural power in the construction of identities, norms and knowledge. They all are grouped
under the label of ‘postmodernism’. They too, as Michel Foucault does strive to understand
society in terms of knowledge power: power structures shape knowledge. Certain knowledge
structures support certain power hierarchies.
The reigning structures of understanding determine what can and cannot be known in a
given socio-historical context. This dominant structure of knowledge in modern society is
‘rationalism’. It puts emphasis on the empirical world, the subordination of nature to human
control, objectivist science, and instrumentalist efficiency. Modern rationalism produces a society
overwhelmed with economic growth, technological control, bureaucratic organization, and
disciplining desires.
This mode of knowledge has authoritarian and expansionary logic that leads to a kind of
cultural imperialism subordinating all other epistemologies. It does not focus on the problem of
globalization per se. In this way, western rationalism overawes indigenous cultures and other
non-modem life-worlds.
Postmodernism, like Marxism, helps to go beyond the relatively superficial accounts of

liberalist and political realist theories and expose social conditions that have favored
globalization. Obviously, postmodernism suffers from its own methodological idealism. All
material forces, though come under impact of ideas, cannot be reduced to modes of
consciousness. For a valid explanation, interconnection between ideational and material forces is
not enough.
6. Theory of Feminism
It puts emphasis on social construction of masculinity and femininity. All other theories
have identified the dynamics behind the rise of trans-planetary and supra-territorial connectivity
in technology, state, capital, identity and the like.
Biological sex is held to mould the overall social order and shape significantly the course
of history, presently globality. Their main concern lies behind the status of women, particularly
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their structural subordination to men. Women have tended to be marginalized, silenced and
violated in global communication.
7. Theory of Trans-formationalism
This theory has been expounded by David Held and his colleagues. Accordingly, the term
‘globalization’ reflects increased interconnectedness in political, economic and cultural matters
across the world creating a “shared social space”. Given this interconnectedness, globalization
may be defined as “a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the
spatial organization of social relations and transactions, expressed in transcontinental or
interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction and power.”
While there are many definitions of globalization, such a definition seeks to bring
together the many and seemingly contradictory theories of globalization into a “rigorous
analytical framework” and “proffer a coherent historical narrative”. Held and McGrew’s
analytical framework is constructed by developing a three part typology of theories of
globalization consisting of “hyper-globalist,” “sceptic,” and “transformationalist” categories.
The Hyperglobalists purportedly argue that “contemporary globalization defines a new

era in which people everywhere are increasingly subject to the disciplines of the global
marketplace”. Given the importance of the global marketplace, multi-national enterprises
(MNEs) and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) which regulate their activity are key political
actors. Sceptics, such as Hirst and Thompson (1996) ostensibly argue that “globalization is a myth
which conceals the reality of an international economy increasingly segmented into three major
regional blocs in which national governments remain very powerful.” Finally, transformationalists
such as Rosenau (1997) or Giddens (1990) argue that globalization occurs as “states and societies
across the globe are experiencing a process of profound change as they try to adapt to a more
interconnected but highly uncertain world”.
Developing the transformationalist category of globalization theories. Held and McGrew

present a rather complicated typology of globalization based on globalization’s spread, depth,
speed, and impact, as well as its impacts on infrastructure, institutions, hierarchical structures
and the unevenness of development.
They imply that the “politics of globalization” have been “transformed” (using their
word from the definition of globalization) along all of these dimensions because of the
emergence of a new system of “political globalization.” They define “political globalization” as
the “shifting reach of political power, authority and forms of rule” based on new organizational
interests which are “transnational” and “multi-layered.”
These organizational interests combine actors identified under the hyper-globalist

category (namely IGOs and MNEs) with those of the sceptics (trading blocs and powerful states)
into a new system where each of these actors exercises their political power, authority and forms
of rule.
Thus, the “politics of globalization” is equivalent to “political globalization” for Held and
McGrew. However, Biyane Michael criticises them. He deconstructs their argument, if A is
defined as “globalization” (as defined above), B as the organizational interests such as MNEs,
IGOs, trading blocs, and powerful states, and C as “political globalization” (also as defined above),
then their argument reduces to A. B. C. In this way, their discussion of globalization is trivial.
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Held and others present a definition of globalization, and then simply restates various
elements of the definition. Their definition, “globalization can be conceived as a process (or set of
processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations” allows
every change to be an impact of globalization. Thus, by their own definition, all the theorists they
critique would be considered as “transformationalists.” Held and McGrew also fail to show how
globalization affects organizational interests.
8. Theory of Eclecticism
Each one of the above six ideal-type of social theories of globalization highlights certain
forces that contribute to its growth. They put emphasis on technology and institution building,
national interest and inter-state competition, capital accumulation and class struggle, identity
and knowledge construction, rationalism and cultural imperialism, and masculinize and
subordination of women. Jan Art Scholte synthesizes them as forces of production, governance,
identity, and knowledge.
Accordingly, capitalists attempt to amass ever-greater resources in excess of their

survival needs: accumulation of surplus. The capitalist economy is thoroughly monetized. Money
facilitates accumulation. It offers abundant opportunities to transfer surplus, especially from the
weak to the powerful. This mode of production involves perpetual and pervasive contests over
the distribution of surplus. Such competition occurs both between individual, firms, etc. and
along structural lines of class, gender, race etc.
Their contests can be overt or latent. Surplus accumulation has had transpired in one
way or another for many centuries, but capitalism is a comparatively recent phenomenon. It has
turned into a structural power, and is accepted as a ‘natural’ circumstance, with no alternative
mode of production. It has spurred globalization in four ways: market expansion, accounting
practices, asset mobility and enlarged arenas of commodification. Its technological innovation
appears in communication, transport and data processing as well as in global organization and
management. It concentrates profits at points of low taxation. Information, communication,
finance and consumer sectors offer vast potentials to capital making it ‘hyper-capitalism’.
Any mode of production cannot operate in the absence of an enabling regulatory

apparatus. There are some kind of governance mechanisms. Governance relates processes
whereby people formulate, implement, enforce and review rules to guide their common affairs.”
It entails more than government. It can extend beyond state and sub-state institutions including
supra-state regimes as well. It covers the full scope of societal regulation.
In the growth of contemporary globalization, besides political and economic forces,

there are material and ideational elements. In expanding social relations, people explore their
class, their gender, their nationality, their race, their religious faith and other aspects of their
being. Constructions of identity provide collective solidarity against oppression. Identity provides
frameworks for community, democracy, citizenship and resistance. It also leads from nationalism
to greater pluralism and hybridity.
Earlier nationalism promoted territorialism, capitalism, and statism, now these plural
identities are feeding more and more globality, hyper-capitalism and polycentrism. These
identities have many international qualities visualized in global diasporas and other group
1
affiliations based on age, class, gender, race, religious faith and sexual orientations. Many forms
of supra-territorial solidarities are appearing through globalization.
In the area of knowledge, the way that the people know their world has significant
implications for the concrete circumstances of that world. Powerful patterns of social
consciousness cause globalization. Knowledge frameworks cannot be reduced to forces of
production, governance or identity.
Mindsets encourage or discourage the rise of globality. Modern rationalism is a general

configuration of knowledge. It is secular as it defines reality in terms of the tangible world of
experience. It understands reality primarily in terms of human interests, activities and conditions.
It holds that phenomena can be understood in terms of single incontrovertible truths that are
discoverable by rigorous application of objective research methods.
Rationalism is instrumentalist. It assigns greatest value to insights that enable people

efficiently to solve immediate problems. It subordinates all other ways of understanding and
acting upon the world. Its knowledge could then be applied to harness natural and social forces
for human purposes. It enables people to conquer disease, hunger, poverty, war, etc., and
maximize the potentials of human life. It looks like a secular faith, a knowledge framework for
capitalist production and a cult of economic efficiency. Scientism and instrumentalism of
rationalism is conducive to globalization. Scientific knowledge is non-territorial.
The truths revealed by ‘objective’ method are valid for anyone, anywhere, and anytime
on earth. Certain production processes, regulations, technologies and art forms are applicable
across the planet. Martin Albrow rightly says that reason knows no territorial limits. The growth
of globalization is unlikely to reverse in the foreseeable future.
However, Scholte is aware of insecurity, inequality and marginalization caused by the

present process of globalization. Others reject secularist character of the theory, its
manifestation of the imperialism of westernist-modernist-rationalist knowledge. Anarchists
challenge the oppressive nature of states and other bureaucratic governance frameworks.
Globalization neglects environmental degradation and equitable gender relations.
(politicalsciencenotes.com 2017)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Why Early Globalization Matters” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Crash Course Big History #206: Why Early Globalization Matters hosted by Emily
Graslie during your free time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1esRyRV8H2M
and then read the instructions below carefully and answer the following questions cogently.

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
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_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Globalization Theories” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Globalization Theories hosted by Sydney Brown from Khan Academy during your free
time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQIVIYCZ4ec and then read the instructions
below carefully and answer the following questions cogently.

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
1
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Quiz: The Theories of Globalization Differentiated
Directions: To compare is to tell how two or more things are alike. To contrast is to tell
how two or more things are different. Clue words such as like or as show comparisons. Clue
words such as but or unlike show contrasts. Often authors don’t use clue words. Readers must
make comparisons for themselves. Use this chart to compare and contrast any two theories of
globalization.
Theory of Liberalism Theory of Political Realism
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Theory of Marxism Theory of Constructivism
Theory of Postmodernism Theory of Trans-formationalism
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Theory of Feminism Theory of Eclecticism
Unit 2 – THE STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION
1
Advances in communication and transportation technology, combined with free-market

ideology, have given goods, services, and capital unprecedented mobility. Northern countries
want to open world markets to their goods and take advantage of abundant, cheap labor in the
South, policies often supported by Southern elites. They use international financial institutions
and regional trade agreements to compel poor countries to "integrate" by reducing tariffs,
privatizing state enterprises, and relaxing environmental and labor standards. The results have
enlarged profits for investors but offered pittances to laborers, provoking a strong backlash from
civil society. (Global Policy Forum, 2005)
What is included in the “global economy”? Those who organize and sustain it such as
states and governments, international organizations and associations; those who play a role in it
like capitalists and investors, international financial institutions (IFIs), production managers,
consumers and labor; those marginal but connected to it. For instance, the global poor, small
farmers, grey and black marketers; and trans-border flows of goods, information, money, people
and other things.
Four separate lessons make up this unit on “The Structures of Globalization.”
The first lesson tackles economic globalization and identifies the global
actors/international financial institutions and explains their roles in the creation of a global
economy. The lesson also focuses on international trade, the concept of comparative advantage,
and the benefits and drawbacks of free trade.
The second lesson centers on market integration, its three basic types, and the
advantages and disadvantages of each type of market integration.
The third lesson concentrates on institutions that govern international relations and the
effects of globalization on governments. The lesson also differentiates internationalism from
globalism.
1
Finally, the fourth lesson deals with global governance, its form, format, techniques and
the challenges of global governance in the twenty-first century.
Lesson 3: Global Economy
1
In This Lesson
 Discuss economic globalization.

 Identify the global actors/international financial institutions and explains their roles in
the creation of a global economy.
 Discuss international trade, the concept of comparative advantage, and the benefits and
drawbacks free trade.
 Identify the actors that facilitate economic globalization.
Image: Sputnik News
The International Economy and Globalization

from International Economics
by Robert J. Carbaugh
In today’s world, no nation exists in economic isolation. All aspects of a nation’s

economy—its industries, service sectors, levels of income and employment, and living standard
—are linked to the economies of its trading partners. This linkage takes the form of international
movements of goods and services, labor, business enterprise, investment funds, and technology.
Indeed, national economic policies cannot be formulated without evaluating their probable
impacts on the economies of other countries.
The high degree of economic interdependence among today’s economies reflects the
historical evolution of the world’s economic and political order. At the end of World War II, the
United States was economically and politically the most powerful nation in the world, a situation
expressed in the saying, ‘‘When the United States sneezes, the economies of other nations catch
a cold.’’ But with the passage of time, the U.S. economy has become increasingly integrated into
the economic activities of foreign countries. The formation in the 1950s of the European
Community (now known as the European Union), the rising importance of multi-national
corporations in the 1960s, the 1970s market power in world oil markets enjoyed by the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the creation of the euro at the turn
of the twenty-first century all resulted in the evolution of the world community into a
complicated system based on a growing interdependence among nations.
Recognizing that world economic interdependence is complex and its effects uneven,
the economic community has made efforts toward international cooperation. Conferences
devoted to global economic issues have explored the avenues through which cooperation could
be fostered between industrial and developing nations. The efforts of developing nations to reap
1
larger gains from international trade and to participate more fully in international institutions
have been hastened by the impact of the global recession on manufacturers, industrial inflation,
and the burdens of high-priced energy.
Over the past 50 years, the world’s market economies have become increasingly
integrated. Exports and imports as a share of national output have risen for most industrial
nations, while foreign investment and international lending have expanded. This closer linkage of
economies can be mutually advantageous for trading nations. It permits producers in each nation
to take advantage of specialization and efficiencies of large-scale production. A nation can
consume a wider variety of products at a cost less than that which could be achieved in the
absence of trade. Despite these advantages, demands have grown for protection against imports.
Protectionist pressures have been strongest during periods of rising unemployment caused by
economic recession. Moreover, developing nations often maintain that the so-called liberalized
trading system called for by industrial nations serves to keep the developing nations in poverty.
Economic interdependence also has a direct consequences for a student taking an

introductory course in international economics. As consumers, we can be affected by changes in
the international values of currencies. Should the Japanese yen or UK pound appreciate against
the U.S. dollar, it would cost us more to purchase Japanese television sets or UK automobiles. As
investors, we might prefer to purchase Swiss securities if Swiss interest rates rise above U.S.
levels. As members of the labor force, we might want to know whether the president plans to
protect U.S. steel and autoworkers from foreign competition.
In short, economic interdependence has become a complex issue in recent times, often
resulting in strong and uneven impacts among nations and among sectors within a given nation.
Business, labor, investors, and consumers all feel the repercussions of changing economic
conditions and trade policies in other nations. Today’s global economy requires cooperation on
an international level to cope with the myriad issues and problems. (Carbaugh 2009)
Image: dhsworldgeo.weebly.com
International Trade
from Edexcel Economics
by Quintin Brewer
1
Globalization has led to a phenomenal increase in world trade. One measure is to

consider exports as a proportion of world GDP.
The pattern of world trade has also been greatly affected by the entry of China as a
major manufacturer.
The basis of free trade law: the law of comparative advantage
The law states that, even if one country has an absolute advantage in the production of
all goods, it can still benefit from specialization and trade, if it specializes in the production of
goods in which it has a comparative advantage.
A country has a comparative advantage in producing a product if the opportunity cost of
producing it is less than its potential trading partner.
Say the UK take 5 hours to make cheese, and China 1. Also, the UK takes 15 hours to
make cars, but China 2. China clearly has an absolute advantage in producing both cars and
1
cheese. However, look at the opportunity cost. The UK gives up 3 cars if it producing 1 cheese.
China gives up 2 cars if it’s producing 1 cheese. Therefore China has a comparative advantage in
cheese production. The UK gives up 1/3 a car if it produces one cheese, and China gives up 1/2.
So, the UK has a comparative advantage in car production. Therefore, the UK should specialize in
producing cars, and China should produce cheese. For trade to be beneficial, the terms of trade
must lie between opportunity cost ratios. In other words, the UK will only trade for cheese with
china if the price is above 1/3 of a car, and China will only trade if it is below 1/2 of a car.
Terms of trade = (index of export prices / index of import prices) x 100
You should note that, if opportunity costs were the same, then there would be no
benefit from specialization and trade.
However, widespread acceptance of the law of comparative advantage amount

economists and the benefits of free trade, various criticisms can be made:
 Free trade is not fair trade i.e. the rich countries might exert their monopsony power to
force producers in developing countries to accept low prices.
 The law of comparative advantage is based on unrealistic assumptions such as constant
costs of production, zero transport costs, and no barriers to trade.
Limits of free trade: the case for protectionism
The term protectionism refers to measures designed to limit free trade. Arguments
supporting the need for protectionism might include the following:
 To protect infant industries: this argument might be particularly relevant to developing

countries that are in the process of industrialization. Without protection, infant industries
might be unable to compete because they have yet to establish themselves and are too
small to benefit from economies of scale.
 To protect geriatric industries: these are industries that might demand protection so that
they have time to restructure and rationalize production so that they can
become competitive again. Typically, these occur in developed economies that are losing
their comparative advantage.
 To ensure employment protection: cheap imports might threaten jobs in the domestic
economy and workers might demand that the government takes action to limit imports.
 To prevent dumping: the term dumping refers to goods exported to another country
below at a price below the average cost of production. It is a form of predatory pricing
and, if it can be proved, it is illegal under WTO rules. This is one of the few arguments in
favor of protectionism that can be justified under economic theory because it unfairly
distorts comparative advantage
 To correct a balance of payments deficit on current account: restrictions on imports might
help to reduce the imbalance of between the value of import and the value of exports.
However, under the floating exchange rates system, it is possible that this correction will
happen automatically
 To restrict imports from counties whose health and safety regulations and environmental
regulations are less stringent: some argue that developing countries have an unfair
comparative advantage because production is not under the same laws and regulations as
developed countries, so enabling them to produce at lower average cost
1
 For strategic reasons: a country might introduce protectionist policies on goods of

strategic importance in time of war so that it is not dependent on imports. Food, defense
equipment and energy are items frequently used as examples of such goods.
 To raise tax revenues: tariffs may be an important source of tax revenue for developing
countries.
 In retaliation: barriers to trade may be imposed by a country because another country has
restricted the imports of its goods.
Types of protection/import barriers
There are numerous ways by which free trade can be prevented. The most common are
tariffs, quotas and subsidies to domestic producers and administrative regulations. In countries
where the exchange rate is not freely floating, the authorities might also hold down the value of
the currency artificially to give their good a competitive advantage.
Tariffs
Before the tariff is imposed:
 the price paid by consumers is P1, domestic output is Q1, imports are Q1 to Q2.
Once the tariff is imposed:
 the price paid by the consumer increases to P2, reducing consumer surplus
 domestic output rises to Q4, increasing producer surplus
 imports fall to Q4Q3
 tax revenue collected by the government is KLMN
 net deadweight welfare loss is the loss in consumer welfare that is not made up for by
producer welfare or government revenue – X and Y
Quotas
1
Import quotas place a physical restriction on the amount of goods that can be imported.
They have a similar effect as tariffs, in that the price of imported goods will rise and domestic
producers should gain more business.
However, unlike tariffs, the government does not gain any extra revenue.
Subsidies to domestic producers
Grants given to domestic producers artificially lower their production costs, so enabling
their goods to become more competitive. Subsidies therefore act as a barrier to trade
Administrative regulations
These take a variety of forms, including labelling, health and safety regulations,
environmental standards and documentation on country of origin. In effect, such regulations
increase the costs of foreign producers and so act as a barrier to trade.
The case against protectionism
There are several problems with protectionism including:
 Inefficient resource allocation: trade barriers distort comparative advantage and reduce
specialization, which will result in lower world output and therefore reduce living
standards
 Higher prices and less choice for consumers
 Less incentive for domestic producers to become more efficient in order to compete on a
global scale
 Difficulty of removing trade barriers. Once such barriers are introduced, it might prove to
be difficult to remove them because of the adverse effect on domestic producers (Brewer
2012)
Global Actors
A global actor refers to any social structure which is able to act and influence and
engage in the global or international system. These specific actors include:
 International Economic and Financial Organizations. International economic and financial

