Isivili Enjiniyering

April 2016 Vol 24 No 3

Focus on:
Geotechnical Engineering
Profile: Dr Hendrik Kirsten
 Introducing

Geotechnical Engineering

“The Terranauts”

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Gr ti o ito r
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Your essential
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 FROM THE CEO’S DESK

Such a time as this

“… there are many people who feel that it is useless and futile for us to continue talking peace and nonviolence against a government whose
reply is only savage attacks on an unarmed and defenseless people. And I think the time has come for us to consider, in the light of our experi-
ences … whether the methods we have applied so far are adequate.” (Nelson Mandela, 1961)

IT HAS BEEN ACCEPTED in international our leaders have adopted an infrastruc- would have leaned slightly forward and
leadership circles that the South African ture development plan for the overall said, “But Mr President, if you want me
Constitution is arguably the best in the strategic economic development of South to do this job, I need to be forthright with
world. The recent ruling of the highest Africa. As we represent the component you.” After a pensive nod of approval from
court in the land on the Zuma-Nkandla of the private sector that is central to the distressed President, Mr Gordhan
saga is evidence that our democracy works. achieving these development aims, we would have continued, “Sir, you have had
Parliament has made a mockery of it, but want to talk to a client that is appropri- your chance and you stuffed it up – in fact
this country – with its people, its natural ately qualified, and adequately informed you have made a mockery of our economy.
heritage, its future – is worth fighting for. about the work we do. The time for a If you want me to do this job, I need you
I like the fact that civil engineers are professionally registered civil engineer to sit quietly. Don’t do anything! Sir, let me
an unpretentious people, and that the civil with 20 years of work experience to take take charge and I will do my best to fix this
engineering profession is clothed in mod- instruction and direction from incompe- for you.”
esty and wisdom – that we don’t aspire for tent public officials, to hustle for invoices I appeal to all civil engineering profes-
pedestals to orate greatness, or pilot flashy to be paid, and to deal with loop-holed sionals to be determined in the plight of
carriages, or dress in splendour, or stand procurement and SCM – is over. delivering value for money. Our industry
before cameras to cut ribbons. Our reputa- We, too, have to stop selling our birth- is sitting on a ridge – a time of challenge
tion manifests in our honest work, and our right as infrastructure engineering profes- and controversy. Our actions now will
worth in the delivery of value for money. sionals who, having worked hard to earn determine how we are remembered in
But our friends and partners must not our positions, relinquish our status for fear history. During World War II Winston
mistake meekness for weakness. While of the dynamics of master-servant relation- Churchill prophesied that history will
we may not dance to the rhythm of stam- ships, rather than focusing on maintaining deal gently with him, “... because I intend
pede, or chant with the reverberations of a value for money in the delivery of projects to write it!” Let us civil engineering
mob, we, too, are quite capable of revolu- through ethical impartation of our knowl- practitioners across this country resolve
tion. Our revolution is an introspective edge and scarce skills. Next time you sit to be the masters, and not the victims, of
assessment that finds manifestation in the in a project meeting with an incompetent the history of civil engineering in South
intellectual space, and its ultimate mate- client who starts to get arrogant with Africa, and take control of our profession.
rialisation is in socio-economic wellbeing. you, and you know that your argument is Our role to take charge of our profession
This introspection, however, needs to find sound, make a point of sermonising your has never been more pressing than it is
other platforms of expression, too, for evil client on who the professional in the room today. This is Civilution.
triumphs when good people keep quiet. is, who has the track record, and who is
This is not aimed at all public sector responsible for the professional risks as-
departments, for some have shown evi- sociated with the project.
dence of sterling effort, but others are I have noticed that since President
deserving of rebuke. Zuma recalled Minister Pravin
I am fed up of our professionals being Gordhan to restore the financial dig-
dictated to by suspect politicians and nity of our country, the President has
incompetent administrators on work that been somewhat quiet in the public rela-
falls under our custodianship. We should tions space. I can just imagine how the
move for all infrastructure engineering conversation might have gone down at
ministries at national, provincial and local the Union Buildings.
government (DWS, DOT and DPW in Pravin Gordhan, being a humble man,
particular) to be run by politicians who would have simply stated, “Mr President, I
have post-graduate qualifications relevant am honoured that you called me to assist,
to the built environment. and I am delighted to assist.” After a three-
With the establishment of the NDP, second contemplation, pursed lips and a
the PICC and the 18 SIPs, it is clear that gentle crease on the forehead, Mr Gordhan

