MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
Topic 2: Three Models of Reading Strategies
Bottom-Up
Bottom-up theories hypothesize
that learning to read progresses from
children learning the parts of language
(letters) to understanding whole text
(meaning). Much like solving a jigsaw
puzzle, bottom-up models of the
reading process say that the reading
puzzle is solved by beginning with an
examination of each piece of the puzzle
and then putting pieces together to
make a picture. Gough’s (1972) One
Second of Reading model described
reading as a sequential or serial mental process. Readers, according to Gough, begin
by translating the parts of written language (letters) into speech sounds, then piece the
sounds together to form individual words, then piece the words together to arrive at an
understanding of the author’s written message.
Teachers who believe that bottom-up theories fully explain how children become
readers often teach sub skills first: they begin instruction by introducing letter names
and letter sounds, progress to pronouncing whole words, then show students ways of
connecting word meanings to comprehend texts. Although bottom-up theories of the
reading process explain the decoding part of the reading process rather well, there is
certainly more to reading than decoding. To become readers, students must compare
their knowledge and background experiences to the text in order to understand the
author’s message. Truly, the whole purpose of reading is comprehension.
To know more about the Bottom up Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4J_G7W2nbf4
Top-Down
Top-down reading models teach students to read by
introducing them to literature as a whole. Instead of
teaching students to read by sounding out each word in a
sentence, teachers read whole passages of a text.
Students begin to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar
words. The top-down reading model theory encourages
students to focus more on understanding the main ideas of
a passage than understanding every word.
Even if students do not understand each word, they are
likely to grasp the meaning of a text as a whole. The top-
down reading model encourages students to rely on their
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
own knowledge and use context clues to understand new concepts or words. The
teaching model allows students choose books to read based on their own interests.
Teachers urge students to select materials of personal interest so they are more likely
to be motivated to read it. Instead of assigning one book for an entire class to read
together, the teacher might take the entire class to the library and allow them to choose
their own books.
Teachers will encourage readers to develop speaking and listening skills by reading
aloud to the class or to a smaller group of students. Instead of stopping students to
correct a pronunciation mistake, the teachers will urge the reader to continue reading,
even if struggling with a particular passage.
To know more about the Top Down Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIrfIM7mxiY
Interactive Model
The Interactive Reading Model, as developed by
David E. Rumelhart in 1977, describes a model
of the reading process and the way linguistic
elements are processed and interpreted by the
brain. The model combines both surface
structure systems -- the sensory, bottom-up
portion of reading - with deep structure systems -
- the thinking, or top-down, aspects of reading --
to build meaning and memory for all learners.
Readers use both knowledge of word structure
and background knowledge to interpret the texts
they read. For example, a student who
encounters an unknown word might use surface
structure systems like graph phonic, or letter-sound, knowledge to decode the word. A
different student might find it easier to use deep structure systems like semantic
knowledge, such as meaning and vocabulary, to decode the same unknown word. Each
student makes connections in different ways.
The most evident benefit of this model is the opportunity for the differentiation
that it provides students. Students are not required to fit into a set mold or have identical
skill sets to decode and interpret text. They are encouraged to use their own strengths
to gain understanding and new information. When used in the classroom setting,
students should be encouraged to share their knowledge with classmates or peers. This
model allows the reader to bring his own background knowledge to reading and to
interact with others to build meaning and memory from the text.
To know more about the Interactive Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcEkzHtfWhg
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
The Comparison between the Three Models:
Bottom-Up Models Top-Down Models Interactive Models
1960s - 1970s 1970s - 1980s late 1980s - present
Reading is Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing Reading is a process
a decoding process game (focus on the reader). of constructing meaning
(focus on the text). from text through
The "whole language" approach to the use of both bottom-
The phonics approac teaching reading is used. up and top-down
h to teaching reading processes, strategies,
is used. and skills (focus on
the interaction).
The balanced
approach to teaching
reading is used.
1) alphabet letters + 1) The reader receives input from the 1) Both bottoms-up and
sounds g words text, makes predictions (based on top-down processes
conceptual abilities, background occur simultaneously fo
2) words + grammar knowledge, and language processing r the reader to
rules skills), tests and confirms or revises thos comprehend the
g sentences e predictions. meaning of the text.
3) sentences + 2) Use a holistic approach to reading and 2) Two levels of
discourse writing that advocates the use of interaction:
rules g paragraphs g children's literature and authentic reading The interaction
longer discourse materials. between the
reader and the text.
The interaction
between two kinds of
cognitive
skills: identification and
Interpretation.
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
Reading and Schema Theory
The function of background knowledge in the reading process is
formalized in schema theory. According to schema theory, the
reader brings previously acquired background knowledge organized
into interrelated patterns, or schemata, to the reading process.
Then the reader creates meaning by relating the text to this
background knowledge, including knowledge of customs and
beliefs from his or her own experiences.