organizations provide the structure and funding for many unilateral and multilateral
development projects. Such organizations deal with the major economic and political issues
facing domestic societies and the international community as a whole. Their activities
promote sustainable private and public sector development primarily by: financing private
sector projects located in the developing world; helping private companies in the developing
world mobilize financing in international financial markets; and providing advice and
technical assistance to businesses and governments. (Lund University Libraries, 2018)
 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs). IGOs have international membership,

scope and presence. Their primary members consist of sovereign states. These organizations
bring member states together to cooperate on a particular theme or issues that have global
impacts and implications such as human rights, trade, development, poverty, gender or
migration. (Lund University Libraries, 2018)
1
 Media. Media are the communication outlets or tools used to store and deliver information
or data. The term refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as
print media, publishing, the news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting (radio and
television), and advertising. (Wikipedia “Media,” 2019)
 Multilateral Development Banks. Multilateral development banks are international financial

institutions owned by countries. In addition to the World Bank Group, there are four regional
multilateral development banks: the Inter-American Development Bank, the African
Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the European Bank for Reconstruction
and Development. These institutions provide loans, grants, guarantee, private equity and
technical assistance to public and private sector projects in developing countries. (Lund
University Libraries, 2018)
 Nation-States. Nation-states refer to a certain form of state that derives its political
legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation within its sovereign territorial
space. The state is a political and geopolitical entity while the nation is a cultural and/or
ethnic entity. The term "nation-state" implies that the two geographically coincide, and this
distinguishes the nation state from the other types of state, which historically preceded it.
(Lund University Libraries, 2018)
 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Non-governmental organization (NGO) refers to

a legally constituted organization created with no participation or representation of any
government and driven. These organizations are task-oriented perform a variety of service
and humanitarian functions. Some are organized around specific issues such as human
rights, environment, gender, or health. In many jurisdictions these types of organization are
defined as "civil society organizations." (Lund University Libraries, 2018)
 Trans-National Corporations (TNCs). "Transnational Corporations exert a great deal of

power in the globalized world economy. Many corporations are richer and more powerful
than the states that seek to regulate them. Through mergers and acquisitions corporations
have been growing very rapidly and some of the largest TNCs now have annual profits
exceeding the GDPs of many low and medium income countries. It is important to explore
how TNCs dominate the global economy and exert their influence over global policy
making." (Global Policy Forum, 2005)
 United Nations (UN) System. The United Nations System consists of the United Nations, and
the six principal organs of the United Nations: the General Assembly, Security Council,
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice
(ICJ), and the UN Secretariat, specialized agencies, and affiliated organizations. The executive
heads of some of the United Nations System organizations and the World Trade
Organization, which is not formally part of the United Nations System, have seats on the
United Nations System Chief Executives' Board for Coordination (CEB). This body, chaired by
the Secretary-General of the United Nations, meets twice a year to co-ordinate the work of
the organizations of the United Nations System. (Wikipedia “United Nations System,” 2019)
The World’s Best Regarded Companies 2019
1
Below is the Top 25 World’s Best Companies in 2019 according to Forbes:
Rank Company Industry Headquarters

1 Visa Consumer Financial Services San Francisco, California
2 Ferrari Auto & Truck Manufacturers Maranello, Italy
3 Infosys Computer Services Bangalore, India
4 Netflix Internet & Catalog Retail Los Gatos, California
5 PayPal Consumer Financial Services San Jose, California
6 Microsoft Software & Programming Redmond, Washington
7 Walt Disney Broadcasting & Cable Burbank, California
8 Toyota Motor Auto & Truck Manufacturers Toyota, Japan
9 Mastercard Consumer Financial Services Purchase, New York
10 Costco Wholesale Discount Stores Issaquah, Washington
11 Apple Computer Hardware Cupertino, California
12 Siemens Conglomerates Munich, Germany
13 Kellogg Food Processing Battle Creek, Michigan
14 IBM Computer Services Armonk, New York
15 Cemex Construction Materials San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
16 Amazon Internet & Catalog Retail Seattle, Washington
17 Kraft Heinz Company Food Processing Chicago, Illinois
18 Carlsberg Beverages Copenhagen, Denmark
19 Emirates NBD Regional Banks Dubai, United Arab Emirates
20 Emaar Properties Real Estate Dubai, United Arab Emirates
21 Nintendo Recreational Products Kyoto, Japan
22 Tata Consultancy Computer Services Mumbai, India
Services
23 Samsung Securities Investment Services Seoul, South Korea
24 Volvo Group Heavy Equipment Gothenburg, Sweden
25 Electrolux Group Household Appliances Stockholm, Sweden
(Forbes 2019)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
1
Activity: It’s Up for Debate
In this collaborative activity, students will hold a debate and resolve a topic. Form a
group of ten members. Divide the group into two, with each group taking either the affirmative
or the negative side. Assign a moderator to facilitate the debate. The rest of the members of the
class will act as a jury. Read the debate instructions and rules carefully.
Objectives
At the end of the activity, students will:
1. understand the debate process.
2. play a variety of roles in a debate.
3. follow the rules and procedures of a good debate.
4. judge their own and their peers' debate performances.
Materials Needed
Copy of rules of debate, debate rubric for grading their own and/or peers' debate
performances
Instructions
1. Each team will discuss two topics. One team has the affirmative role (defends the pros of the
topic) and the other negative role (defends the cons of the topic).
2. Have students watch a video sample of the debate. Use this link to guide students in their
debate activity: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/video/2013/sep/30/arts-
degree-tuition-fees-video-debate.
3. Have students debate and then resolved this issue: “Is free trade good or bad?”
4. Each group will have at least two weeks to prepare for the topic they will discuss.
Debate Rules
1. The two teams will discuss with each other and which role (affirmative, negative) each of
them will have.
1
2. Before the opening of the debate both teams will have 5 minutes to get ready for the
debate. They can write some notes and questions on a piece of paper and use them during
the debate. Using a dictionary during the debate is not permitted
3. Before each debate the team will choose one speaker who will present his/her ideas and
opinions of the topic. The speakers should change for each debate (pros/cons).
4. The affirmative team will start discussion with their speaker. The speaker´s speech should be
about 7 minutes long.
5. The negative team will ask questions and the affirmative team answers them. All members of
both teams should involve into asking and answering questions. Asking and answering
questions should take 3 minutes.
6. The speaker of the negative team will present his/her ideas and opinions. Their speech
should be about 7 minutes long.
7. The affirmative team will ask questions and the negative team answers them. All members
should involve into asking and answering questions. Asking and answering questions should
take 3 minutes.
8. The debate ends after 20 minutes.
9. A team will be disqualified if they commit the following: not speaking to the topic,
interrupting the debate by not asking questions or not answering them, and breaking the
ethical code of the debate (using offensive language and colloquial slang).
10. Ask the jury to decide the outcome of the debate and let each jury explains his/her vote.
Classroom Debate Rubric

Criteria 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point
Respect for All Statements Most Statements, Some
the Other statements, and statements responses sarcastic
Team body responses and and/or body remarks
language, were responses language Statements
and respectful were were , responses
responses and used respectful borderline and/or
were appropriate and in appropriate. body
respectful language, but appropriate language
and were once or twice language, were
inappropriat body but there consistentl
e language language was was one y not
not sarcastic respectful
remark
Information All Most Most Some Informatio
information information information information n had some
presented in presented in presented in was accurate, major
this debate this debate the debate but there inaccuracie
was clear, was clear, was clear were some s OR was
accurate and accurate and and minor usually not
thorough thorough accurate, inaccuracies clear
but was not
usually
thorough
Rebuttal All counter- Most Most Some Counter-
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arguments counter- counter- counter arguments

were arguments arguments arguments were not
accurate, were were were weak accurate
relevant and accurate, accurate and and/or
strong relevant, and and irrelevant relevant
strong relevant,
but several
were weak
Use of Facts / Every major Every major Every major Some points All points
Statistics point was point was point was were were not
well adequately supported supported supported
supported supported with facts, well, others
with several with relevant statistics were not
relevant facts, and/or
facts, statistics examples,
statistics and/or but the
and/or examples relevance of
examples some was
questionabl
e
Organization All Most Most Most Most
arguments arguments arguments arguments arguments
were clearly were clearly were clearly were clearly were
tied to an tied to an tied to an tied to an clearly tied
idea idea idea idea to an idea
(premise) (premise) and (premise) (premise) and (premise)
and organized in and organized in and
organized in a tight, logical organized in a tight, logical organized
a tight, fashion a tight, fashion in a tight,
logical logical logical
fashion fashion fashion
Understanding The team The team The team The team The team
of Topic clearly clearly seemed to seemed to did not
understood understood understand understand show an
the topic in the topic in the main the main adequate
depth and depth and points of the points of the understand
presented presented topic and topic, but ing of the
their their presented didn’t topic
information information those with present with
forcefully with ease ease ease
and
convincingly
Total Points:
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
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Project #1: Global Products Market Survey
Go to SM or any shopping center and then take a global product survey of imported
items or goods sold in the shopping mall. Use and fill in the chart provided below. After filling in
the chart, take a picture of your visit to the mall using your smartphone and then paste it on the
space provided on the next page.
Item Price Country Company
Paste Your Picture Here
1
RUBRIC
3 - Full Participation - Students filled in the chart in a clear and consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Participation - Students filled in the chart and do so in a somewhat consistent
manner.
1 - Little or Partial Participation - Students have difficulty filling in the chart consistently.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
1

Quiz: Essay
Answer each question in exactly 140 words:

(1) Why does the Philippines import rice from other countries even though rice can be
produced in our country?
(2) Do you believe in “buying Filipino” even if you have to pay a higher price? Why?
1.
2.
Lesson 4: Market Integration
1
In This Lesson
 Define market integration.

 Discuss the three basic types of market integration.
 Differentiate the pros and cons of each type of market integration.
 Define global corporation and identify the challenges encountered by multinational
corporations (MNCs).
Defining Market Integration
Markets are said to be integrated if they are connected by a process of arbitrage. A well-
integrated market system is central to a well-functioning market economy. The economic
proposition of integration is that an element of efficiency is attainable in the unified operation
than in independent actions. According to McDonald (1953), “the integrated economy is one in
which various economic processes are so functionally related to every other process that the
totality of separate operation forms a single unit of production with characteristics of its own. He
gave some of the signs of integration as below:
(a) Many diverse, specialized and independent economic processes or operations, none of
which is complete or self-sufficient.
(b) A system of relations between the various processes which serves to register this
interdependence upon the conduct of each process so that all are caused, in some manner
to fall under the overall plan.
(c) A concatenation of processes in unified pursuance of the aims and purposes of the larger
scheme of things.
(d) A mutual replenishment to spent resources to the end that the continuity of each and all
processes shall not be jeopardized”.
Market integration is the phenomenon by which price interdependence takes place. As

per Faminow and Benson (1990) integrated markets are those where prices are determined
interdependently; which is assumed to mean that price change in one market affects the prices in
other markets. Goodwin and Schroeder (1991) described that markets that are not integrated
may convey inaccurate price information which might distort producer marketing decisions and
contribute to inefficient product movements. What market integration delivers to the economy
will be clear from the following views. Information on market integration presents specific pieces
of evidence as to the competitiveness of the market, the effectiveness of arbitrage (Carter and
Hamilton, 1989) and the efficiency of pricing (Buccola, 1983). Monke and Petzel (1984) defined,
“integrated market in which prices of differentiated products do not perform independently.
Spatial market integration refers to a situation in which prices of a commodity in spatially
separated markets move together and price signals and information are transmitted smoothly
across the markets. Spatial market performance can be evaluated by the knowing relationship
between the prices of spatially separated markets and spatial price behavior in regional markets
may be used as a measure of overall market performance (Ghosh, 2000)”.
Another definition given by Behura and Pradhan (1998) described, “market integration
as a situation in which arbitrage causes prices in different markets to move together. Here two
markets are said to be spatially integrated; when even trade takes place between them, if the
price differential for a homogeneous commodity equals the transfer costs involved in moving
that commodity between them. Equilibrium will have the property that, if a trade takes place at
all between any two places which are physically separated, then price in the importing area
equals price in the exporting area plus the unit transport cost incurred by moving between the
1
two”. If this holds then the markets can be said to be spatially integrated as per Ravallion (1986).
According to Slade (1986), “two trading localities are integrated if price changes in one locality
cause price changes in the other. The transmission machinery could be that price increases in
one location result in the product moving into that location from the other, hence reducing the
supply of products in the exporting region and causing the price to increase. Hence, an
interrelated or interdependent movement of prices between spatially separated markets can be
said to be a situation of market integration”. (Deepak 2014)
Types of Market Integration
When two businesses are brought together through a merger or takeover, it is possible
to define the nature and type of integration based on the activities of each business and where
they operate in the supply chain of an industry.
The types of integration are illustrated in the diagram below:
The main types of integration are:
1. Backward vertical integration. This involves acquiring a business operating earlier in the
supply chain – e.g. a retailer buys a wholesaler, a brewer buys a hop farm.
2. Conglomerate integration. This involves the combination of firms that are involved in
unrelated business activities.
3. Forward vertical integration. This involves acquiring a business further up in the supply
chain – e.g. a vehicle manufacturer buys a car parts distributor.
4. Horizontal integration. Here, businesses in the same industry and which operate at the
same stage of the production process are combined. (Riley 2018)
Pros and Cons of Each Type of Market Integration
The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of each type of market
integration.
1
Horizontal Integration
Advantages Disadvantages
 Larger Market Share  Increasing the size of the company also
 Bigger Base of Customers increases the size of the problems, bigger
 Increased Revenue companies are harder to handle
 Reducing competition  Does not always yield the synergies and
 Increasing other synergies such as added value that was expected
marketing  Can even result in negative synergies
 Creating economies of scale and which reduce the overall value of the
economies of scope business
 Reducing other production costs
Vertical Integration
 Decrease transportation costs and reduce  Companies might get too big and
delivery turnaround times mismanage the overall process
 Reducing supply disruptions from  Outsourcing to suppliers and vendors
suppliers that might fall into financial might be more efficient if their expertise is
hardship superior
 Increase competitiveness by getting  Costs of vertical integration such as
products to consumers directly and quickly purchasing a supplier can be quite
 Lower costs through economies of scale, significant
which is lowering the per-unit cost by  Increased amounts of debt if borrowing is
buying large quantities of raw materials or needed for capital expenditures
streamlining the manufacturing process
 Improve sales and profitability by creating
and selling its own brand
Conglomerate Integration
 Through diversification, the risk of loss  Diversification can shift focus and
lessens. resources away from core operations,
 An expanded customer base contributing to poor performance.
 Cross-selling of new products, leading to  If the acquiring firm is inadequately
increased revenues. experienced in the industry of the
 The new firm benefits with increased acquired firm, the new firm is likely to
efficiencies with the merged company. develop ineffective corporate governance
policies and an inexperienced,
underperforming workforce.
 It can be challenging for firms to
successfully develop a new corporate
culture
Global Corporations
from lumenlearning.com
A global company is generally referred to as a multinational corporation (MNC). An MNC

is a company that operates in two or more countries, leveraging the global environment to
1
approach varying markets in attaining revenue generation. These international operations are
pursued as a result of the strategic potential provided by technological developments, making
new markets a more convenient and profitable pursuit both in sourcing production and pursuing
growth.
International operations are therefore a direct result of either achieving higher levels of
revenue or a lower cost structure within the operations or value-chain. MNC operations often
attain economies of scale, through mass producing in external markets at substantially cheaper
costs, or economies of scope, through horizontal expansion into new geographic markets. If
successful, these both result in positive effects on the income statement (either larger revenues
or stronger margins), but contain the innate risk in developing these new opportunities. As gross
domestic product (GDP) growth migrates from mature economies to developing economies, it
becomes highly relevant to capture growth in higher growth markets.
However, despite the general opportunities a global market provides, there are
significant challenges MNCs face in penetrating these markets. These challenges can loosely be
defined through four factors:
 Public Relations: Public image and branding are critical components of most businesses.
Building this public relations potential in a new geographic region is an enormous
challenge, both in effectively localizing the message and in the capital expenditures
necessary to create momentum.
 Ethics: Arguably the most substantial of the challenges faced by MNCs, ethics have
historically played a dramatic role in the success or failure of global players. For
example, Nike had its brand image hugely damaged through utilizing ‘sweat shops’ and
low wage workers in developing countries. Maintaining the highest ethical standards
while operating in developing countries is an important consideration for all MNCs.
 Organizational Structure: Another significant hurdle is the ability to efficiently and
effectively incorporate new regions within the value chain and corporate structure.
International expansion requires enormous capital investments in many cases, along
with the development of a specific strategic business unit (SBU) in order to manage
these accounts and operations. Finding a way to capture value despite this fixed
organizational investment is an important initiative for global corporations.
 Leadership: The final factor worth noting is attaining effective leaders with the
appropriate knowledge base to approach a given geographic market. There are
differences in strategies and approaches in every geographic location worldwide, and
attracting talented managers with high intercultural competence is a critical step in
developing an efficient global strategy.
Combining these four challenges for global corporations with the inherent opportunities
presented by a global economy, companies are encouraged to chase the opportunities while
carefully controlling the risks to capture the optimal amount of value. Through effectively
maintaining ethics and a strong public image, companies should create strategic business units
with strong international leadership in order to capture value in a constantly expanding global
market. (Lumen Learning “Global Corporation,” 2019)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
Activity: Film Review
1
Directions: Watch Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott’s “The Corporation” and let’s
discover the facts behind it! Fill in the following chart to find out.
What do you see in this film?
What do you think is happening in this film?
What materials do you think the artist used to

make this film?
Does this film remind you of anything?
What questions do you have about this film?
Pretend you can enter inside this film? What do

you see? What do you hear? What do you
smell? What do you taste?
Which part of this film do you like? Why?
If you could change one thing about this film,

what would you change?
How does this film make you feel? Can you say
why?
1
If you would describe this film to a friend, what

kind of words would you use?
RUBRIC
3 - Full Accomplishment - Students answered the questions about the film outlined in this chart
in a clear and consistent manner.
2 -Substantial Accomplishment - Students answered the questions about the film outlined in this
chart and do so in a somewhat consistent manner.
1 - Little or Partial Accomplishment - Students have difficulty answering the questions about the
film outlined in this chart consistently.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Research: Transnational Corporation
Corporation Name
1
Headquarters
Annual Revenue (Gross

Income)
Number of Employees
Number of Countries
Represented
Products and Services

Sold
Other Projects
Other Information about

the TNC
Picture of the TNC
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Quiz: Essay
Answer the question in exactly 140 words:

(1) How can a small local business enterprise compete against a global corporation?
1
1.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Project #2: Create a product and develop a convincing advertising
1
This activity is designed to be carried out in class. The goal of this exercise is for students
to create a globally competitive product, identify a target market for it, and then craft a
convincing and catchy advertisement that is designed to motivate the target market. The created
product should cater for the global market.
Students are organized into groups of five to seven, and a group leader is chosen. Within
thirty minutes, each group must:
1. Create a product and identify a target market for the created product. The target should
be defined through either demographic data, geographic location, or psychographic
profile.
2. Determine the needs of the target market and develop a value proposition that is
targeted to those needs.
3. Create a convincing and catchy message that communicates the value proposition to the
target market.
4. Develop a thirty-second radio ad to communicate the persuasive message.
During the last twenty minutes of class, student groups share their products and their
findings regarding the target market and read their radio ads aloud. Each group leader explains
how the group arrived at creating their products and its conclusions regarding the target market
and how it identified the needs of that segment.
After each group’s presentation, students can vote on which group created the most
creative product and compelling radio ad.
Project Assessment Rubric

Category 4 3 2 1
Content Covers topic in Content Includes Includes Content is
depth with essential essential minimal OR
1
details and knowledge information there are several

examples; about the topic. about the topic factual errors;
subject Subject but there are 1-2 focus is unclear.
knowledge is knowledge is factual errors;
excellent; good; focuses on focus may be
focuses on an an important unclear.
important concept.
concept.
Effort Product shows a Product shows a Product shows Product shows a
great amount of good amount of some amount of minimal amount
time spent and time spent and time spent and is of time spent
very careful, careful, neat slightly lacking and is lacking
neat work. work. neatness. neatness.
Originality Product shows a Product shows Uses other Uses other
large amount of some original people’s ideas people’s ideas
original thought thought and (giving them but does not give
and critical critical thinking. credit), but there them credit.
thinking. Ideas Work shows new is little evidence
are creative and ideas and of original
inventive. insights. thought or
critical thinking.
Appearance Makes excellent Makes good use Makes some use Use of minimal
use of color, of color, of color, color, graphics,
graphics, effects, graphics, effects, graphics, effects, effects, etc. to
etc. to enhance etc. to enhance etc. to enhance enhance the
the presentation. the presentation. the presentation, presentation.
but occasionally Often, these
these detract detract from the
from the content.
content.
Mechanics Correct Novice-1 1-3 3-5 errors in More than 5
grammar, errors in grammar, errors in
spelling, and grammar, spelling, and grammar,
punctuation. spelling, and punctuation. spelling, and
punctuation. punctuation.
SUBTOTAL ___ x 3 = TOTAL SCORE ___ / 60

*Late project lose 5 points daily
Lesson 5: Interstate System
In This Lesson
1
 Define interstate or international system.