Civil Engineering April 2016 1

 Isivili Enjiniyering
April 2016 Vol 24 No 3

Focus on:
Geotechnical Engineering
Profile: Dr Hendrik Kirsten

Isivili Enjiniyering = SiSwati P4

ON THE COVER Inserting rods on the third bay on grid-lines A and B of the 40-ton slipway in
Geotechnical projects, especially on the Port Elizabeth harbour, part of the TNPA’s PE Jetties Contract
water, often demand creative solutions to
complex challenges. Franki Africa’s work
on the conversion of a 40-ton slip into a FROM THE CEO’S DESK
90-ton boat hoist jetty, and its work on
the construction of two lead-in jetties for a Such a time as this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 200-ton slipway, both in Port Elizabeth,
are excellent examples of such creativity.
ON THE COVER
South African
Institution of Franki shines on PE jetties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Civil Engineering

Isivili Enjiniyering
April 2016 Vol 24 No 3
PROFILE
Challenging the average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
PUBLISHED BY SAICE
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CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER

Manglin Pillay
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
[email protected]
Tel 011 805 5947/8

EDITOR
Verelene de Koker
Founding improvement using geosynthetics
[email protected]
Tel 011 805 5947/8, Cell 083 378 3996

EDITORIAL PANEL at the Cape Town harbour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Marco van Dijk (chairman), Irvin Luker (vice-
chairman), Chris Herold (president), Manglin Pillay
(CEO), Steven Kaplan (COO), Johan de Koker, Andile
Gqaji, Gerhard Heymann, Jeffrey Mahachi, Avi
Menon, Jones Moloisane, Beate Scharfetter, Phuti
Seopa (corresponding), Marie Ashpole, Verelene
de Koker (editor), Elsabé Maree (editor’s assistant), The effect of geogrid position on the integrity of clay liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Rebekka Wellmanns (editor’s assistant),
Barbara Spence (advertising)

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATE

SA R650.00 (VAT included), International US$135.00

ADVERTISING
Construction of the first enhanced barrier system in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Barbara Spence, Avenue Advertising
[email protected]
Tel 011 463 7940, Fax 011 463 7939
Cell 082 881 3454

DESIGN AND REPRODUCTION

Marketing Support Services, Ashlea Gardens, Pretoria
Geosynthetics – from product to technology in road rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
PRINTING
Fishwicks, Pretoria

Shear beauty of the Franschhoek Pass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

The South African Institution of Civil Engineering
accepts no responsibility for any statements made or
opinions expressed in this publication. Consequently
nobody connected with the publication of the magazine,
in particular the proprietors, the publishers and the
editors, will be liable for any loss or damage sustained
by any reader as a result of his or her action upon any

Port Louis Ring Road – design approach for post-failure stabilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

statement or opinion published in this magazine.

ISSN 1021-2000

N2 upgrade – taming the uMdloti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

 P6
Foundation design and construction challenges at the

Rea Vaya Sandton BRT cable-stayed bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Stability of wind turbine foundations –

accounting for gapping and eccentric loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Social geotechnics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
P25
Variance of geotechnical properties and implications

for the selection of design values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

SAICE Geotechnical Division News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Obituary: Dr AAB (Tony) Williams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Obituary: Bryan Edward Tromp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

MARKET NEWS
P54
JG AFRIKA: Engineering a new future, developing together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

SAICE AND PROFESSIONAL NEWS

SAICE Training Calendar 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

CARTOON
Civillain by Jonah Ptak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
P68
Civil Engineering April 2016 3
 ON THE COVER

A panoramic view, with the old South lead-in jetty being dismantled (on the left), the North lead-in jetty
completely dismantled and existing piles cut off at the low-water mark. In the centre are grid-lines C and D with
the capping beams and decking in progress (done by Haw & Inglis), and on the right Franki is busy installing
casings on the 15th bay on grid-lines A and B