Three are three types of schemata that have an impact
on reading comprehension:
Formal schemata: prior knowledge of rhetorical structures and conventions (e.g.
different types of expository organizational patterns: cause and effect,
comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and chronological order, etc.)
Content schemata: background knowledge of the subject of the text, which is
often culture-bound.
Linguistic schemata: decoding knowledge used to recognize words and
determine their syntax in a sentence; that is, prior knowledge of a particular
vocabulary and grammar rules.
Teaching Reading Skills and the Use of Computers
Grabe (1991) identified six component skills and
knowledge areas essential for reading fluency:
automatic word recognition skills
vocabulary and structure knowledge
formal discourse structure knowledge
content/world background knowledge
synthesis and evaluation skills
metacognitive knowledge and skills
Automatic Word Recognition Skills
Automatic recognition skills allow readers to identify letters
and words without being consciously aware of the process.
Good readers are able to read rapidly because they can
recognize most words automatically, and therefore process
this information very efficiently. The combination of rapid and
precise word recognition has proven to be an effective
predictor of reading ability, particularly of young readers.
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
The use of computers to facilitate the development of recognition skills
Examples of using the phonics approach:
- Learn to Read at Starfall
- BBC Words and Pictures
Examples for Speed Reading:
- AceReader (download the AceReader Original Demo)
- Best Reader (download the trial version)
Vocabulary and Structural Knowledge
1. The importance of vocabulary learning for reading comprehension:
a. Readers need to know a large percentage (approximately 95%) of the words in
any given text in order to comprehend the meaning of the reading or to guess the
meaning of words unfamiliar to them.
b. Vocabulary is not acquired in quick doses, but rather is a process of
incremental learning and constant
reinforcement. Readers need to know not just
one meaning of a word in a particular context
but also its alternative meanings in different
contexts and other aspects of the word such
as its grammatical properties.
2. Things needed to be included in vocabulary lessons (Zimmerman, 1997):
a. multiple exposure to words
b. exposure to words in meaningful contexts
c. rich and varied information about each word
d. establishment of ties between instructed words student experience, and prior
knowledge
e. active participation by students in the learning process
3. The use of computers to facilitate vocabulary development:
Examples:
- Online dictionaries (see 3.2.2 Online Dictionaries)
- Online concordancers (see 3.2.3 Online Concordancers)
- Word games: Word Based Games for ESL Students
Vocabulary for K-12 and ESL Kids
ESL games in EnglishClub.com
4. The importance of grammar learning for reading comprehension: Grammatical
structures provide readers significant information that allows them to understand the
meaning relationships among words and among sentences in a reading text.
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
5. The use of computers to facilitate the development of structural skills:
Grammar Website Examples:
- English Grammar from EnglishClub.com
- Grammar from EFLnet.com
- Guide to Grammar and Writing
- Guide to Grammar and Style
- English Grammar
Formal Discourse Structure Knowledge
1. Knowledge of the structure of formal discourse / rhetorical organizational
patterns (i.e. formal schemata) assists the learner in understanding and remembering
the text. Research indicated that explicit teaching of rhetorical organization of text
facilitated ESL students' reading comprehension.
2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of discourse structure knowledge:
Content / World Background Knowledge
1. Activating the reader's knowledge of the subject
matter and cultural content of the text is a significant factor in
both reading comprehension and recall. Research shows that L2
learners can better recall information from text on
topics familiar to them than readings of equivalent difficulty level
on subjects with which they are less familiar. Moreover, readers
can more easily comprehend and recall texts of which the content
is based on their own culture than texts based on unfamiliar and
more remote cultures.
2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of content/world knowledge:
Synthesis and Evaluation Skills
a. Fluent readers are able not only to comprehend the text,
but to make judgments about the information, the author's
purpose, and the usefulness of the text. They usually use
strategies like predicting to assist them in anticipating text
development and evaluating the author's perspective as
they read.
b. The use of computers to encourage students learning to
synthesize and evaluate reading text:
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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
Examples:
- Ace Detectives (mystery-solving game)
- Story Mapping Activity
Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about
how learners think and self-regulate their cognitive
processes. It includes knowledge about
language and ability to recognize structural and
rhetorical features of the text using suitable
strategies for accomplishing particular goals.
In the reading process, metacognitive skills
include recognizing main ideas, adjusting reading rate
for skimming, scanning, paraphrasing, and summarizing, guessing
meaning from word formation rules, prefixes, and suffixes, and taking notes. The ability
to effectively apply metacognitive strategies to the reading process is a key ingredient to
skilled reading, especially for older readers.
The use of computers to assist students in developing metacognitive skills:
Examples:
- Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students' Interactions with Texts
- Reading comprehension strategies for English language learners
- Effective Reading: Reading Strategies
- Reading Your Textbooks Effectively and Efficiently
To know more about the Reading and Schema please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4_Kio9pPwE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37_jM6lIFf8
http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/CALL/unit7.htm
https://www.scribd.com/document/257729029/Three-Models-of-
Reading-Strategies
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