 Discuss the history of the interstate or international system.
 Discuss international organizations and the various types of NGOs.
 Differentiate globalism from internationalism.
International System (excerpt)

from Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
by Ryūhei Hatsuse
[An international system] are “groups of independent states held together by a web of
economic and strategic interests and pressures so that they are forced to take account of each
other and those which make a conscious social contract by instituting rules and machinery to
make their relations more orderly and predictable and to further certain shared principles and
values.” – Hedley Ball and Adam Watson – The Expansion of International Society
1.1 The Concept of System
In studies of international politics, the conception of “system” has been used mainly in
two ways, international system, and world system(s). First, the term “international system” is a
concept for analysis or description of international politics or relations, but therein lies a sense of
prescription for diplomatic or military action too. Used as an analytical term, it is predicated upon
a definite notion of system. But it is not necessarily so when it is used to describe situations of
international relations at a given time. Second, the term “world system(s)” is a concept with
which to analyze or describe mainly politico-economic global situations, while its implications for
political action are derived but only indirectly. Third, “international system” came to be accepted
as an academic term in the late 1950s, soon becoming fashionable, but more or less obsolete in
the late 1990s. “World system(s)” began to be discussed in the 1970s, still maintaining popularity
in the academe. Terms such as “international regimes” and “global governance” seem to have
taken the place of “international system” as an academic keyword in the 1990s, although the
latter still holds validity. The new terms are more normative and descriptive than analytic, having
explicit implications for promoting international cooperation.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines “system” to be (a) a set or assemblage of things
connected, associated, or interdependent, so as to form a complex unity, or (b) a whole
composed of parts in an orderly arrangement according to some scheme or plan. This is a well-
1
conceived definition, but when we apply this to these systemic approaches, we find it
insufficient. As a basic definition, it is fairly useful and satisfying, but it is not fully sufficient, in
that it does not take into consideration what powers, military, economic, political or cultural,
circulate among the parts so as to connect or disconnect them. Besides, it greatly matters how
deeply a structure exerts influences on its constitutive units. Here the problem is whether the
influences reach just the surface only to change the behavior patterns of the units, or whether
they penetrate deeply enough to transform even the inner structures. Within the framework of
international system, they are assumed to impose restraints on the freedom of action of states,
and in terms of world system(s), to change the nature of the units. The conception of system in
the former is, so to speak, mechanical or of the modern Western origin, but that in the latter can
be said to be organic, and of the classical Asian origin.
1.2 International System and Society
While the first part of OED definition is more extensive in usage, the second is limited to
such cases as can be related to a preconceived scheme or plan. When we extrapolate this
contrast to international relations, we reach the argument developed by Hedley Bull in
elaborating on the distinction between international system and society. As to the former, he
defines: a system of states (or international system) is formed when two or more states have
sufficient contact between them, and have sufficient impact on one another’s decisions, to cause
them to behave—at least in some measure—as parts of a whole. This corresponds very well to
the first definition of system noted in the above. Turning to international society, he defines: a
society of states (or international society) exists when a group of states, conscious of certain
common interests and common values, form a society, in the sense that they conceive
themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another, and share
in the working of common institutions. Thus he notes that an international society in this sense
presupposes an international system, but an international system may exist that is not an
international society. This usage is quite similar to the second definition of system cited from the
OED in the above. His distinction between the two is more persuasive in the light of the change in
international relations since the end of the Cold War (1989).
The term “international system” in Bull’s sense was very popular among the academics
of all nations during the Cold War period. But it has increasingly lost popularity in the 1990s, the
role of which is beginning to be taken over by such terms as international regimes or global
governance, reflective of formative changes in international society. We see international
schemes or plans more activated in the post-Cold War world than ever before. If we borrow
Bull’s concepts, international relations have been rapidly changing from international system to
international society. However, we should not forget that the notion “international system” still
holds some validity, regardless of changes in real politics and academic fashions, because inter-
state relations compose an integral part of the current international relations. So, to analyze or
depict them, we need both the terms of international system and international society in Bull’s
sense. (Hatsuse 2004)
History of the International System

from sparknotes.com
1
States engage with one another in an environment known as the International System.
All states are considered to be sovereign, and some states are more powerful than others. The
system has a number of informal rules about how things should be done, but these rules are not
binding. International relations have existed as long as states themselves. But the modern
international system under which we live today is only a few centuries old. Significant events
have marked the milestones in the development of the international system.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War between Catholic
states and Protestant states in western and central Europe, established our modern international
system. It declared that the sovereign leader of each nation-state could do as she or he wished
within its borders and established the state as the main actor in global politics. From that point
forward, the international system has consisted primarily of relations among nation-states.
Shifting Balances of Power (1600–1800)
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nation-state emerged as the dominant
political unit of the international system. A series of powerful states dominated Europe, with the
great powers rising and falling. Weaker states often banded together to prevent the dominant
power from becoming too strong, a practice known as preserving the Balance Of Power.
Frequent wars and economic competition marked this era. Some nations—notably France and
England—were powerful through most of the modern age, but some—such as Spain and the
Ottoman Empire—shrank in power over time.
Emergence of Nationalism (1800–1945)
The nineteenth century brought two major changes to the international system:
 Nationalism emerged as a strong force, allowing nation-states to grow even more
powerful.
 Italy and Germany became unified countries, which altered the balance of military and
economic power in Europe.
The problems raised by the unification of Germany contributed to World War I (1914–
1918). In the aftermath of the war, the international system changed dramatically again. The
major powers of Europe had suffered greatly, whereas the United States began to come out of its
isolation and transform into a global power. At the same time, the end of the Ottoman and
Austro-Hungarian empires created a series of new nations, and the rise of communism in Russia
presented problems for other nations. These factors contributed to the Treaty of Versailles, the
rise of Nazism and communism, and World War II (1939–1945).
New World Orders (1945–Present)
The end of World War II marked a decisive shift in the global system. After the war, only
two great world powers remained: the United States and the Soviet Union. Although some other
important states existed, almost all states were understood within the context of their relations
with the two superpowers. This global system was called Bipolar because the system centered on
two great powers.
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Since the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet Union, the nature of the world
has changed again. Only one superpower remains, leading some scholars to label the new
international system Unipolar. Others point to the increasing economic power of some European
and Asian states and label the new system Multipolar. To some extent, both terms are accurate.
The United States has the world’s most powerful military, which supports the unipolar view, but
the U.S. economy is not as powerful, relative to the rest of the world, lending credence to the
multipolar view.
Contemporary International Systems
System Number Of Nations Nations With Power Dates

With Power
Unipolar One United States Post-1989
Bipolar Two United States and the 1945–1989
Soviet Union
Multi-Polar Several United States, United Pre–World War I
Kingdom, France,
Russia, Germany, Italy,
Japan
United States, Post-1989
European Union,
China, India
A Plethora of Politics
Political scientists usually use the terms international politics and global politics
synonymously, but technically the terms have different meanings. International Politics, strictly
speaking, refers to relationships between states. Global Politics, in contrast, refers to
relationships among states and other interest groups, such as global institutions, corporations,
and political activists. Comparative Politics seeks to understand how states work by comparing
them to one another. While international relations studies how states relate to one another,
comparative politics compare the internal workings of a state, its political institutions, its political
culture, and the political behavior of its citizens. (sparknotes.com “International System,” 2018)
International Organizations
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An international organization is an organization created either by a treaty or other

instrument governed by international law and possessing its own international legal personality.
There are two types of international organizations:
 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs); and

 International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs or, more commonly, NGOs).
IGOs are formed when governments make an agreement or band together. Only
governments or nation-states belong to IGOs. On the other hand, INGOs are made up of
individuals and are not affiliated with governments. IGOs and INGOs exist for a variety of
reasons, such as controlling the proliferation of conventional and nuclear weapons, supervising
trade, maintaining military alliances, ending world hunger, and fostering the spread of
democracy and peace, etc.
Below are some examples of important international organizations:
Name Type Date Members As Of 2006

Founded
Amnesty International INGO 1961 1.8 million members in 150
countries
European Union (EU) IGO 1992 25 states, including the United
Kingdom, Sweden, and Estonia
International Olympic INGO 1894 115 individuals, who represent the
Committee (IOC) IOC in their home countries
Organization of IGO 1960 11 states, including Venezuela,
Petroleum Exporting Qatar, and Indonesia
Countries (OPEC)
Salvation Army INGO 1878 Runs programs in more than 100
countries; has 3.5 million
volunteers
Save the Children INGO 1932 Helps children in poverty around
the world, including the United
States and Nepal
United Nations (UN) IGO 1946 191 states, including Burkina Faso,
Denmark, the Philippines, and
Jamaica
World Bank IGO 1945 Offers loans to more than 100
states, including Cameroon and
Senegal
(sparknotes.com “International Organizations,” 2018)
Types of NGOs
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Below is a variety of acronyms to define specific types of NGOs:
INGO: international nongovernmental organization

BINGO: business-oriented nongovernmental organization
RINGO: religious-oriented nongovernmental organization
ENGO: environmental nongovernmental organization
GONGO: government-operated nongovernmental organization
QUANGO: quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organization
Image: Vince Cinches / Greenpeace Philippines
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Activity: International Institutions BINGO GAME
Bingo cards can be used for just about any content area to reinforce definitions, new
vocabulary, or even long thought out questions. To play this game, give every student a bingo
card. Call out the definition of the word or phrase. Students must then identify the word or
phrase on their bingo card and cover or mark the space. If a student has all words covered
diagonally, across a row or vertically in a column, they should call BINGO. If a student claims they
have BINGO and they are incorrect, they are disqualified from that round. Let's play the
International Institutions BINGO game! May the odds be ever in your favor!
B I N G O
Community of Cooperation
International
Portuguese Council of
Group of Seven Arab League Organisation of
Language Turkic-Speaking
La Francophonie
Countries States
Organization of
Organisation of Commonwealth
World Trade the Petroleum World Health
Islamic of Independent
Organization Exporting Organization
Cooperation States
Countries
Commonwealth
World Bank FREE United Nations Quartet on the
of Nations
Middle East
Organisation for
International
Economic Co- Bank of the International
Telecommunication EUCLID
operation and South Monetary Fund
Union
Development
North Atlantic
Amnesty
European Union Treaty Mercy Corps Greenpeace
International
Organization
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Research: Globalism vs. Internationalism
Use the Internet to compare and contrast globalism and internationalism.
Globalism Internationalism
Lesson 6: Global Governance
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In This Lesson
 Define global governance.

 Explain the relevance of the state/government amid globalization.
 Identify the issues and challenges of global governance in the 21 st century.
The World Health Organization defines global governance as “…the way in which global
affairs are managed. As there is no global government, global governance typically involves a
range of actors including states, as well as regional and international organizations. However, a
single organization may nominally be given the lead role on an issue, for example the World
Trade Organization in world trade affairs. Thus global governance is thought to be an
international process of consensus-forming which generates guidelines and agreements that
affect national governments and international corporations. Examples of such consensus would
include WHO policies on health issues” (World Health Organization, 2015).
This lesson will discuss global governance and the role of government within the context
of globalization as well as the issues and challenges to effective global governance.
What is Global Governance?

from Global Challenges Foundation
Global governance brings together diverse actors to coordinate collective action at the
level of the planet. The goal of global governance, roughly defined, is to provide global public
goods, particularly peace and security, justice and mediation systems for conflict, functioning
markets and unified standards for trade and industry. One crucial global public good is
catastrophic risk management – putting appropriate mechanisms in place to maximally reduce
the likelihood and impact of any event that could cause the death of 1 billion people across the
planet, or damage of equivalent magnitude.
The leading institution in charge of global governance today is the United Nations. It
was founded in 1945, in the wake of the Second World War, as a way to prevent future conflicts
on that scale. The United Nations does not directly bring together the people of the world, but
sovereign nation states, and currently counts 193 members who make recommendations
through the UN General Assembly. The UN’s main mandate is to preserve global security, which
it does particularly through the Security Council. In addition the UN can settle international legal
issues through the International Court of Justice, and implements its key decisions through the
Secretariat, led by the Secretary General.
The United Nations has added a range of areas to its core mandate since 1945. It works
through a range of agencies and associated institutions particularly to ensure greater shared
prosperity, as a desirable goal in itself, and as an indirect way to increase global stability. As a key
initiative in that regard, in 2015, the UN articulated the Sustainable Development Goals, creating
common goals for the collective future of the planet.
Beyond the UN, other institutions with a global mandate play an important role in global
governance. Of primary importance are the so-called Bretton Woods institutions: the World Bank
and the IMF, whose function is to regulate the global economy and credit markets. Those
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institutions are not without their critics for this very reason, being often blamed for maintaining
economic inequality.
Global governance is more generally effected through a range of organizations acting as

intermediary bodies. Those include bodies in charge of regional coordination, such as the EU or
ASEAN, which coordinate the policies of their members in a certain geographical zone. Those also
include strategic or economic initiatives under the leadership of one country – NATO for the US
or China’s Belt and Road Initiative for instance – or more generally coordinating defense or
economic integration, such as APEC or ANZUS. Finally, global governance relies on looser norm-
setting forums, such as the G20, the G7, the World Economic Forum: those do not set up treaties,
but offer spaces for gathering, discussing ideas, aligning policy and setting norms. This last
category could be extended to multi-stakeholder institutions that aim to align global standards,
for instance the Internet Engineering Taskforce (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C).
In summary, global governance is essential but fragmented, complex and little

understood. In this context, the key questions raised by the Global Challenges Foundation are,
how to reform institutions, how to develop alternative institutions, and how to use the new
possibilities of technology to improve governance. (Global Challenges Foundation 2020)
Core Principles of Global Governance
Five principles are critical to guiding the reforms of global governance and global rules
according to the United Nations’ Committee for Development Policy to wit:
(i) Common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities: This principle calls for
recognizing differences among countries in terms of their contribution and historical
responsibilities in generating common problems, as well as divergences in financial and technical
capacities, in order to address shared challenges. This principle also acknowledges the diversity
of national circumstances and policy approaches—a diversity which should be embedded in the
architecture of global governance as an intrinsic feature of the global community, not as an
exception to general rules.
(ii) Subsidiarity: Issues ought to be addressed at the lowest level capable of addressing them.
This principle implies that some problems can be handled well and efficiently at the local,
national, subregional and regional levels reducing the number of issues that need to be tackled at
the international and supranational level. Subsidiarity suggests an important role for regional
cooperation in addressing issues of mutual concern.
(iii) Inclusiveness, transparency, accountability: Global governance institutions need to be

representative of, and accountable to, the entire global community, while decision-making
procedures need to be democratic, inclusive and transparent. Robust governance implies mutual
accountability, verified by transparent and credible mechanisms and processes to ensure that
agreed commitments and duties are fulfilled.
(iv) Coherence: Definitions of global rules and processes need to rest on comprehensive
approaches, including the assessment of possible trade-offs, so that actions in different areas will
not undermine or disrupt one another, but instead be mutually reinforcing. Enhanced coherence
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is also needed between the international and national spheres of policymaking. This also requires
improved coordination among various stakeholders and enhanced information sharing.
(v) Responsible sovereignty: This principle recognizes that policy cooperation is the best way to
achieve national interests in the global public domain. It also requires Governments and States to
be fully respectful of the sovereignty of other nations so as to fulfil agreed policy outcomes. (The
UN Committee for Development Policy 2014)
The Role of Government

from globalization101.org
As with many issues pertaining to globalization, concerns and hopes about international
investment revolve in many ways around what governments may do. This means both what
governments may do to regulate foreign investment, perhaps to make it less volatile, as well as
actions government may take simply to get out of the way of the market, clearing the existing
barriers to capital. In addition, the role of government refers not only to individual nations, but to
international institutions such as the WTO and the IMF, which serve functions relating to global
governance.
Some of the steps these institutions of governance can take to help influence the
choices made by international investors include:
 The creation of new infrastructure and other facilities to attract foreign investment. As
described earlier, an array of services can help promote foreign investment in a country,
ranging from basic services such as the provision of electricity and clean water, to fair
and effective dispute resolution systems.
 The ability of governments to prevent or reduce financial crises also has a great impact
on the growth of capital flows. Steps to address these crises include strengthening
banking supervision, requiring more transparency in international financial transactions,
reducing the risk of moral hazard, and ensuring adequate supervision and regulation of
financial markets. The majority view among economists is that financial sector reform
must precede capital account liberalization. Other steps have been suggested to help
limit the volume of volatile short-term capital such as small taxes on foreign exchange
transactions. One prominent advocate of this idea was Nobel Prize winning economist
James Tobin. Although many countries have imposed limits or taxes on capital outflows,
another creative way to address volatility was applied by Chile, which imposed a small
transaction fee on capital inflows. This measure served to limit the amount of short-
term investment, but did not create a risk of deep concern to investors, namely, of
having trouble getting their money out of the country at some point in the future.
 Working with developing country governments in particular to help establish more
stringent labor and environmental standards to prevent either one from being
exploited.
 Protecting domestic infant-industries only long enough to allow them to become
competitive internationally. This step remains controversial, but some economists have
pointed out that a number of developing countries—indeed many of the countries that
have recorded the highest long-term growth rates—have done so after resorting to
some protection of sectors of domestic industry.
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As you can see from this list of policy options, people from almost the entire spectrum
of beliefs about globalization have prescriptions for government policy, even those who advise
that governments need only act to remove market-distorting tariff and regulatory barriers. And
this list is by no means comprehensive.
Ongoing events are leading an increasing number of analysts of globalization to suggest