Franki shines on PE jetties

Geotechnical work often demands creative solutions to complex challenges. That’s the nature of the
game, and there are few better at it than Franki Africa, who has developed a reputation throughout
Africa for their innovative and cost-effective solutions in a host of vastly divergent geological conditions.
One such example is the Transnet National Ports Authority’s Port Elizabeth Jetties Contract.
In September 2014 Franki Africa’s Cape branch was appointed, on called in to commence with a geotechnical investigation. The
an alternative design, as sub-contractor to Haw & Inglis on the PE results were totally unexpected! The seabed was found to be
Lead-in Jetties Contract, which comprises two components: 3.5 m to 6.0 m thick, with a boulder layer of 12 m to 18 m thick
■ A 40-ton slip converted into a 90-ton boat hoist jetty, con- before bedrock was encountered. This completely vindicated the
sisting of two sets of connecting jetties of 16 bays each, and decision to opt for the ODEX piling method.
■ Two lead-in jetties for the 1 200-ton slipway, consisting of With the soils information available, Franki installed the
the Northern Jetty (with 30 bays) and the Southern Jetty first row of piles 19 m deep with a 1.5 m socket, just below
(with 39 bays). the high-tide mark, and a 12 m test pile with a 6 m socket into
Franki was responsible for the entire pile installation operation, the boulder layer. The test pile was tested to 3 000 kN, twice
while Haw & Inglis undertook the concrete deck structure in the working load, and, with a 6 mm settlement under load,
accordance with Franki’s design. the designers reviewed the original piling criteria. “With the
According to Roy Louw, Franki’s divisional director, test pile passing with flying colours, we proceeded with the
many hours were spent strategising and planning the instal- pile installation, now only required to be 9 m deep below the
lation procedure and equipment that would be required. “I seabed, with a minimum 3 m socket into the boulder layer,”
was concerned about the effects of vibrating through the Louw explains.
4.0 m seabed, drilling a 1.5 m rock socket and having a crane Initially the piles were installed using the single guide-frame
walking out onto the jetty before the concrete had gained suf- standing on the quay, as jetty sections had not yet arrived from
ficient strength. For this reason we finally decided to install Ghana where Franki had used them on the Ada Groynes con-
610 mm diameter piles using the Rotapile or ODEX method, tract. During this period – and in fact, on the entire project – the
as this would be the least risky and would also allow quicker experience of those members of the Franki team who had worked
access. I’m pleased to say that this decision certainly proved to on the Ada Groynes contract, proved to be invaluable.
be the correct one!” As the team became more adept with drilling into the boul-
But this meant going back to the drawing board, quite liter- ders, productivity increased significantly. They managed to com-
ally, for alternative design and drawings, and for the design of plete the 30 piles on grid-lines A and B on the 90-ton boat hoist
the single tube guide-frame. At the same time Franki requested at an unprecedented rate, coming from 22 days behind schedule
permission to proceed with the soil investigation, as the last to only eight days.
one had been conducted on the quay way back in 1975, and no At the beginning of August 2015 piling commenced on
geotechnical information was available on the lead-in jetties. the Northern Jetty of the 1 200-ton slipway, and this brought
In early December 2014 the Franki crew started setting up new challenges to light. The cross-bracing between the piles
camp, and in early January 2015 the Franki Durban team were from the original jetty, constructed at the end of the 1800s,

4 April 2016 Civil Engineering

was obstructing the positioning of the new piles that had to be
installed. A local commercial diving company was therefore
appointed to dredge clear the cross-bracing and cut them out
at those positions where they would interfere with the new
pile positions.
Piling to the Northern Jetty was completed on 5 November
2015, 13 days ahead of schedule. The equipment was quickly
transported over to the Southern Jetty, and the installation mo-
mentum was kept up. Piling to the Southern Jetty was completed
on 9 March, a staggering 53 days ahead of schedule.
“Th is has been a monumental team effort,” Louw concludes.
“From the management of the complex contractual issues, to
the safety management, we surpassed 80 000 accident-free
man-hours. And from the management of the plant, which
was kept in perfect condition throughout, to the efforts of the
welding team, who ensured the reliable and regular supply of
casings and jetty sections, this team has raised the bar in terms
of performance.”

INFO
Victor Ferreira
T: +27 11 531 2700 Drilling casings with the fixed leader on the first grid-
F: +27 11 887 0475 line just below the high-tide mark
E: [email protected]

An aerial view of the casing being drilled down on

the 15th bay grid-lines A and B of the slipway; note
capping beams cast on grid-lines C and D to the left