that we explore the challenges and opportunities of globalization more fully, to better
understand its consequences and learn how to maximize its potential benefits while mitigating its
disruptions.
Economic events such as the East Asian financial crisis and more recent incidents such as
the collapse of the Argentinian economy in late 2001 have made many economists argue for
improved market mechanisms, such as regulatory measures and oversight. The fact that different
countries encountering similar problems have received different prescriptions from the
international community has also led many to argue for a more firmly established set of ground
rules.
Coordination between governments will be crucial for dealing with the global financial
and economic crisis of 2007-2009. According to UNCTAD, “the challenge is to restore the
credibility and stability of the international and financial system, to provide stimulus to economic
growth in order to prevent the risk of a spiraling depression, to renew a pragmatic commitment
to an open economy, potentially put at risk by rising protectionist tensions, and to encourage
investment and innovation” (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2009).
In addition, political events such as the large protests in 1999 at the Seattle WTO
meeting or in 2001 at the G8 meeting in Genoa, Italy, have led some political leaders to conclude
that certain kinds of market interventions or regulations are necessary to assist those who are
endangered by globalization, simply to sustain political support for continued liberalization.
Joseph Stiglitz, formerly chief economist of the World Bank and Nobel Prize winner for
economics in 2001, has characterized the globalization of international finance as suffering from
“global governance without global government.” He notes that the nationalization of the U.S.
economy, which began 150 years ago and was analogous in many ways to the process of
globalization, was accompanied by a significant expansion in government oversight and
regulation, to help temper crises and provide accountability.
One surefire prediction about the globalization debate is that much of the discussion
will continue to revolve around appropriate government policies. (SUNY 2017)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Activity: Issue/Challenge in Global Governance: A SWOT Analysis
A SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique used to help a person or organization

identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to business competition or
project planning. Strengths and weakness are frequently internally-related, while opportunities
and threats commonly focus on the external environment. The name is an acronym for the four
parameters the technique examines:
 Strengths: characteristics of the business or project that give it an advantage over
others.
 Weaknesses: characteristics of the business that place the business or project at a
disadvantage relative to others.
 Opportunities: elements in the environment that the business or project could exploit to
its advantage.
 Threats: elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business or
project. (Wikipedia “SWOT Analysis,” 2019)
Choose one issue/challenge in global governance from the following: rogue state, ethnic
conflict, infectious disease, terrorism, climate change, food and water scarcity, international
migration, human trafficking, drug trafficking, piracy and proliferation of Weapons of Mass
Destruction and then use the SWOT analysis template below.
Identified Issue/Challenge in Global Governance: _______________________________________
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
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RUBRIC
3 - Full Accomplishment - Students identified an issue/challenge in global governance and
applied the SWOT analysis in a clear and consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Accomplishment - Students identified an issue/challenge in global governance
and applied the SWOT analysis and do so in a somewhat consistent manner.
1 - Little or Partial Accomplishment - Students have difficulty identifying an issue/challenge in
global governance and applied the SWOT analysis consistently.
Unit 3 – A TALE OF TWO WORLDS
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There are two lessons which make up this unit: “Global North-South Divide” and “Asian
Regionalism.
The first lesson explains the Global North-South dynamic and critically examines the
issues/challenges currently faced by the Global North and Global South in order to bridge their
gap or divide. The lesson also considers the experiences of Latin American countries particularly
the South-South connection.
The global North refers to developed societies of Europe and North America, which are
characterized by established democracy, wealth, technological advancement, political stability,
aging population, zero population growth and dominance of world trade and politics. The global
South represents mainly agrarian economies in Africa, India, China, Latin America and others that
are not as economically sound and politically stable as their global North counterparts and tend
to be characterized by turmoil, war, conflict, poverty, anarchy and tyranny. In short, the global
North is synonymous with development, while the global South is associated with
underdevelopment. (Odeh 2019)
The second lesson tackles Asian regionalism and the driving forces for regional
cooperation among states in general, and in the East Asian region in particular.
Regionalism and globalization are two very different concepts: yet they inevitably work
together. Regionalism is the process through which geographical regions become significant
political and/or economic units serving as the basis for cooperation and possibly identity whereas
globalization is the interconnectedness and interdependence of states, forming a process of
international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other
aspects of culture.
Regionalism is inevitably linked with globalization. While globalization is the increased

interdependence of states, regionalism allows this dependence. Regional economic blocs have
tended to be formed in part because of the impact of globalization on the economic
independence of states. As borders have become porous and economic sovereignty has declined,
states have been inclined to work more closely with other states within the same region.
(wordpress.com 2014)
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Lesson 7: The Global North-South Divide
In This Lesson
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 Define the Global North-South divide.

 Discuss the history of the Global North-South dynamic.
 Critically challenge the accuracy of the Global North–South divide.
 Analyze how a new conception of global relations emerged from the experiences of
Latin American countries particularly the South-South connection.
What is the North-South Divide?

by Benjamin Elisha Sawe
The North-South Divide is a socio-economic and political categorization of countries. The

Cold-War-era generalization places countries in two distinct groups; The North and the South.
The North is comprised of all First World countries and most Second World countries while the
South is comprised of Third World countries. This categorization ignores the geographic position
of countries with some countries in the southern hemisphere such as Australia and New Zealand
being labeled as part of the North.
History
The origin of dividing countries into the North-South Divide arose during the Cold War of
the mid-20th century. During this time, countries were primarily categorized according to their
alignment between the Russian East and the American West. Countries in the East like the Soviet
Union and China which became classified as Second World countries. In the west, the United
States and its allies were labelled as First World countries. This division left out many countries
which were poorer than the First World and Second World countries. The poor countries were
eventually labeled as Third World countries. This categorization was later abandoned after the
Second World countries joined the First World countries. New criteria was established to
categorize countries which was named the North-South Divide where First World countries were
known as the North while Third World countries comprised the South.
The Brandt line, a definition from the 1980s dividing the world into the wealthy north
and the poor south.
The North (First World Countries)
The North of the Divide is comprised of countries which have developed economies and
account for over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world. Although these countries
account for only one-quarter of the total global population, they control 80% of the total income
earned around the world. All the members of the G8 come from the North as well as four
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permanent members of the UN Security Council. About 95% of the population in countries in The
North have enough basic needs and have access to functioning education systems. Countries
comprising the North include The United States, Canada, all countries in Western Europe,
Australia, New Zealand as well as the developed countries in Asia such as Japan and South Korea.
The South (Third World Countries)
The South is comprised of countries with developing economies which were initially
referred to as Third World countries during the Cold War. An important characteristic of
countries in the South is the relatively low GDP and the high population. The Third World
accounts for only a fifth of the globally earned income but accounts for over three-quarters of
the global population. Another common characteristic of the countries in the South is the lack of
basic amenities. As little as 5% of the population is able to access basic needs such as food and
shelter. The economies of most countries in the South rely on imports from the North and have
low technological penetration. The countries making up the South are mainly drawn from Africa,
South America, and Asia with all African and South American countries being from the South. The
only Asian countries not from the South are Japan and South Korea.
Criticism
The North-South Divide is criticized for being a way of segregating people along
economic lines and is seen as a factor of the widening gap between developed and developing
economies. However, several measures have been put in place to contract the North-South
Divide including the lobbying for international free trade and globalization. The United Nations
has been at the forefront in diminishing the North-South Divide through policies highlighted in its
Millennium Development Goals. (Sawe 2017)
Challenges
The accuracy of the North–South divide has been challenged on a number of grounds.
Firstly, differences in the political, economic and demographic make-up of countries tend to
complicate the idea of a monolithic South. Globalization has also challenged the notion of two
distinct economic spheres. Following the liberalization of post-Mao China initiated in 1978,
growing regional cooperation between the national economies of Asia has led to the growing
decentralization of the North as the main economic power. The economic status of the South has
also been fractured. As of 2015, all but roughly the bottom 60 nations of the Global South were
thought to be gaining on the North in terms of income, diversification, and participation in the
world market. Globalization has largely displaced the North–South divide as the theoretical
underpinning of the development efforts of international institutions such as the IMF, World
Bank, WTO, and various United Nations affiliated agencies, though these groups differ in their
perceptions of the relationship between globalization and inequality. Yet some remain critical of
the accuracy of globalization as a model of the world economy, emphasizing the enduring
centrality of nation-states in world politics and the prominence of regional trade relations.
(Wikipedia “North-South Divide” 2019)
What is South-South cooperation and why does it matter?
from The United Nations' Department of Economic and Social Affairs
This week in Argentina’s capital, Buenos Aires, over one thousand people, including
high-level government delegations and representatives from the private sector and civil society,
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will gather for the Second High-level United Nations Conference on South-South Cooperation, or
BAPA+40.
The Conference marks the 40th anniversary of the United Nations Conference on
Technical Cooperation Among Developing Countries, which was also held in Buenos Aires.
The central theme of discussion will be how South-South cooperation represents an

opportunity to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the globally-agreed
blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet.
UN Secretary-General António Guterres, who will participate in the opening ceremony

of the event, strongly believes in the importance of South-South cooperation to generate both
new ideas and concrete projects and also as a means to enable voices from the Global South to
drive innovation and promote development.
UN News has put together a handy guide to answer some questions regarding this
important meeting.
1. Let’s start with the basics, what is South-South Cooperation?
South-South cooperation refers to the technical cooperation among developing

countries in the Global South. It is a tool used by the states, international organizations,
academics, civil society and the private sector to collaborate and share knowledge, skills and
successful initiatives in specific areas such as agricultural development, human rights,
urbanization, health, climate change, etc.
2. What happened in Argentina 40 years ago?
During the 1960s and 1970s, with the global socio-economic climate entangled with
Cold War politics, developing countries began seeking ways to chart the course of their own
development; alternatives to the existing economic and political order.
Technical cooperation among these Southern States started as a pioneering associative

effort to strengthen their diplomatic and international negotiating power through political
dialogue.
What is now known as South-South cooperation, derives from the adoption of the
Buenos Aires Plan of Action for Promoting and Implementing Technical Cooperation among
Developing Countries (BAPA) by 138 UN Member States in Argentina, on September 18, 1978.
The plan established a scheme of collaboration among least developed countries, mostly
located in the south of the planet. It also established for the first time a framework for this type
of cooperation and incorporated in its practice the basic principles of relations between
sovereign States: respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs and equality of
rights, among others.
The BAPA defined as well a series of new and concrete recommendations aimed at
establishing legal frameworks and financing mechanisms at the national, regional, interregional
and global levels.
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Technical cooperation was defined in Buenos Aires as “an instrument capable of

promoting the exchange of successful experiences among countries that share similar historical
realities and similar challenges”.
3. But what about North-South cooperation and Triangular cooperation?
The division of “North” and “South” is used to refer to the social, economic and political
differences that exist between developed countries (North) and developing countries (South).
Although most of the high-income countries are indeed located in the northern
hemisphere, it should be noted that the division is not totally faithful to the actual geographical
division. A country is defined as North or South not by location, but depending on certain
economic factors and the quality of life of its population.
North-South cooperation, which is the most traditional type of cooperation, occurs

when a developed country supports economically or with another kind of resources a less
favored one, for example, with financial aid during a natural disaster or a humanitarian crisis.
Triangular cooperation, as the name implies, involves three actors, two from the South
and one from the North. The latter, which can also be an international organization, provides the
financial resources so that the countries of the South can exchange technical assistance on a
specific topic.
For example, in what is considered a successful experience, Japan International

Cooperation Agency (JICA) made it possible financially for demining Cambodian experts to travel
to Colombia and exchange their knowledge and experience in that field. Both Cambodia and
Colombia had a major issue with anti-personnel-mines in different moments of their history.
4. What is the importance of South-South cooperation?
“Innovative forms of knowledge exchange, technology transfer, emergency response

and recovery of livelihoods led by the South are transforming lives,” said the Secretary-General in
November 2018, during the inauguration of the 10th South-South Development Expo at UN
Headquarters in New York.
“The facts speak for themselves”, António Guterres said. The countries of the South
have contributed to more than half of the world’s growth in recent years; intra-south trade is
higher than ever, accounting for more than a quarter of all world trade; the outflows of foreign
direct investment from the South represent a third of the global flows; and remittances from
migrant workers to low and middle-income countries reached 466 billion dollars last year, which
helped lift millions of families out of poverty.
The UN chief believes that the ambitious and transformational 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development cannot be achieved without the ideas, energy and tremendous
ingenuity of the countries of the Global South.
5. What can South-South cooperation achieve?
Together with political dialogue and financial cooperation, South-South cooperation has
promoted a large number of knowledge and expertise exchanges through programs, projects,
and initiatives that have helped solve specific problems in the countries of the Global South.
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Last November, the UN Office for South-South Cooperation published a document

gathering more than 100 successful experiences that have contributed to the development of
countries around the world.
The publication contains examples from all regions of the world that demonstrate the
potential success of South-South cooperation such as Cuba’s support in the fight against Ebola in
West Africa; Mexico’s experience in diversifying corn products to improve health and nutrition in
Kenya; the knowledge of strategies to reduce hunger shared by Colombia to Mesoamerican
countries; and the lessons from Chile to the Caribbean countries on product labeling as a
measure to end obesity, among many others.
6. What is going to happen this week in Argentina?
The Member States will meet again in Buenos Aires for the Second High-Level
Conference on South-South Cooperation, BAPA+40, to review four decades of trends and launch
a new strategy in order to implement the 2030 Agenda.
BAPA+40, provides a unique opportunity to review the lessons learned since 1978,
identify new areas and mechanisms where South-South and Triangular cooperation can add
value and have a greater impact, and commit to building an adequate and systematic follow-up
in the framework of the United Nations system.
For three days, world leaders will meet to discuss a political declaration that is expected
to call for an increase in South-South cooperation, as well as institutional strengthening of
reporting and monitoring systems for this type of partnership.
The event will also feature panel discussions and a pavilion of different countries that
will share successful experiences, demonstrating the effectiveness of this type of cooperation,
and the potential of the ideas of the countries in the Global South. (The UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs 2019)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Global Stratification & Poverty” Video Evaluation Chart
1
Watch Crash Course Sociology #27: Global Stratification & Poverty hosted by Nicole
Sweeney during your free time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6rts_PWIVTU

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Theories of Global Stratification” Video Evaluation Chart
1
Watch Crash Course Sociology #28: Theories of Global Stratification hosted by Nicole
Sweeney during your free time. Use this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b350ljkYWrU

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

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Activity: Global North-South Divide Photo Collage
A collage is a work of art composed of numerous materials… Originating from the

French word “coller”, meaning “to glue”, the collage allows you to experiment with a wide range
of materials to achieve amazing end results (“How to Make a Collage,” 2018). In this activity,
students will have an option to create a collage using words and pictures to show the dichotomy
between the Global North and the Global South.
Materials Needed
1 whole illustration board, old-fashion or news magazines, newsprint, photographs or

electronic images, art papers, bond paper, Elmer’s glue, foils, tapes, scissors, marker, ribbons,
beads, string, feathers or fabric
Method
1. Collect the materials needed for making a collage.

2. Use cut-outs from magazines or newsprint.
3. Make use of different foils or tapes. Use colored masking or duct tape.
4. Use photographs. Cutting images from old photographs can lend your collage a retro feel.
5. Fold, cut or tear the paper into different shapes. You can use scissors to make different shapes.
6. Cut out a whole picture, an identifiable part, or just enough to evoke texture, color, or feeling.
7. To make a word, cut out letters from sources that use different fonts.
8. Choose an assigned theme (e.g. Global North or Global South).
9. Consider adding embellishments like ribbons, beads, string, feathers or fabric in the collage.
10. Figure out what you’re going to glue the collage onto your illustration board.
11. Assemble the pieces before you glue them.
12. Glue the collage. Use Elmer’s glue to fasten the images into the collage. Let the collage dry.
13. After completing your collage, snap a picture of it with your smartphone.
14. Be prepared to present your collage to the class by answering the following questions:
a. What is the subject matter of the collage?
b. What are the things you see in the collage?
c. What is going on in the collage?
d. What is your realization after doing this activity?
e. What is the possible title you will use in your collage?
RUBRIC
Use the rubric below to assess the output and presentation of the students:
3 – The student creates a collage and explains his/her work in a clear and consistent manner.
There are no major grammatical errors.
2 – The student creates a collage and explains his/her work and do so in a somewhat consistent
manner. There may be minor grammatical errors.
1 – The student has difficulty in creating a collage and explaining his/her work. There may be
major grammatical errors.
0 – The student makes an attempt to create a collage but the explanation is without merit.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

1
Quiz: Essay
Answer each question in exactly 140 words:

(1) In what ways did the global north-south divide?
(2) What way or method do you recommend to resolve the gap/divide between the Global
North and the Global South?
1.
2.
Lesson 8: Asian Regionalism
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In This Lesson
 Differentiate between regionalization and globalization.

 Identify the main characteristics of regionalism.
 Understand the driving forces for regional cooperation among states in general, and in
the East Asian region in particular.
Globalization, The New Regionalism and East Asia

from United Nations University Global Seminar '96 Shonan Session
by Björn Hettne
I. The New Regionalism: A Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
Over the last decade, the issue of regionalism has once again "been brought back in",
albeit in a different form compared to the debate on regional integration some three decades
ago. Thus, I shall argue that we are dealing with a "new" regionalism. I shall also argue that this
regionalism can be seen as a response to the process of globalization and the social eruptions
associated with this process. The second part of the paper applies the framework to the case of
East Asia.
Globalism versus Regionalism
Globalism can be defined as programmatic globalization, the vision of a borderless

world. I see globalization as a qualitatively new phenomenon. If globalization implies a tendency
towards a global social system, its origins may be traced far back in history, but one could also
argue that the process reached a new stage in the post-Second World War era. The subjective
sense of geographical distance is dramatically changed, some even speak of "the end of
geography". Also in ecological terms, the world is experienced as one. Economic
interdependence was made possible by the political stability of the American world order, which
lasted from the end of the Second World War until the late '60s or early '70s. Basically,
globalization indicates a qualitative deepening of the internationalization process, strengthening
the functional and weakening of the territorial dimension of development.
Globalism thus implies the growth of a world market, increasingly penetrating and
dominating the "national" economies, which in the process are bound to lose some of their
"nationness". This means the dominance of the world market over structures of local production,
as well as the increasing prevalence of Western-type consumerism. From this, there may emerge
a political will to halt or to reverse the process of globalization, in order to safeguard some
degree of territorial control and cultural diversity. One way of achieving such a change could be
through the New Regionalism.
The two processes of globalization and regionalization are articulated within the same
larger process of global structural transformation, the outcome of which depends on a dialectical
rather than linear development. It can therefore not be readily extrapolated or easily foreseen.
But rather it expresses the relative strength of contending social forces involved in the two
processes. They deeply affect the stability of the Westphalian state system; and therefore they at
the same time contribute to both disorder and, possibly, a future world order.
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There is an intricate relationship between regionalization and globalization. Compared

to "regionalism", with an impressive theoretical tradition behind it, "globalism" is a more recent
concept in social science. Whether its consequences are seen as catastrophic or as the ultimate
unification of the world, the concept of globalization is often used in a rather loose and
ideological sense.
However, there are also many definitions of the new regionalism, and, just as is the case
with globalization, some are enthusiastic, some more alarmist. For the critics, the regionalist
trend constitutes a threat to the multilateral system. For the enthusiasts, on the other hand, the
new regionalism could form the basis for an improved multilateral system. The basic problem
with globalization is its selectiveness. Exclusion is inherent in the process, and the benefits are
evenly balanced by misery, conflict, and violence. The negative effects are incompatible with the
survival of civil society, and thus in the longer run a threat to all humanity.
The New Face of Regionalism
What do I mean by the new regionalism? The new regionalism differs from the "old"
regionalism in a number of ways, and I want to emphasize the following five contrasts:
1. Whereas the old regionalism was formed in a bipolar Cold War context, the new is taking
shape in a multipolar world order. The new regionalism and multipolarity are, in fact, two sides
of the same coin. The decline of US hegemony and the breakdown of the Communist subsystem
created a room-for-maneuver, in which the new regionalism could develop. It would never have
been compatible with the Cold War system since the "quasi-regions" of that system tended to
reproduce bipolarity within themselves. This old pattern of hegemonic regionalism was, of
course, most evident in Europe before 1989, but at the height of the Cold War discernible in all
world regions. There are still remnants of it here in East Asia.
2. Whereas the old regionalism was created "from above" (often through superpower
intervention), the new is a more spontaneous process from within the regions, where the
constituent states now experience the need for cooperation in order to tackle new global
challenges. Regionalism is thus one way of coping with global transformation since most states
lack the capacity and the means to manage such a task on the "national" level.
3. Whereas the old regionalism was inward-oriented and protectionist in economic terms, the
new is often described as "open", and thus compatible with an interdependent world economy.
However, the idea of a certain degree of preferential treatment of countries within the region is
implied in the idea of open regionalism. How this somewhat contradictory balance between the
principle of multilateralism and the more particularistic regionalist concerns shall be maintained
remains somewhat unclear. I would rather stress the ambiguity between "opened" and "closed"
regionalism.
4. Whereas the old regionalism was specific with regard to its objectives (some organizations
being security-oriented, others economically oriented), the new is a more comprehensive,
multidimensional process. This process includes not only trade and economic development but
also environment, social policy, and security, just to mention some imperatives pushing countries
and communities towards cooperation within new types of regionalist frameworks.
5. Whereas the old regionalism was concerned only with relations between nation-states, the
new forms part of a global structural transformation in which non-state actors (many different
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types of institutions, organizations, and movements) are also active and operating at several
levels of the global system.
In sum, the new regionalism includes economic, political, social and cultural aspects, and
goes far beyond free trade. Rather, the political ambition of establishing regional coherence and
regional identity seems to be of primary importance. The new regionalism is linked to
globalization and can therefore not be understood merely from the point of view of the single
region. Rather it should be defined as a world order concept, since any particular process of
regionalization in any part of the world has systemic repercussions on other regions, thus shaping
the way in which the new world order is being organized. The new global power structure will
thus be defined by the world regions, but regions of different types.
Core and Periphery
A rough distinction can be made between three structurally different types of regions:
core regions, peripheral regions and, between them, intermediate regions. How do they differ
from each other?
The core regions are politically stable and economically dynamic. They organize for the
sake of being better able to control the rest of the world, the world outside their own region.
The intermediate regions are closely linked to the core regions. They will be incorporated as soon
as they conform to the criterion of "core-ness", that is, economic development and political
stability.
The peripheral regions, in contrast, are politically turbulent and economically stagnant.
Consequently, they must organize in order to arrest a process of marginalization. Their regional
arrangements are at the same time fragile and ineffective. Their overall situation makes "security
regionalism" and "developmental regionalism" more important than the creation of free trade
regimes. They are necessarily more introverted.
The core regions are those regions which are politically capable, no matter whether such
capability is expressed in the form of a political organization or not. So far only one of the three
core regions, namely Europe, aspires to build such an organization. The other two, that is North
America and East Asia, are both economically strong, but so far they lack a regional political
order.
Structurally close to the core are the intermediate regions, all in preparation for being
incorporated in the core, the speed depending on their good, "core-like", behavior. They are:
Central Europe, obediently waiting first in line for membership in the European Union,
Latin America and the Caribbean, in the process of becoming "North Americanized", China,
South-East Asia, and the "European Pacific", or Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), all now being
drawn by Japanese capital into the East Asia economic space.
Remaining in the periphery are thus the following five regions: the post-Soviet area, the
major parts of it now in the process of being reintegrated in the form of Commonwealth of
Independent States (perhaps laying the ground for a future core region), the Balkans, where the
countries have lost whatever little tradition of cooperation they once might have been involved
in, the Middle East, a region defined from outside and with a most unsettled regional structure,
South Asia, with a very low level of "regionness", because of the "cold war" (sometimes getting
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hot) between the two major powers, India and Pakistan, and finally, Africa, wherein many
countries the political structures called "states" are falling apart.
Levels of Regionness
Thus, the peripheral regions are "peripheral" because they are stagnant, turbulent and
war-prone. The only way for these regions to become less peripheral is to become more
regionalized, i.e. to increase their levels of "regionness". Otherwise, their only power resource
would rest in their capacity to create problems for the core regions ("chaos power"), and thereby
inviting some sort of external engagement. What shall we then understand by "regionness"? It
means that a region can be a region more or less. There are five degrees of "regionness":
1. Region as a geographical unit, delimited by more or less natural physical barriers and marked
by ecological characteristics: "Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals", "Africa South of the Sahara"
or "the Indian subcontinent". This first level can be referred to as a "proto-region", or a "pre-
regional zone", since there is no organized society. In order to further regionalize, this particular
territory must, necessarily, be inhabited by human beings, maintaining some kind of relationship.
This brings us to the social dimension.
2. Region as social system implies trans-local relations between human groups. These relations
constitute a security complex, in which the constituent units, as far as their own security is
concerned, are dependent on each other, as well as the overall stability of the regional system.
Thus the social relations may very well be hostile. The region, just like the international system of
which it forms a part, can, therefore, be described as anarchic. The classic case of such a regional
order is 19th century Europe. At this low level of organization, a balance of power or some kind
of "concert", is the sole security guarantee. This is a rather primitive security mechanism. We
could, therefore, talk of a "primitive" region.
3. Region as organized cooperation in any of the cultural, economic, political or military fields. In
this case, region is defined by the list of countries which are the formal members of the regional
organization in question. In the absence of some kind of organized cooperation, the concept of
regionalism does not make much sense. This more organized region could be called the "formal"
region. It should be possible to relate the "formal region" (defined by organizational
membership) to the "real region" (which has to be defined in terms of potentialities and through
less precise criteria) in order to assess the relevance and future potential of a particular regional
organization.
4. Region as civil society takes shape when the organizational framework facilitates and
promotes social communication and convergence of values throughout the region. Of course, the
pre-existence of a shared cultural tradition in a particular region is of crucial importance here,
but culture is not only a given but continuously created and recreated. However, the defining
element here is the multidimensional and voluntary quality of regional cooperation and the
societal characteristics indicating an emerging "regional anarchic society", that is something
more than anarchy, but less than society.
5. Region as acting subject with a distinct identity, actor capability, legitimacy and structure of
decision-making. Crucial areas for regional intervention are conflict resolution (between and
particularly within former "states") and the creation of welfare (in terms of social security and
regional balance). This process is similar to state formation and nation-building, and the ultimate
outcome could be a "region-state", which in terms of scope can be compared to the classical
1
empires, but in terms of political order constitutes a voluntary evolution of a group of formerly
sovereign national, political units into a supranational security community, where sovereignty is
pooled for the best of all.
The five levels may express a certain evolutionary logic, but the idea is not to suggest a
stage theory but to provide a framework for comparative analysis. Since regionalism is a political
project it may, just like a nation-state project, fail. This, similarly, means peripheralization and
decreasing regionness for the region concerned. Changes in terms of regionness thus imply
changes of the structural position in the center-periphery order.
The Dynamics of Regionalization
The degree of "regionness" of particular areas can increase or decrease depending on

regional dynamics, in which global, as well as national/local forces of course, have an impact.
Regionalization affects and is affected by many levels of the world system: the system as
a whole, the level of interregional relations, and the internal structure of the single region. It is
not possible to state which of these levels comes first or which is the more important since
changes on the various levels interact. There are also different dimensions of the process relating
to each other.
Regional integration was traditionally seen as a harmonization of trade policies leading to

deeper economic integration, with political integration as a possible future result. The concept
"new regionalism" refers to a transformation of a particular region from relative heterogeneity to
increased homogeneity with regard to a number of dimensions, the most important being
culture, security, economic policies, and political regimes. The convergence along these four
dimensions may be a natural process or politically steered or, most likely, a mixture of the two. A
certain level of "sameness" is a necessary but not sufficient condition.
 Culture takes a long time to change. Of importance here is rather the inherently shared
culture which usually is transnational, since national borders in many cases are artificial
divisions of a larger cultural area.
 A transformation of the security regime (from security complex towards security
community) is perhaps the most crucial factor.
 Changes in political regimes today typically mean democratization.
 Changes in economic policies nowadays normally go in the direction of economic
openness.
The dynamics of regionalization thus constitute the interaction between these dimensions
and can, furthermore, be found at different levels of world society:
On the global level, the changing structure of the world system provides room-for-maneuver
for the regional actors, at the same time as the process of regionalization in itself constitutes a
structural change towards multipolarity.
 On the level of interregional relations the behavior of one region affects the behavior of
others. European regionalism is, for instance, the trigger of global regionalization, at
least in two different ways: one positive (in promoting regionalism by providing a
model) the other negative (in provoking regionalism by constituting a protectionist
threat).
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 The regions themselves constitute arenas for sometimes competing, sometimes

converging "national interests". If the overall trend within a particular geographical area
is a convergence of interests, we can speak of an emerging regional actor.
 The actual process of regionalization is triggered by events on the sub-national level as
well. One example is the "black hole" syndrome or the disintegration of nation-states
due to ethnonational mobilization. A less violent form of national disintegration is the
emergence of economic micro-regions as the geopolitical environment creates a more
direct access to the macro economy for dynamic sub-national regions.
Although the region is slowly becoming an actor in its own terms, the nation-states
typically still conceive it as an arena where so-called "national interests" could be promoted, and
these interests are, of course, differently conceived by different social groups in society. Whereas
certain groups may find it rewarding to move into the supranational space, others cling to the
national space where they have their vested interests to protect. Regionalization thus creates its
own counterforces.
The Crucial Role of State Behavior
Regionalization does not come about unless the states in a particular region want it. It
may come about through a more or less spontaneous or unintended convergence in terms of
political regime, economic policy or security, but often one can identify a triggering political
event which sets the process in motion. Naturally, this political event is related to the main
players in the region, the policymakers, in contradistinction to policy takers, the smaller players.
In order to understand the regionalization in various areas of the world, it is thus wise to observe
the behavior of the policymakers.
We can divide the policymakers into two categories, those whose influence goes beyond
a particular region, the world powers, and those whose influence is confined to a particular
region, the regional powers.
 World powers may not be able to achieve hegemony on the world level, which, since
the range of their influence is undefined and varying, means that there will be a certain
competition among them.
 The regional powers may be hegemonic in their own regions (which implies a general
acceptance or at least tolerance of their leadership throughout the region) or simply
dominant (which means that they are looked upon with suspicion and fear among the
minor players).
The policy takers can be further subdivided into:
 those who are supportive of the regionalization process (sometimes the smaller players
are the main proponents), the "supporters",
 those who try to find their own path or, rather, several paths (since they would be
welcome into more than one regional organization), "the multi-trackers",
 and those who are left in the cold (since they are seen as liabilities rather than assets),
"the isolated".
In some cases regionalism grows from extended bilateral relations, for instance in the
Americas, where both Nafta and Mercosur resulted from a situation where third parties (Canada
and Uruguay) became anxious not to be left in the cold. The regional powers (in these cases the
1
USA and Brazil) usually prefer bilateralism to regionalism. This is also the case in South Asia,
where the small players softly imposed regionalism on the regional power. India was always
more in favor of bilateralism. The same behavior seems to be repeated by China in East Asia.
The change from bilateralism to regionalism is thus one crucial indicator of increasing
regionness of a region, but as here defined, increasing regionness can also result from
overlapping bilateral agreements within a region, since such agreements imply policy
convergences in various fields. It is therefore important to take the point of departure in the
geographical area as such, and not from the formal regional agreements.
The Impact of Regionalization
The final issue I want to discuss here concerns the consequences of regionalization in
terms of security and development. What are, first, the security problems to which
regionalization may provide a solution? They can be summarized in the metaphor of "black
holes", or what in UN terminology is referred to as "failed states". National disintegration seems
to reinforce the process of regionalization via threats to regional security, provoking some kind of
reaction on the regional level. It may even form part of the process of regionalization, since the
enlargement of political space provides opportunities for different sub-national and micro-
regional forces, previously locked into state structures, to reassert themselves.
The collapse of political authority at one level of society tends to open up a previously
latent power struggle at lower levels, and in a complex multi-ethnic polity the process of
disintegration may go on almost indefinitely. However, sooner or later there must be some
reorganization of social power and political authority on a higher level of societal organization,
most probably the region.
This is likely to be preceded by some form of external intervention with the purpose of
reversing the disintegration process. Again the region may play a role, but there are also other,
and so far more important, actors. A distinction can be made between five different modes of
external intervention: unilateral, bilateral, plurilateral, regional and multilateral.
 The unilateral can either be carried out by a concerned neighbor trying to avoid a wave
of refugees or by a regional/superpower having strategic interests in the region.
 In the bilateral case, there is some kind of (more or less voluntary) agreement between
the intervener and the country in which the intervention is made.
 The plurilateral variety can be an ad hoc group of countries or some more permanent
form of alliance.
 The regional intervention is carried out by a regional organization and thus has a
territorial orientation.
 The multilateral, finally, normally means a UN-led or at least UN-sanctioned operation.
These distinctions are not very clear-cut, and in real-world situations several actors at
different levels may be involved, the number increasing with the complexity of the conflict itself.
However, it is my belief that future external interventions will be a combination of regional and
multilateral operations, but with an increasingly important role for the former. The record of
regional intervention in domestic conflicts and regional conflict resolution is a recent one and
therefore the empirical basis for making an assessment is weak. However, in almost all world
regions there have been attempts at conflict resolution with a more or less significant element of
1
regional intervention, often in combination with multilateralism (UN involvement). Perhaps the
future world order can be characterized as regional multilateralism?
Secondly, the new regionalism may provide solutions to development problems, which
in fact can be seen as a form of conflict prevention, since many of the internal conflicts are
rooted in development problems of different kinds. Under the old regionalism, free trade
arrangements reproduced center-periphery tensions within the regions, which made regional
organizations either disintegrate or fall into slumber. Let me propose the following seven
arguments in favor of a more comprehensive development regionalism:
 Although the question of size of national territory might be of lesser importance in a

highly interdependent world, regional cooperation is nevertheless imperative,
particularly in the case of microstates, which either have to cooperate to solve common
problems or become client states of the "core countries" (the "sufficient size"
argument);
 Self-reliance, rarely viable on the national level, may yet be a feasible development
strategy at the regional, if defined as coordination of production, improvement of
infrastructure and making use of complementarities (the "viable economy" argument);
 Economic policies may remain more stable and consistent if underpinned by regional
arrangements which cannot be broken by a participant country without provoking some
kind of sanctions from the others (the "credibility" argument);
 Collective bargaining on the level of the region could improve the economic position of
marginalized countries in the world system, or protect the structural position and
market access of emerging export countries (the "effective articulation" argument);
 Regionalism can reinforce societal viability by including social security issues and an
element of redistribution (by regional funds or specialized banks) in the regionalist
project (the "social stability" argument);
 Ecological and political borders rarely coincide. Few serious environmental problems can
be solved within the framework of the nation-state. Some problems are bilateral, some
are global, quite a few are regional, the latter often related to water: coastal waters,
rivers, and groundwater. The fact that regional management programs exist and persist,
in spite of nationalist rivalries, shows the imperative need for environmental
cooperation (the "resource management" argument);
 Regional conflict resolution, if successful and durable, eliminates distorted investment
patterns, since the "security fund" (military expenditures) can be tapped for more
productive use (the "peace dividend" argument).
In sum, development regionalism contains the traditional arguments for regional

cooperation such as territorial size and economies of scale, but, more significantly, add some
which are expressing new concerns and uncertainties in the current transformation of the world
order and world economy.
During the Cold War, a common argument (the "common security" approach) against
nuclear armament was that the destructive capacity of the military establishments was excessive
and therefore irrational and that whatever reduction of the level of armament that could be
negotiated might be used for civil (development) purposes. Some regions, such as East Asia and
Europe (and within these regions Japan and West Germany in particular) were seen as "free
riders" of the security order since they could devote more resources to investment and economic
growth.
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In the post-Cold War order, these regions have been encouraged to take a larger
responsibility for their own security. At the same time, the removal of the Cold War "overlay"
permitted latent conflicts to re-emerge, giving rise to costly (conventional) armaments races. The
security situations differ from region to region, with vacuum problems in East Asia and Europe,
eruptions of older conflicts in South Asia and the Middle East, breakdowns of political order
leading to "tribalism" in Africa and the Balkans. The only region experiencing relative peace is
Latin America, which now may be said to have a comparative advantage in peace and political
stability. The peace in East Asia seems less stable, but in view of the high degree of economic
independence, the states have a high stake in regional security. Here the circle is closed: regional
cooperation for development reduces the level of conflict and the peace dividend facilitates
further development cooperation. This positive circle can also be turned into a vicious circle,
where conflict and underdevelopment feed on each other. Security and development form one
integrated complex, at the same time as they constitute two fundamental imperatives for
regional cooperation and increasing regionness. The levels of regionness between regions in the
process of being formed will continue to be uneven. Only the future will decide where these
levels will be, and where the balance between regionalization and globalization will be struck.
However, political will and political action will certainly play their part in breaking the vicious
circle of regional conflict, insecurity, and underdevelopment.
II. Regionalism in "the Pacific Age"
Asia-Pacific is becoming the new center of global capitalism. It can also be seen as an
emerging trade bloc under the leadership of Japan, its distinctness depending on the relative
degrees of cooperation and conflict among competing capitalisms: North America, Europe, and
Asia-Pacific. It contains several potential regional formations, the shapes of which, due to
unresolved security dilemmas, are still uncertain. It is thus not so easy to tell what is intraregional
and interregional in the case of Asia-Pacific. So far the three regions within the Asia-Pacific area
show a low degree of regionness. East Asia lacks any kind of formal regionalist framework. South-
East Asia earlier contained two regional formations: the now more or less post-Communist Indo-
China and the previously anti-Communist ASEAN grouping. The political rationales for these
formations have thus completely changed, much like in Europe, and there are new possible
alignments. The "European Pacific" (Australia and New Zealand) may turn Euro-Asian, but they
may also be seen as regional great powers in a fourth "region" of Pacific microstates: the South
Pacific. In the sections below we first describe the historical heterogeneity of the Pacific region,
secondly experiences of regional conflict and conflict resolution, and thirdly integrative forces
that nevertheless exist.
Pacific Regions and Regional Identity
In the first section of this chapter, an argument was made that regionalization is a
worldwide process forming a part of global transformation. A crucial issue is thus what regional
formations can be found in this particular geographical area, and what, if any, shared cultural
basis there is to form a regional identity. The Asia-Pacific area, which in itself hardly constitutes a
region except in a purely geographical sense, contains three more distinct regional formations:
East Asia, South-East Asia, and Australia/New Zealand, which, although physically distant from
Europe, have cultural European origins. Under the impact of successive immigrations, this
heritage is becoming less distinct and economically the region is becoming part of Asia. Sixty-five
percent of the Asia-Pacific trade is now intraregional (compared to 62% in the EC). Also, the
embryonic security network (ASEAN Regional Forum) is extended throughout the Asia-Pacific
area. The Pacific also includes the South Pacific islands of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia,
1
and reaches parts of the USA and Latin America. Although not seen as "Asian" (being far away
from the Asian continent), the South Pacific is also becoming part of the East Asian economic
space. Thus regionalism can be discussed in terms of maximalist and minimalist regionalist
options (Öjendal 1996a).
East Asia is the most dynamic of the world regions, containing a hegemonic contender
(Japan), an enormous "domestic" market (China), three NICs (South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong
Kong) and a socialist autarky (North Korea), in the midst of major changes which may
fundamentally alter the pattern of cooperation within the region. A reunification of Korea, a
democratization of China and a more independent Japanese role would release an enormous
potential. These changes are admittedly not imminent, but on the other hand quite feasible. At
present, the East Asian region is a region largely in the geographical, economic and perhaps
cultural (Confucian-Buddhist) sense of the concept, while a regional security order is missing.
Previous experiences of "regionalism" have been rather imperialistic. The degree of "regionness"
is thus low in spite of the fact that unplanned economic integration is now taking place due to
the dominance of the yen. Regional integration thus takes place without much formal
institutionalization (Palmer 1991, p. 5). The end of the Cold War opened up new possibilities for
inter-subregional contacts, widening the potential regional cooperation. The Confucian model
provides a dominant pattern of social and political organization, which now frequently is hailed
as a cultural alternative to Westernization (Herald Tribune, 13 July 1992). Many countries are
facing internal basic policy options which will have a crucial impact on further regionalization and
future regional configurations.
Perhaps the most complex issue in the region is the future role of Japan. Will it remain
number two in Pax Americana or take a more independent global or regional role? The latter,
and perhaps more likely option, would imply the accumulation of military strength and a break
with the introverted Japanese world view. It also implies reversing the process of "de-
Asianization" begun in the 19th century. The former course presupposes that the US itself does
not turn to isolationism, which would create great confusion as far as Japan is concerned
(Tamamoto 1990). References to "global partnership" cannot hide the fact that the old security
order is defunct, due to the disappearance of the main threat, against which the order was built,
and the emergence of new threats which may necessitate new approaches. There is, as yet, no
national consensus in Japan regarding her proper role in the world. The erosion of the hegemonic
position of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) implies that different options will be more
politically articulated and possibly that future lines of action will be based on a changing pattern
of political alliances. The pressure on Japan from outside also increases, due to the regionalist
and protectionist trend in the world economy.
Japan, not a great practitioner of but increasingly dependent on free trade, has so far
been rather negative or at least neutral to the idea of regionalism. It would, if regionalization
were to be the main trend, appear as a regional power in more than one sense, which is bound
to create suspicions throughout the region. Some countries have the Greater East Asian Co-
prosperity Sphere in vivid memory, and even today the Japanese attitude towards Asia is not free
from arrogance. As in the case of Germany in the EC/EU, a comprehensive regional framework
would help protect Japan against itself, an Asianized Japan rather than a Japanized Asia. Japan
has, however, a rather weak identity as an Asian power, and the prospect of "re-Asianization"
does not seem to be very popular. At the moment, Japan has "a regional policy for Asia but not a
policy of regionalism" (FEER, 18 June 1992). The latter would necessitate that Japan acted more
like a powerful nation-state, less like an international trading firm (Pyle 1993).
1
Much will, of course, depend on the future behavior of China in the region. China will
continue the long road towards a more open economy in spite of the temporary isolation which
followed in the wake of the Tiananmen Square incident. China's self-reliance-oriented economy
built in the Cold War context is in need of transformation, which (as in the case of Viet Nam)
implies a change in the domestic balance of power away from Beijing and towards the south,
where foreign investments flow. Guangdong Province is forging links with Hong Kong, Fujian with
Taiwan, Japan invests primarily in the Shanghai area, and South Korea in Shandong Province.
China as a centralized empire is probably doomed, but its eventual dissolution could hopefully be
less turbulent than the dissolution of the Soviet empire proved to be.
Regional Conflict Management
Asia-Pacific is a Cold War-era par preference. This means that previous conflicts have
had a strong element of external superpower intervention in accordance with the Cold War
pattern. This situation is now changing quite dramatically, and more traditional rivalries are
resurging, more similar to a 19th-century Europe-type situation. The larger Asia-Pacific "region"
(or rather geographical area) was most affected by the Cold War, and the recent lifting of the
superpower overlay, therefore, has created a kind of vacuum and a great uncertainty in the
security field. Several powers (great powers and middle powers) have more or less open regional
ambitions, which must be related to turbulent and highly unpredictable domestic situations in
the countries concerned. Regarding the China-Japan relation, Barry Buzan has made an
interesting comparison with the role of restless Germany, now played by China, in 19th century
Europe, whereas the British role as the global power fully satisfied with the status quo is played
by Japan (Buzan 1996). The avoidance of a replay of this drama is obviously necessary for
regional peace. Korean unification is another key to real regional cooperation. Considering the
economic superiority of South Korea and the political lag in North Korea, such a reunion may take
different forms: war, a spontaneous process of the German type (an "Anschluss") or a more
organized path through preparatory negotiations. Regional conflict management is thus an
important step towards further regionalization. At the same time the overall regional framework
for conflict resolution is weak, hardly existing in East Asia, and so far confined to one of the two
subregions in South-East Asia.
Stable peace in the larger region would change the basic parameters for the way ASEAN
operates at present. As the superpowers pull out, old rivalries are emerging, at the same time as
the objective preconditions for a cooperation encompassing the whole region in the longer run
are improving. This trend will be reinforced by great power ambitions in the larger Asia-Pacific
area, where South-East Asia is sandwiched between East Asian (China, Japan) and South Asian
(India) regional powers. There is a strong feeling of encirclement and external penetration in the
South-East Asian region, coexisting with a tradition of reliance on external security support.
Somehow this contradiction must be overcome.
The Cambodian conflict has been of major concern for the ASEAN countries and has
been compared to a "Bosnia" in the region (FEER, 27 May 1993). The history goes much further
back, actually to the Viet Nam war. The ultra-leftist Khmer Rouge regime pursued an extreme
autarkic line which included the physical elimination of urban ("cosmopolitan") elements. The
first intervention was of the unilateral (neighborly) kind. The Vietnamese intervention led to a
sharp polarization both at the regional and the global level. In 1991, when the Soviet veto had
disappeared from international decision-making, an agreement in the Security Council
(permanent five) on the "framework for a comprehensive settlement of the Cambodia conflict"
was reached and the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was created.
1
This, the largest UN operation so far, was the beginning of the peace process and included a
democratic election. The non-participation of the Khmer Rouge in the elections fueled the fears
that the guerrillas planned a division of the country. However, their political strength was much
less than generally expected. They had become "rebels without a cause" (Theyer 1995). The
turnout of the voters, on the other hand, was much larger than expected and was a triumph for
the UN. The operation gave an opportunity for Japan to participate in a large international
operation, probably indicating a more far-going security interest in the region. For Cambodia,
several question marks remain, above all the question of how the Khmer Rouge may rejoin the
national community and on what conditions. Only when this problem has found a solution, is it
possible to talk about real conflict resolution. So far this is rather a case of multilateral conflict
management with a strong regional component. Cambodia has strongly declared its intention to
become a member of ASEAN, and this co-optation (which can be compared to the inclusion of
Greece, Spain, and Portugal in the EEC) is also seen by the regional organization as a stabilizing
measure. Whether this implies the survival of democracy (particularly of the kind imposed by the
UN) remains to be seen (Öjendal 1996b).
Towards Regional Cohesion?
East Asia and South-East Asia are, due to economic linkages, becoming hard to separate
from each other, and will be even more converging in the future, as countries such as Malaysia
and Thailand (apart from Singapore, which is already known as a NIC) are more or less
successfully trying to apply the NIC strategy. Thus, the Asian core of the Pacific rim, east, and
south-east, will probably follow its own economic course.
South-East Asia, like Europe, has been divided into two economic and political blocs:
ASEAN (Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei) which has existed
since 1967, and the "Indochinese" area (Viet Nam, Kampuchea and Laos). The latter subregion
has been under Communist rule, with Viet Nam exercising subregional hegemony. This role is
now played down at the same time as market-oriented economic policies (doimoi) are
implemented. Viet Nam, and behind it the Soviet Union, was earlier seen as a threat by the
ASEAN countries. This threat was a crucial factor behind the relative cohesiveness of the
organization in the Cold War era. The source of common cause and identity was thus partly an
external threat, and there were few incentives for economic cooperation. Only recently (January
1993) a free trade agreement, AFTA, within the 330-million-people ASEAN region was agreed to
be realized within a fifteen-year period. The planned tariff slopes of the different countries differ
according to starting point and speed, which complicates the competitive situation in the
intraregional trade of the constituent countries. The more protectionist countries will probably
use AFTA to dump into more open economies. Many therefore doubt that this free trade zone
will be realized. ASEAN countries are direct competitors in many areas and it will take a long time
for them to develop into complementary economies. From the very beginning, ASEAN was a
political, rather than economic, organization (Yamakage 1990), and now the political
preconditions have changed.
In fact, there are strong inter-state, as well as intra-state, tensions in the two
subregions. The latter can be exemplified by ethnic tensions (Malaysia, the Philippines) and the
former by old territorial disputes (Indonesia vs. Malaysia), as well as contrasting views on
regional security (Singapore vs. Indonesia and Malaysia). As in Europe, the dismantling of the
Cold War system will change the pattern of conflict rather than eliminate the conflicts. We can,
therefore, expect more relaxation between the two subregions, but more conflicts within them.
Possibly the ASEAN framework is now strong enough to deal with them. The recent ASEAN
1
meeting in Manila, for instance, addressed the tension over the Spratly Islands in the South China
Sea, which triggered a wider ASEAN interest to discuss a future security arrangement "in the
post-Cambodia era" (The Nation, Bangkok, 23 July 1992). Ad hoc consultations may no longer be
sufficient (Leifer 1992).
The countries in ASEAN could be described as capitalist in economic terms and

conservative in political terms, although, for instance, Singapore and Indonesia differ significantly
in their economic policies. The organization assumed importance as a regional organization only
after 1975 when there were increasing political uncertainties in the region. The economic
integration that has taken place so far is rather modest, and the figure for intraregional trade is
only about 20 percent. The external dependence on Japan is felt to be problematic.
The national economies are outward-oriented, and the political systems are formally
democratic or semi-democratic but in practice more or less authoritarian. The Confucian model
has a strong impact on this region as well, so authoritarianism, in fact, constitutes the
homogenizing political factor. The ASEAN countries are in various phases on a NIC-type
development path. Problems in the international market usually reinforce domestic
authoritarianism due to the strong two-way causal relationship between economic growth and
political stability. Economic growth and redistribution are a pre-condition for ethnic peace,
political stability a precondition for the economic confidence expressed by international capital
towards the region.
Australia and New Zealand, although geographically distant from Europe, have
European, and particularly British, origins. Under the impact of successive immigrations, the
European heritage is becoming less distinctive. Economically, they are becoming part of Asia and
dependent on Japan. Australia's exports to Britain have fallen from 32% (in 1950) to a mere 3%
today. Sixty percent of exports now go to Asia. The leaders are, consequently, promoting a
republican Australia less attached to Britain and more involved in Asia, but this involvement
obviously has its limits. The term "open regionalism" is often used for regional trade
arrangements that do not hurt third parties. The ASEAN countries are still not convinced about
the goodwill of the two European Asians, and as an editorial in The New Straits Times puts it
"first it must prove that it is proud to be part of Asia" (quoted from EPW, 24 April 1993). Australia
is publicly criticizing the regionalist project of creating an East Asian Economic Caucus (EAEC),
which is a proposition from the South-East Asian region while backing the much looser Asia
Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Politically they are thus still not quite part of the region,
and there has also been a discussion on Australia joining NAFTA (Bangkok Post, 12 Sept. 1992).
The Australian attitude to Europe is becoming increasingly negative. Similarly, New Zealand is
one of the major victims of European agricultural protectionism.
In 1990 the Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir (in frustration over drawn-out GATT
negotiations) urged Japan to act as a leader of an East Asian Economic Grouping (EAEG), which
would create an East Asian and South-East Asian superbloc with a Sino-Japanese core. EAEG (it
has since been modestly renamed the East Asia Economic Caucus - EAEC) would be a sort of
response to the European and North American "fortresses". The EAEC proposal is slowly gaining
support among other ASEAN countries, whereas the East Asian countries, particularly Japan and
South Korea, have taken a more skeptical attitude. So have the USA and the World Bank.
According to a World Bank report (Sustaining Rapid Development), East Asia can strengthen
regional integration through trade liberalization and promotion of foreign direct investment
within the framework of the multilateral trading system. "A trading block would more likely
1
foster an inward orientation, impairing the worldwide search for market opportunities that has
served East Asia so well" (quoted from the Bangkok Post, 15 April 1993, p. 25).
A more comprehensive alternative is thus the 15-member-strong forum for Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC), which was set up in 1989 with regional and interregional trade
expansion as its main goal. Similar to the "Atlantic project" in Europe, it is a trans-regional
network providing a bridge for the USA in the area, and therefore supported by US-oriented
regimes and opposed by spokesmen for a genuinely Asian regionalism. From the US point of view
APEC, like NAFTA in the Americas, is a continuation of its strategy of bilateralism. Again we meet
the two distinct understandings of regionalism: (1) a way of managing multilateralism and (2) a
challenge to multilateralism. So far, the first conception predominates in Asia-Pacific. The idea of
any kind of more introverted regionalism is thus very controversial in a region extremely
dependent on unhindered world trade, and the debate is carried out merely in terms of an
"insurance policy" (FEER, 25 July 1991).
Conclusion
In order to test the argument that there is a worldwide process of regionalization taking
the shape of a new regionalism, it might have been simpler to choose another example than
Asia-Pacific. East Asian regionalism is often described as de facto regionalism, whereas
regionalization is supposed to take place de jure in Europe and North America. This contrast may
be due to differences in political culture, but an alternative explanation could lie in the fact that
the inter-state relations in East Asia are rather tense and unsettled (albeit not openly hostile).
Thus a growing maturity of the regional security complex may lead to a more formal regionalism,
just as the normalization of the relations among the countries in South-East Asia has been
accompanied by a more formal and predictable regional arrangement than presently seems to be
possible in East Asia. This having been said, it is obvious that on other levels than the inter-state
level, there has been an impressive process of regionalization. The future of the region is either
very black - in case the potential conflicts are translated into war - or very bright - if the degree of
interdependence proves to be a point of convergence of interests where every state gets a stake
in stable peace. In some of the South-East Asian states, this condition must apply also to various
domestic groups, a condition which makes the optimistic scenario somewhat unrealistic. Quite a
few states may, due to domestic problems, have fewer resources to devote to regional
cooperation in the future. The two giants China and Japan face different problems but the
problems as such cannot be easily dismissed. China is an old empire becoming a modern region-
state, but the level of regionness is far from sufficient to maintain a central legitimate authority
throughout the region (i.e. the previous empire). In the case of Japan there is also a lack of clear
perception of regional policy, not because of isolation but too much dependence on one of the
former superpowers. Thus there is not only a lack of formal regionalism (which is less serious),
but a lack of policymakers with region-wide authority, i.e. hegemony. In spite of that, there are
many reasons, particularly in the areas of development and conflict management, to believe that
the global process of regionalization will have a deep impact also on East Asia and South-East
Asia in the future. The NICs are facing changes in those objective conditions which originally
made them into NICs. Their strategy in the 1990s will probably be betting on the domestic
market, preferably a regional market. The regional framework is still, however, in a flux.
Note
1
1. This paper is based on a lecture held at the Shonan Global Seminar 1996 and outlines a theoretical and
conceptual framework for the comparative analysis of the new wave of regionalism, here called "the new
regionalism", and applies this framework to the case of East Asia. The framework is the outcome of the now
concluded UNU/WIDER project on The New Regionalism and Its Implications for Peace and Development. I
am grateful for comments from Takashi Inoguchi, who chaired the Shonan session, and Joakim Öjendal,
Padrigu.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________
1
Apply this chart to Björn Hettne’s “Globalization, The New Regionalism and East Asia”
from United Nations University Global Seminar '96 Shonan Session. Check your understanding of
this essay by filling in the chart below. Use a separate sheet of paper if necessary.
Thesis Statement
Conclusion
Essay Rubric
1
overall message.
writer’s purpose;
unsophisticated;
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

1
Essay: “Asia's rise -- how and when from” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Hans Rosling’s talk Asia's rise -- how and when from TEDxIndia during your free
time. Use this link https://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_asia_s_rise_how_and_when?
language=en and then read the instructions below carefully and answer the following questions
cogently.

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

1
Essay: “How the West can adapt to a rising Asia” Video Evaluation Chart
Watch Kishore Mahbubani’s talk How the West can adapt to a rising Asia from TED2019
during your free time. Use this link
https://www.ted.com/talks/kishore_mahbubani_how_the_west_can_adapt_to_a_rising_asia?
language=en and then read the instructions below carefully and answer the following questions
cogently.

____Very Favorable
____ Favorable
____Unfavorable
____Uncertain
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
RUBRIC
consistent manner.
Name _______________________________________________________ Score _____________

Subject and Section ____________________________________________ Date _____________
1
Activity: Discovering Asia
Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, The Taj Mahal, Agra, India (1632-1653)
“The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only a page,” so said Saint
Augustine. In this activity, students will spend time exploring the Internet, and try to look for and
get eight interesting images of places in Asia. The goal of this activity is to help students be
familiar with and appreciate the different places located in our continent.
Materials Needed
A laptop computer, MS Powerpoint
Method
1. Search the Internet and obtain eight pictures about the places located in Asia.
2. Describe each picture in 10 words by describing its subject or content.
3. Create a Powerpoint presentation.
4. Present your 8 pictures to the class.
5. Share any lesson or insight that you gain from this activity.
RUBRIC
3 - Full Accomplishment – Students presented their 8 pictures in 80 words about places located
in Asia in a clear and consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Accomplishment - Students presented their 8 pictures in 80 words about places
located in Asia and do so in a somewhat consistent manner.
1 – Little Accomplishment – Students have difficulty presenting their 8 pictures in 80 words
about places located in Asia consistently.
Name _______________________________________________________ Score _____________

1
Activity: ASIAN COUNTRIES WORD SEARCH
R A M A L D I V E S V A T A
E N E P A L C A M B O D I A
R N A T S I K A P I W D N M
P A N O N A B E L T N H D Y
O N S M P T O O D I I U R A
N A O N E E R O P A G N I S
A J A B N E M E Y N A A L O
M B L D R D N A L I A H T T
O A D R N U O U N M A I A I
R A T A Q D N H I I N A M A
E B H U T A N E A R V N R W
I J O R D A N O I D A O U U
N I N A M A N T E I V N B K
N O A K I N D O N E S I A A
YEMEN INDONESIA OMAN LEBANON BURMA

BHUTAN PAKISTAN CAMBODIA LAOS INDIA
VIETNAM NEPAL THAILAND QATAR IRAN
MALDIVES BRUNEI SINGAPORE KUWAIT JORDAN
Name _______________________________________________________ Score _____________

Midterm Examination
1
Directions: Read the following questions and quotes about globalization and then
answer each question and quote in exactly 140 words on a separate sheet of paper.
A. Questions
1. What is globalization and who are its major actors and agencies?
2. What is the role of the internet/communication/technology in globalization?
3. What are the benefits of globalization for the average person? What are the drawbacks of
globalization for the average person?
4. List three specific things that we can do to maximize the potential of globalization while
minimizing its deleterious effects.
5. Are there alternatives to globalization?
B. Quotes
1. “Globalization is a fact of life. But I believe we have underestimated its fragility." ― Kofi
Annan
2. “Our task is not to make societies safe for globalization, but to make the global system safe
for decent societies.” ― John J. Sweeney
3. “Globalization has made national boundaries more porous but not irrelevant. Nor does
globalization mean the creation of a universal community.” ― Joseph S. Nye Jr.
4. “Globalization means standardization. The very rich and the very poor must want the same
things, but only the rich can have them.” ― Arundhati Roy
5. “At the end of the day, we supported globalization because we wanted to be able to buy
cheaper computers, cheaper vehicles, cheaper clothes and cheaper furniture. Wal-Mart
parking lots were jammed with North American workers buying bargain-basement-priced
goods made in China even if in the process they were shopping themselves right out of their
own jobs.” ― Jeff Rubin
Essay Rubric
Traits 4 3 2 1
Focus & There is one clear, well There is one clear, There is one topic. The topic and main
1
Details focused topic. Main well focused topic. Main ideas are ideas are not clear.
ideas are clear and are Main ideas are somewhat clear.
well supported by clear but are not
detailed and accurate well supported by
information. detailed
information.
Organization The introduction is The introduction The introduction There is no clear
inviting, states the main states the main states the main introduction,
topic, and provides an topic and provides topic. A conclusion structure, or
overview of the paper. an overview of the is included. conclusion.
Information is relevant paper. A
and presented in a conclusion is
logical order. The included.
conclusion is strong.
Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s The author’s The author’s
writing is very clear, purpose of writing purpose of writing knowledge and/or
and there is strong is somewhat clear, is somewhat clear, experience with
evidence of attention to and there is some and there is the topic is/are
audience. The author’s evidence of evidence of limited. The
extensive knowledge attention to attention to author’s purpose
and/or experience with audience. The audience. of writing is
the topic is/are evident. author’s unclear.
knowledge and/or
experience with
the topic is/are
evident.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The choice and The author uses The writer uses a
words and phrases. The placement of words that limited vocabulary.
choice and placement words is communicate Jargon or clichés
of words seems inaccurate at times clearly, but the may be present
accurate, natural, and and/or seems writing lacks and detract from
not forced. The author overdone. variety. the meaning.
uses vivid words and
phrases.
Sentence All sentences are well Most sentences Most sentences Sentences sound
Structure, constructed and have are well are well awkward, are
Grammar, precise number of constructed and constructed and distractingly
Mechanics, & length. The author have varied length. have varied length. repetitive, or are
Spelling makes no errors in The author makes The author makes difficult to
grammar, mechanics, a few errors in several errors in understand. The
and/or spelling. grammar, grammar, author makes
mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or numerous errors in
spelling, but they spelling that grammar,
do not interfere interfere with mechanics, and/or
with understanding. spelling that
understanding. interfere with
understanding.
Unit 4 – A WORLD OF IDEAS
1
According to various globalization theorists (i.e. Giddens, 1990; Harvey, 1989),

“globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnectedness. It
has been defined as “accelerating inter-dependence”, ‘action at a distance’ and ‘time space
compression’. As Harvey (1989) points out, throughout the latter half of the 19th century, there
was a radical readjustment in time space compression in economic, political and cultural life. The
result was that the old Enlightenment certainty of “absolute space and place” collapsed in the
face of insecurity of “relative space and place”. Baudrillard (1983) links postmodernism with
globalization - reality has been replaced by a “media-generated, hyper-reality”. Consumption
here is seen to play the critical role in defining peoples’ identities and consciousness, superseding
the old class-consciousness.
― Carolina Matos
The twenty-first century is evolving into a time of technological advancements. There is

constant edit and addition to the available technological resources. As it advances, it also spreads
worldwide. The worldwide spread of technology creates vast connections that create new
opportunities on a larger scale. The current focus of the globalization of technology is the
connections created by networks of social media. Social media is a brilliant tool that can be easily
used by those who have access to it. As access is gained globally, it creates opportunities to those
who are first experiencing the use to outsource ideas.
― Jessica Bieber
The so-called "information age" is gradually spreading its influence to the realm of
religion, namely, in the methods religions use for teaching, proselytizing, and in belief systems.
Particularly noteworthy developments include the fact that it is now possible for any religion to
spread beyond national borders, allowing even small new religious movements to engage in
overseas proselytization activities, and leading to new, hitherto unseen religious developments.
This rapid acceleration of the "information age" is now producing a phenomenon which can be
called the "globalization of religion." ― Inoue Nobutaka
The mass media are seen today as playing a key role in enhancing globalization,
facilitating culture exchange and multiple flows of information and images between countries
1
through social media sites, international news broadcasts, television programming, new
technologies, film, and music.
International flows of communication have been largely assisted by the development of

global capitalism, new technologies and the increasing commercialization of global television,
which has occurred as a consequence of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries
in Europe and the US in order to permit the proliferation of cable and satellite channels. (Scribd
Inc. “Globalization and Mass Media,” 2020)
Meanwhile, due to the advent of communication and transportation technology and the
roles played by the media, globalization has contributed to the deterritorialization and the
blurring of geographical spaces and boundaries. This has resulted apparently in making the world
a small village where people, cultures, and identities come in daily face-to-face contact with each
other. Undoubtedly, religion is not immune from these changes and their burgeoning effects
brought about by globalization.
Today, most religions are not relegated to the few countries where they began.
Religions have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Thanks to globalization, religions
have found a fertile milieu to spread and thrive. (El Azzouzi 2013)
Jan Aart Scholte makes the globalization of religion clear: “Accelerated globalization of
recent times has enabled co-religionists across the planet to have greater direct contact with one
another. Global communications, global organizations, global finance and the like have allowed
ideas of the Transworld Umma of Musliams and the Universal Christian Church to be given
concrete shape as never before.” (Scholte 2005)
This unit is divided into two sections: “Global Media Cultures” and “Globalization of
Religion.”
The first lesson explores global media and its strong influence on the globalization of
culture.
The second lesson deals with the globalization of religion, paying particular attention
to how globalization has helped to spread religion and how globalization affects religious
practices and beliefs. The lesson also analyzes the relationship between religion and global
conflict and, conversely, global peace.
Lesson 9: Global Media Cultures
1
In This Lesson
 Discuss the role of the mass media in the globalization of culture.

 Explain how various media drive various forms of globalization.
 Explain the dynamics between local and global cultural production.
Globalization of Culture Through Media

by Marwan M. Kraidy
The received view about the globalization of culture is one where the entire world has
been molded in the image of Western, mainly American, culture. In popular and professional
discourses alike, the popularity of Big Macs, Baywatch, and MTV are touted as unmistakable
signs of the fulfillment of Marshall McLuhan's prophecy of the Global Village. The globalization of
culture is often chiefly imputed to international mass media. After all, contemporary media
technologies such as satellite television and the Internet have created a steady flow of
transnational images that connect audiences worldwide. Without global media, according to the
conventional wisdom, how would teenagers in India, Turkey, and Argentina embrace a Western
lifestyle of Nike shoes, Coca-Cola, and rock music? Hence, the putatively strong influence of the
mass media on the globalization of culture.
The role of the mass media in the globalization of culture is a contested issue in
international communication theory and research. Early theories of media influence, commonly
referred to as "magic bullet" or "hypodermic needle" theories, believed that the mass media had
powerful effects over audiences. Since then, the debate about media influence has undergone an
ebb and flow that has prevented any resolution or agreement among researchers as to the level,
scope, and implications of media influence. Nevertheless, key theoretical formulations in
international communication clung to a belief in powerful media effects on cultures and
communities. At the same time, a body of literature questioning the scope and level of influence
of transnational media has emerged. Whereas some scholars within that tradition questioned
cultural imperialism without providing conceptual alternatives, others have drawn on an
interdisciplinary literature from across the social sciences and humanities to develop theoretical
alternatives to cultural imperialism.
Cultural Imperialism and the Global Media Debate
In international communication theory and research, cultural imperialism theory argued

that audiences across the globe are heavily affected by media messages emanating from the
Western industrialized countries. Although there are minor differences between "media
imperialism" and "cultural imperialism," most of the literature in international communication
treats the former as a category of the latter. Grounded in an understanding of media as cultural
industries, cultural imperialism is firmly rooted in a political-economy perspective on
international communication. As a school of thought, political economy focuses on material
issues such as capital, infrastructure, and political control as key determinants of international
communication processes and effects.
In the early stage of cultural imperialism, researchers focused their efforts mostly on
nation-states as primary actors in international relations. They imputed rich, industrialized, and
Western nation-states with intentions and actions by which they export their cultural products
and impose their sociocultural values on poorer and weaker nations in the developing world. This
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argument was supported by a number of studies demonstrating that the flow of news and
entertainment was biased in favor of industrialized countries. This bias was clear both in terms of
quantity, because most media flows were exported by Western countries and imported by
developing nations, and in terms of quality, because developing nations received scant and
prejudicial coverage in Western media.
These concerns led to the rise of the New World Information Order (NWIO) debate,
later known as the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) debate. Although
the debate at first was concerned with news flows between the north and the south, it soon
evolved to include all international media flows. This was due to the fact that inequality existed
in news and entertainment programs alike, and to the advent of then-new media technologies
such as communication satellites, which made the international media landscape more complex
and therefore widened the scope of the debate about international flows.
The global media debate was launched during the 1973 General Conference of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Nairobi, Kenya. As
a specialized agency of the United Nations, the mission of UNESCO includes issues of
communication and culture. During the conference, strong differences arose between Western
industrialized nations and developing countries. Led by the United States, the first group insisted
on the "free flow of information" doctrine, advocating "free trade" in information and media
programs without any restrictions. The second group, concerned by the lack of balance in
international media flows, accused Western countries of invoking the free flow of information
ideology to justify their economic and cultural domination. They argued instead ·for a "free and
balanced flow" of information. The chasm between the two groups was too wide to be
reconciled. This eventually was one of the major reasons given for withdrawal from UNESCO by
the United States and the United Kingdom-which resulted in the de facto fall of the global media
debate.
A second stage of research identified with cultural imperialism has been associated with
calls to revive the New World Information and Communication Order debate. What differentiates
this line of research from earlier cultural imperialism formulations is its emphasis on the
commercialization of the sphere of culture. Research into this area had been a hallmark of
cultural imperialism research, but now there is a deliberate focus on transnational corporations
as actors, as opposed to nation-states, and on transnational capital flows, as opposed to image
flows. Obviously, it is hard to separate the power of transnational corporations from that of
nation-states, and it is difficult to distinguish clearly between capital flows and media flows.
Therefore, the evolution of the debate is mainly a redirection of emphasis rather than a
paradigm shift.
It has become fashionable in some international communication circles to dismiss

cultural imperialism as a monolithic theory that is lacking subtlety and increasingly questioned by
empirical research. Cultural imperialism does have some weaknesses, but it also continues to be
useful. Perhaps the most important contribution of cultural imperialism is the argument that
international communication flows, processes, and effects are permeated by power.
Nevertheless, it seems that the concept of globalization has in some ways replaced cultural
imperialism as the main conceptual umbrella under which much research and theorizing in
international communication have been conducted.
Media, Globalization, and Hybridization
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Several reasons explain the analytical shift from cultural imperialism to globalization.
First, the end of the Cold War as a global framework for ideological, geopolitical, and economic
competition calls for a rethinking of the analytical categories and paradigms of thought. By giving
rise to the United States as sole superpower and at the same time making the world more
fragmented, the end of the Cold War ushered in an era of complexity between global forces of
cohesion and local reactions of dispersal. In this complex era, the nation-state is no longer the
sale or dominant player, since transnational transactions occur on subnational, national, and
supranational levels. Conceptually, globalization appears to capture this complexity better than
cultural imperialism. Second, according to John Tomlinson (1991), globalization replaced cultural
imperialism because it conveys a process with less coherence and direction, which will weaken
the cultural unity of all nation-states, not only those in the developing world. Finally,
globalization has emerged as a key perspective across the humanities and social sciences, a
current undoubtedly affecting the discipline of communication.
In fact, the globalization of culture has become a conceptual magnet attracting research
and theorizing efforts from a variety of disciplines and interdisciplinary formations such as
anthropology, comparative literature, cultural studies, communication and media studies,
geography, and sociology. International communication has been an active interlocutor in this
debate because media and information technologies play an important role in the process of
globalization. Although the media are undeniably one of the engines of cultural globalization, the
size and intensity of the effect of the media on the globalization of culture is a contested issue
revolving around the following question: Did the mass media trigger and create the globalization
of culture? Or is the globalization of culture an old phenomenon that has only been intensified
and made more obvious with the advent of transnational media technologies? Like the age-old
question about whether the egg came before the chicken or vice versa, the question about the
relationship between media and the globalization of culture is difficult to answer.
One perspective on the globalization of culture, somewhat reminiscent of cultural

imperialism in terms of the nature of the effect of media on culture, but somewhat different in its
conceptualization of the issue, is the view that the media contribute to the homogenization of
cultural differences across the planet. This view dominates conventional wisdom perspectives on
cultural globalization conjuring up images of Planet Hollywood and the MTV generation. One of
the most visible proponents of this perspective is political scientist Benjamin Barber, who
formulated his theory about the globalization of culture in the book Jihad vs. McWorld (1996).
The subtitle, "How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World," betrays Barber's reliance
on a binary opposition between the forces of modernity and liberal democracy with tradition and
autocracy.
Although Barber rightly points to transnational capitalism as the driving engine that
brings Jihad and McWorld in contact and motivates their action, his model has two limitations.
First, it is based on a binary opposition between Jihad, what he refers to as ethnic and religious
tribalism, and McWorld, the capital-driven West. Barber (1996, p. 157) seemingly attempts to go
beyond this binary opposition in a chapter titled “Jihad Via McWorld," in which he argues that
Jihad stands in "less of a stark opposition than a subtle counterpoint." However, the evidence
offered in most of the book supports an oppositional rather than a contrapuntal perspective on
the globalization of culture. The second limitation of Barber's book is that he privileges the global
over the local, because, according to him, globalization rules via transnational capitalism. "[T]o
think that globalization and indigenization are entirely coequal forces that put Jihad and
McWorld on an equal footing is to vastly underestimate the force of the new planetary
markets .... It's no contest" (p. 12). Although it would be naive to argue that the local defeats the
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global, Barber's argument does not take into account the dynamic and resilient nature of cultures
and their ability to negotiate foreign imports.
Another perspective on globalization is cultural hybridity or hybridization. This view

privileges an understanding of the interface of globalization and localization as a dynamic process
and hybrid product of mixed traditions and cultural forms. As such, this perspective does not give
prominence to globalization as a homogenizing force, nor does it believe in localization as a
resistive process opposed to globalization. Rather, hybridization advocates an emphasis on
processes of mediation that it views as central to cultural globalization. The concept of
hybridization is the product of interdisciplinary work mostly based in intellectual projects such as
postcolonialism, cultural studies, and performance studies. Hybridization has been used in
communication and media studies and appears to be a productive theoretical orientation as
researchers in international media studies attempt to grasp the complex subtleties of the
globalization of culture.
One of the most influential voices in the debate about cultural hybridity is Argentinean-
Mexican cultural critic Nestor Garcia-Candini. In his book Hybrid Cultures (1995), Garcia-Candini
advocates a theoretical understanding of Latin American nations as hybrid cultures. His analysis is
both broad and incisive, covering a variety of cultural processes and institutions such as
museums, television, film, universities, political cartoons, graffiti, and visual arts. According to
Garcia-Candini, there are three main features of cultural hybridity. The first feature consists of
mixing previously separate cultural systems, such as mixing the elite art of opera with popular
music. The second feature of hybridity is the deterritorialization of cultural processes from their
original physical environment to new and foreign contexts. Third, cultural hybridity entails
impure cultural genres that are formed out of the mixture of several cultural domains. An
example of these impure genres is when artisans in rural Mexico weave tapestries of
masterpieces of European painters such as Joan Miro and Henri Matisse, mixing high art and folk
artisanship into an impure genre.
In media and communication research, the main question is "Have transnational media
made cultures across the globe hybrid by bringing into their midst foreign cultural elements, or
have cultures always been to some extent hybrid, meaning that transnational mass media only
strengthened an already-existing condition?" There is no obvious or final answer to that
question, because there is not enough empirical research about media and hybridity and because
of the theoretical complexity of the issue. What does exist in terms of theoretical understanding
and research results points to a middle ground? This position acknowledges that cultures have
been in contact for a long time through warfare, trade, migration, and slavery. Therefore, a
degree of hybridization in all cultures can be assumed. At the same time, this middle ground also
recognizes that global media and information technologies have substantially increased contacts
between cultures, both in terms of intensity and of the speed with which these contacts occur.
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that transnational mass media intensify the hybridity that is
already in existence in cultures across the globe. Consequently, the globalization of culture
through the media is not a process of complete homogenization, but rather one where cohesion
and fragmentation coexist. (Kraidy 2002)
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

1
Apply this chart to Marwan M. Kraidy’s “Globalization of Culture through Media”. Check
your understanding of this essay by filling in the chart below. Use a separate sheet of paper if
necessary.
Thesis Statement
Conclusion
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Activity: Group Report
1
Students will form groups of 3-5. Each group will be asked to pick an Asian musical act
that became internationally famous. In their group report, they must answer the following
questions:
1. Where did the musical act/artist originate?
2. In which countries did the artist/s become famous?
3. How did the artist/s become famous?
4. Why do you think the artist/s became famous?
At the end of their group report, each group must be able to perform a portion of the
musical act.
RUBRIC
3 - Full Accomplishment – Students presented and performed their reports about an Asian
musical act in a clear and consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Accomplishment - Students presented and performed their reports about an
Asian musical act and do so in a somewhat consistent manner.
1 – Little Accomplishment – Students have difficulty presenting and performing their reports
about an Asian musical act consistently.
Image: The KPop Group Momoland / Wikipedia
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Research: Cultural Globalization vs. Cultural Imperialism
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Use the Internet to compare and contrast cultural globalization and cultural imperialism.
Cultural Cultural
globalization Imperialism
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Quiz: Political Cartoon
1
Direction: Explain the theme of this political cartoon in exactly 140 words.
Lesson 10: The Globalization of Religion
In This Lesson
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 Discuss how globalization has helped to spread religion.

 Explain how globalization affects religious paractices and beliefs.
 Analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict, and conversely, global
peace.
Religion and Globalization: New Possibilities, Furthering Challenges

by Daniel Globiewski
As a contested term, globalization has many definitions, each worthy of merit.

Generally, globalization is first thought of “in economic and political terms, as a movement of
capitalism spreading across the globe.” It calls to mind “homogenizing exports of the US” such as
Nike, McDonald’s, and MTV. However, since globalization can be defined as a process of an “ever
more interdependent world” where “political, economic, social, and cultural relationships are not
restricted to territorial boundaries or to state actors,” globalization has much do with its impact
on cultures.
As goods and finance crisscross across the globe, globalization shifts the cultural makeup
of the globe and creates a homogenized “global culture.” Although not a new phenomenon, the
process of globalization has truly made the world a smaller place in which political, social, and
economic events elsewhere affect individuals anywhere. As a result, individuals “search for
constant time and space-bounded identities” in a world ever changing by the day. One such
identity is religion.
Generally, religion is a “system of beliefs and practices.” More specifically, the word
comes from the Latin “religare” which means “to bind together again that which was once bound
but has since been torn apart or broken.” Indeed, with the globalization of economics and
politics, individuals feel insecure “as the life they once led is being contested and changed at the
same time.” Hence, “in order for a person to maintain a sense of psychological well-being and
avoid existential anxiety,” individuals turn to scripture stories and teachings that provide a vision
about how they can be bound to a “meaningful world,” a world that is quickly changing day-by-
day.
Nonetheless, the relationship between globalization and religion is one with new
possibilities and furthering challenges. On the one hand, while religion takes advantage of
communication and transportation technology, it is at the same time the source of globalization’s
greatest resistance by acting as a haven for those standing in opposition to its power. On the
other hand, because globalization allows for daily contact, religion enters a circle of conflict in
which religions become “more self-conscious of themselves as being world religions.” This essay
argues that the relationship between religion and globalization is complex, one with new
possibilities and furthering challenges. However, this essay cannot provide a comprehensive
overview of religion and globalization, as the terrain is too vast. Still, it does provide several
examples to illustrate the complex relationship between the two.
First, this essay explains how globalization engenders greater religious tolerance across
areas such as politics, economics, and society. Second, it explains that as globalization does so, it
also disrupts traditional communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings individuals
mental stress, all of which create a backlash of religious parochialism. Third, although
globalization paves the way in bringing cultures, identities, and religions in direct contact, this
essay also explains that globalization brings religions to a circle of conflicts that reinforces their
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specific identities. Finally, using three paradigmatic individuals and their use of religious ideals in
their human rights work, this essay provides some suggestions on how not just religions but
humanity can use existing religious principles as ways to overlook religious and cultural
differences.
Globalization Engendering Greater Religious Tolerance
Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but

distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another. Essentially, the world’s leading
religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as
human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the
Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.” Therefore, through
such religious values, globalization engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics,
economics, and society.
In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that integrate cultural,
ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were once perceived as dividing the world—
through a large number of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the
World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations like the European Union (EU),
the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union (AU). When discussing
issues such as international peace and security, health issues, poverty, and environment, these
organizations generally share many of the same basic commitments as religious traditions—
mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict resolution in which they
actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.
In addition to these political organizations, religious communities such as the Roman

Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, and the Jewish Diaspora also take part in
international affairs. For instance, they have taken part in events such the Jubilee 2000, an
international effort advocating for cancelling Third World debt by the year 2000, and the World
Faiths Development Dialogue, an effort of international faith leaders along with the World Bank
to support development agendas corresponding to the UN’s Millennium Development Goals.
Furthermore, religious organizations have, themselves, been involved in interreligious dialogue.
The Parliament of the World’s Religions of 1993, first conveyed during the 1893 Chicago World
Exhibit, brought the world’s diverse faith traditions—from African indigenous religions, the major
religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), to any forms of faith that would agree to civil dialogue
through mutual encounter—to use their similar values and discuss world affairs.
In terms of economics, as the economy of the major countries of the world has grown,
the main religions of each of those countries have also grown financially, providing more
financial resources for religions to spread their beliefs. For example, although it may seem as an
old tactic, missionary work—especially in light of globalization—is strong in many Third World
countries where religious representatives convert the natives. As a result, the major religions
today have scattered across the globe—Christianity turning “southern” and “black,” Islam turning
“Asian,” and Buddhism turning “white” and “western.” Still holding on to their original territorial
spaces where their shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their general purpose of spreading their
beliefs to people all over the world.
Finally, religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For

example, websites provide information and explanations about different religions to any person
regardless of his or her geographical location, as well as provide the opportunity to contact
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others worldwide and hold debates which allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore,
television allows for religious channels that provide visual religious teachings and practices.
Hence, by making the leap onto the information superhighway, which brings religious teachings
into every home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come together into one setting.
In short, globalization allows for religions previously isolated from one another to now
have regular and unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to the light the fact that
since religions have similar values, not one of them is “correct” and, therefore, can be changed.
But as the next section shows, the same process that engenders greater religious tolerance also
creates a backlash of religious parochialism.
Globalization Creating Backlash of Religious Parochialism
Since globalization is considered as “the first truly world revolution,” “all revolutions
disrupt the traditions and customs of a people”—that is, “people’s very security, safety, and
identity.” As globalization disrupts traditional communities, causes economic marginalization,
and brings mental stress, individuals feel these less desirable consequences of globalization. With
religion’s power to “convey a picture of security, stability, and simple answers” through stories
and beliefs—unlike economic plans, political programs, or legal regulations—individuals turn to
religion.
First, globalization breaks down traditional communities and replaces them with larger,
impersonal organizations. As globalization creates a “global village,” it dramatically alters what
individuals traditionally understood themselves by—“citizenship,” “nationality,” and
“immigration.” For instance, the European Union (EU) does not call their members by country of
origin but rather by their greater title, European citizens. Moreover, such organizations set
universal standards upon all members, causing individuals to believe that they are not fairly
represented. As a result, feeling that these organizations have shattered their “protective
cocoon” that has shielded them in the past, many individuals find comfort in religion.
In giving individuals a sense of belonging, religious groups help them to find themselves
in modern times. For instance, religious leaders, pointing to modern society’s loss of ethical
values and increased corruption, preach, “the only answer to the current ‘decay’ is a return to
traditional values and religious norms.” Hence, religion supplies these individuals with a feeling
of being a part of a group that represents their interests and allows them to regain their
traditional sense of who they are.
Second, globalization brings economic marginalization. For example, as transnational

corporations increasingly take over the role of the state’s involvement in the economic sector,
the government loses its status as a welfare provider. Moreover, increasing the gaps between
those who have benefit from the global market (generally the West) and those who have been
left behind (generally the Global South), globalization is seen as “Western imperialism,” as well as
“Americanization.” For instance, globalization “encourage[es] people to buy American goods and
services, which ultimately “undermines deep-rooted communal values.” Simply put, individuals
are bombarded with McDonald’s, Nike, and MTV.
By responding to individuals’ desire for welfare, as well as acting as a cultural protection

against globalization, religion plays a social role and gains more recognition from the
marginalized, particularly those in Third World countries. For instance, religious organizations
such as Catholic Relief Services, World Vision International, and Islamic Relief Worldwide help
1
serve the disadvantaged in areas such as poverty relief, health care, the HIV/AIDs crisis, and
environment problems. In fact, even if only promising prosperity and hope of economic relief,
these organizations draw massive followers as, by lacking “extensive transnational bureaucracies
and chains of command,” they provide “the strength of collective identity and the depth of
ethical commitments.”
Last but not least, globalization causes mental stress. Although globalization allows for
crisscrossing borders, it also leaves individuals worrying about losing work, status, or other
privileges. Moreover, since globalization favors material prosperity as the aim of life over inner
peace, individuals focus on attaining some material possession such as a house, car, game, or
simply any object. When they attain such item(s), however, they find themselves empty inside
and, therefore, realize that inner peace can never be achieved through material possessions.
To these individuals then, religion provides them the way to inner peace and the sense
of personal fulfillment. For example, individuals who feel insecure in the globalized world, in
business or personal life, will often pray to God for his spiritual support. In addition, these
individuals realize that getting involved within their communities and organizing together in
social movements for a good cause brings more satisfaction to them than do material
possessions. They see themselves as being part of something important and worthwhile.
In short, in face of rapid changes in the globalized world, to regain the sense of
certainty, many individuals turn to religion for a clear explanation of what is going on in the
world. With its strength as a powerful identity that brings the message of unity and security in
times of crisis, religion provides the idea of a “home.” But as the last section demonstrates, this
religious identity becomes a major ingredient that reduces the self and the other to a number of
cultural religious characteristics.
Religious Identity and Globalization: Furthering Challenges
As the previous section shows, since God has set the rules and has made them difficult
to challenge, religion provides answers to questions concerning self-identity. However, in
providing such answers, religion also institutes a notion of “truth,” which implies an automatic
exclusion of the one—called an “abject”—who does not adhere to such “truth.” In times of
uncertainty like globalization, therefore, collective identity is reduced to a number of cultural
religious characteristics —“them” and “us” and “they” and “our.” In other words, the abject
suddenly becomes recognized as a threat.
For example, since the 9/11 attacks, there has been a tendency of the West to link the
religion of Islam with terrorist practices while Al-Qaeda links the US as Christian or a Judeo-
Christian nation. On the one hand, Al-Qaeda men who hijacked the planes on 9/11 saw the
passengers and those working in the World Trade Center and Pentagon as “abjects” of Islam. On
the other hand, the US-led invasion of Afghanistan and then Iraq turned into wars of
“Islamofacism” and a “crusade” to the divine in getting rid of evil. Moreover, other attacks on
innocent people based on cultural religious characteristics occur today: Muslims in the United
States, Western Europe, or India, Kurds in Iraq, and Jews in France. In other words, though
socially constructed, these cultural religious characteristics become a unifying force against
others not adhering to a particular truth.
Interestingly then, the idea of religious identity in this era of globalization may hold in-
line with Huntington’s thesis. According to Huntington (1990), while conflict during the Cold War
1
occurred between the Capitalist West and the Communist Bloc East, current and future conflicts
are most likely to occur between the world’s major civilizations, and not the states, including
Western, Latin American, Islamic, Sinic (Chinese), Hindu, Orthodox, Japanese, and the African. In
a broader sense, having paved the way for religions to come in direct contacts with one another,
globalization has, indeed, brought religions to a circle of competition and conflicts. As long as
religions see themselves as “world religions” and reinforce their specific identities, the chance for
religions to avoid conflict among one another is grey. Luckily, the final section brings some hope
on how religions can use their existing principles as ways to overlook their differences.
Conclusion
In a time in which globalization has yet to fully complete its process, religions must use
the communication easily available through advanced technology to focus more on the humane
and pluralistic forms of their teachings—values such as human dignity and human freedom—as
means to manage religious diversity and avoid violence. In other words, religious should be open
to other traditions and what they can teach. In fact, though having “fixed texts,” the major world
religions do not have “fixed beliefs,” “only fixed interpretations of those beliefs,” meaning their
beliefs can be “rediscovered, reinvented, and reconceptualized.”
As interesting examples, in their attempt to create the tradition of nonviolence from

diverse religions and cultures, three paradigmatic individuals—Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas Gandhi,
and Martin Luther King, Jr.—have, indeed, “rediscovered, reinvented, and reconceptualized” the
beliefs of the world’s major religions.[58] The three individuals indicate that “it is possible for
narrative diversity to generate a shared ethic without sacrificing the diversity of particular
religions.”
For instance, although coming from a gentry class in Russia and receiving fame and
fortune from his novels, Tolstoy converted to Christianity in part after reading a story about how
a Syrian monk named Barlaam brought about the conversion of a young Indian prince named
Josaphat, who gave up his wealth and family to seek an answer to aging, sickness, and death.
Deeply indebted in Buddhism for his conversion to Christianity, Tolstoy, attempting to live his life
by the teachings of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, gave away all his wealth and spent the rest of
his life serving the poor. Nevertheless, the story about Barlaam and Josaphat has “worked its way
into virtually all the world’s religions.”
Similarly, Gandhi, when he encountered Tolstoy’s writings, drew his attention to the
power of the Sermon on the Mount. In encountering Jesus’ Sermon, Gandhi became motivated
to “turn the great Hindu narrative from the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita, in order to find the
message of nonviolence within his own religion and culture.” By finding that Tolstoy’s
understanding of the Sermon on the Mount lacked “nonviolence as an active rather than a
passive virtue . . . capable of producing an active resistance to evil,” he found it present in the
Bhagavad Gita. As a result, Ghandi transformed the Bhagavad Gita from a story that authorized
killing to one of nonviolence reflected from the story of Jacob wrestling with the stranger and
Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount.
Lastly, Martin Luther King, Jr. also drew insight from Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity,
and Judaism. For instance, connecting Gandhi with Jesus Christ, he saw Gandhi’s philosophy of
nonviolence as similar to Jesus’ suffering on the cross. Therefore, King’s theological theme was
the idea that “unmerited suffering is redemptive,” meaning he constantly reminded blacks that
they would experience a “season of suffering” before they would achieve justice. In general
1
terms, King’s theology focused on values grounded in religion—justice, love, and hope. In short,
as Tolstoy, Ghandi, and King illustrate, “narrative traditions are not mutually exclusive.” They are
connected through themes and, therefore, allow religions to engage in interreligious dialogue.
As this essay’s previous sections show, religions have, indeed, taken part in dialogues
beforehand. As a further example, religious leaders gathered at the UN’s Millennium Peace
Summit in September 2000 to mark the turn of the millennium. A milestone in itself, as the UN is
not a common ground in the sense of an ecumenical meeting inside a church, synagogue, or
mosque but rather a global common ground, the Summit’s conversation encouraged that world’s
religious communities stop fighting and arguing amongst themselves and begin working together
for peace, justice, and social harmony. As then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan addressed to
the Summit, “Whatever your past, whatever your calling, and whatever the differences among
you, your presence here at the United Nations signifies your commitment to our global mission
of tolerance, development, and peace.”
Moreover, as transnational corporations increasingly become actors in the international

system, one could argue that religious communities have agreed on “the emerging global ethic”
which consists of three major components: 1) corporations are prohibited from involving in
bribes and corruption, 2) corporations are prohibited from discriminating on the grounds of race,
religion, ethnicity, or gender in the conduct of business, and 3) corporations are prohibited from
activities that pose a significant threat to human life and health. Simply put, these components
are, in themselves, religious values used to regulate the way transitional corporations
increasingly engage in the global market.
The bottom line is that the pieces of interreligious dialogue to manage religious diversity
and to avoid violence are there, but the problem may be of globalization’s intentional and/or
unintentional consequence of making religions more conscious of themselves as “world
religions,” as well as the undesirable consequences of disrupting traditional communities,
causing economic marginalization, and bringing individuals mental stress—all reinforcing
religious cultural characteristics and identities. Hence, the relationship between religion and
globalization has brought new possibilities but also furthering challenges.
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Apply this chart to Daniel Globiewski’s “Religion and Globalization: New Possibilities,
Furthering Challenges”. Check your understanding of this essay by filling in the chart below. Use a
1
separate sheet of paper if necessary.
Thesis Statement
Conclusion
Essay Rubric
1

overall message.
writer’s purpose;
unsophisticated;
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Activity: Film Review

Whether a movie is a rotten tomato or a brilliant work of art, if people are watching it,
it’s worth critiquing. A good movie review should entertain, persuade and inform, providing an
original opinion without giving away too much of the plot. A great movie review can be a work of
art in its own right. Fill in the chart below to write your film review about PBS Frontline’s “The
Rise of ISIS”.
1
Contents of the Film Review Title of your Film Review
BACKGROUND
The title of the film is…

This fascinating film is...
The film is directed by…
The film is produced by…
The film is set in…
This film is based on…
The genre of the film is…
MAIN POINTS OF THE PLOT
The plot focuses on…

The plot revolves around…
The story concerns about…
The story has a twist in…
The reaches a climax when…
The story / plot is
absolutely…
GENERAL COMMENTS AND OPINIONS
The cast is…

The script / story is…
The ending of the film is…
The music is…
The props / special effects
are…
The acting is…
The pacing is…
The cinematography is…
Over all, the film is…
RECOMMENDATIONS
Don’t miss it!

It is well worth seeing!
I highly recommend this film!
It will change the way you
see… after watching this
film.
Fans of… will no doubt be
thrilled by this.
I would not recommend this
film because…
It’s a boring movie. Don’t
bother with this one.
Only watch this film if you
have plenty of time to spare.
1
RUBRIC
3 - Full Accomplishment - Students closely examined the film elements and followed the details
of the film review in a clear and consistent manner.
2 - Substantial Accomplishment - Students examined the film elements and followed the details
of the film review and do so in a somewhat consistent manner.
1 - Little or Partial Accomplishment - Students have difficulty examining the film elements and
the details of the film review consistently.
1
Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Research: The World’s Religions Differentiated
Directions: To compare is to tell how two or more things are alike. To contrast is to tell
how two or more things are different. Clue words such as like or as show comparisons. Clue
words such as but or unlike show contrasts. Often authors don’t use clue words. Readers must
make comparisons for themselves. Use this chart to compare and contrast any two major
religions of the world.
Major Religions
Judaism Christianity
Major Religions
Islam Hinduism
1
Major Religions
Sikhism Jainism
Major Religions
Buddhism Confucianism
1
Unit 5 – GLOBAL ISSUES
The twenty-first century is evolving into a time of technological advancements. There is

constant edit and addition to the available technological resources. As it advances, it also spreads
worldwide. The worldwide spread of technology creates vast connections that create new
opportunities on a larger scale. The current focus of the globalization of technology is the
connections created by networks of social media. Social media is a brilliant tool that can be easily
used by those who have access to it. As access is gained globally, it creates opportunities to those
who are first experiencing the use to outsource ideas.
― Jessica Bieber
1

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The Contemporary World: An Outcomes-Based Education Approach

Unit 1 – INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION

 Develop a nuanced definition of globalization in order to begin to understand the

The Meaning of Globalization

“Globalization” is a catchphrase familiar to anyone tuned in to social media. Every day

Shalmali Guttal (2007) defined globalization as “the process of interaction and

Below are further definitions of globalization:

[Globalization] is “the geographic dispersion of industrial and service activities, for

[Globalization] is “the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the

[Globalization] is “the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples

[Globalization] is “the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies

[Globalization] is “the process of greater interdependence among countries and their

[Globalization] is “… a process in which geographic distance becomes less a factor in the

[Globalization] can thus be defined as “the intensification of worldwide social relations

Converging Currents of Globalization

Factors That Have Contributed to Globalization

6. The collapse of communism in the Soviet Union; and

Advocates and Critics of Globalization

Advantages of Globalization Disadvantages of Globalization

 An open economy promotes technological 

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Globalization I - The Upside” Video Evaluation Chart

I. Reaction (Check the blank below)

II. Your response to the video in six words:

IV. Make a summary of the video in ten words.

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Essay: “Globalization II - Good or Bad?” Video Evaluation Chart

I. Reaction (Check the blank below)

II. Your response to the video in six words:

IV. Make a summary of the video in ten words.

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Lesson 2: History/Theories of Globalization

 Discuss the periodization of globalization by considering when globalization began.

A Brief History of Globalization

Arabic calligraphy in Asilah medina, Morocco: Spice routes (7th-15th centuries)

Age of Discovery (15th-18th centuries) / Image: BLR

First wave of globalization (19th century-1914)

The world wars

Second and third wave of globalization

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Activity: Essay Analysis Chart

Introduction (identify the work)

Part 1 (explanation and details)

Part 2 (explanation and details)

Part 3 (explanation and details)

Part 4 (explanation and details)

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Subject and Section ________________________________________________ Date _________

Activity: Three Circle Venn Diagram

Venn Diagram Rubric

Objects being compared in the Venn diagram:

Second Wave Third Wave

Strong Grasp Progressing Not in Evidence

Placement of All statements Most statements Few statements

center circle and student mixed up a

Number of quality Student is able Student is able Student makes

Name___________________________________________________________ Score _________

Research: Globalization 4.0

Subject Ideas Internet Search Library Search

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Subject and Section ________________________________________ Date _

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Subject and Section ________________________________________ Date _