Installing a casing on the third bay grid-lines A and B

Civil Engineering April 2016 5

 PROFILE

Challenging the average

Dr Hendrik Kirsten, the 2015 recipient of the SAICE Geotechnical Gold Medal, has always contended
that, “If you like what you do, then there’s no end to you.” This, and his total commitment to the
pursuit of his goals, reflect how the formidable body of work he has been involved in for over 40 years
– epitomising the scope and diversity that geotechnical engineering is involved in and its fertile cross-
pollination of ideas – has been possible.
A delighted Dr Hendrik Kirsten (right) receiving the Geotechnical Gold Medal LAUNCHING OF A NOTABLE CAREER
from SAICE COO Steven Kaplan; it was obvious at the event that he felt greatly
With a reputation for a searching mind, Hendrik attributes his
honoured that his work had been recognised by peers in this way
thinking skills to the way he was brought up. “I remember my
dad made a big thing of people having to use their minds, and
that, I think, aroused latent abilities in us children. My mother,
too, would not spoonfeed us while we were solving maths home-
work problems or doing Latin translations. She would assure us
that solutions existed, but would let us battle it out for ourselves.
As a result, my whole inclination is to use my mind as an instru-
ment for living and being.”
With nothing to commend Hendrik to the two career options
of chemical engineering or civil engineering that an aptitude test
later proposed, his father tossed a coin. Civil engineering won,
and that was the first step towards a rewarding career which has
seen Hendrik leave his geotechnical footprint in codes of practice
and ground-breaking research.
After undergraduate civil engineering studies at the
University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), an MSc in structures
followed. Aware of his dual interest in structures and soil me-
Hendrik Kirsten, Andy Robertson and Oskar Steffen – the founders of SRK chanics, Wits invited him back in 1966 to lecture in structural
engineering and do a PhD. This led to an eight-year stint at the
university, seven of which were spent lecturing in rock me-
chanics in the Mining Engineering Department, from which he
received a PhD in 1986.
Undertaking consulting work during this time, it was in 1973
that he started to ponder a career outside of the university. “I
was consulting on a project with Dr Andy Robertson (another
Wits alumnus), and when I raised the prospect of consulting for
my own account we immediately realised that, together with Dr
Oskar Steffen (also a distinguished Wits lecturer), the three of
us could establish a partnership. The rest is history.” The three,
already well-known in industry from early on, started SRK in
January 1974.
As SRK’s four-decade anniversary book aptly tells, this al-
tered the trajectories of their lives. It was “three young 30-some-

6 April 2016 Civil Engineering

thing engineers with a zeal to do things differently … and [SRK facility at the mine. The failure resulted in a catastrophic slurry
was] a magnet that attracted some of the best talents to their flow out of the impoundment, with unfortunate fatalities, major
cause – a totally committed and hard-working professional ca- damage to infrastructure and extensive environmental impact.
maraderie within a loose communal framework.” The risk underscoring tailings dams was clear, and this disaster
inter alia paved the way for standards and regulations to manage
NO LOOKING BACK tailings dam operations in South Africa, which were published
“One thing I will always appreciate – in fact, I regard it as the some years later.
biggest opportunity and blessing ever granted me – is that there
existed a market demand for the specialist geotechnical engi- BREAKING GROUND
neering services we had to offer, and that in Oskar and Andy SRK’s birth in 1974 – a practice built on high-performing, entre-
I had business associates of absolute integrity and trust with preneurial individuals – was what saw Hendrik strive to continu-
whom I could build a consulting practice.” ally bring the latest technologies into the business, invite leading
SRK encapsulated the three founders’ conviction that con- academics in geotechnical engineering to do sabbaticals at the office
sulting is a people business, and that personal relationships are and share this with the profession. This went hand-in-hand with
paramount. Giving people the opportunities and challenges a flow of technical papers establishing SRK as technical experts.
to rise to their full potential, while cultivating a culture of in- “There was always a research aspect to many of the projects, and
novation and competition for excellence, was also what drove thus the focus on technical aspects and doing cutting-edge work.”
Hendrik and helped SRK evolve into the dynamic practice it has With underground mining contracts comprising much of the
become. work in the 1980s, Hendrik’s expertise in structural engineering
“We sought to create a company structure that made it pos- and the very high rock pressures in deep mines drew him into
sible for people to grow their own practices, be rewarded for their the mining side of things. However, it did not stop him from
efforts, and yet be supported in tough times from the ruthless- expanding the scope of his knowledge and the many interests
ness of the ever-changing consulting market place, here in South he had within structural and geotechnical engineering, and to
Africa and internationally. pursue unusual projects.
“We knew there was commercial opportunity for SRK to For example, from early research work on thin shells, the
provide independent consulting services in the fields of mining, design solution of the Gautrain Rapid Rail Link over sinkholes
geotechnical engineering and tailings disposal. The established was inspired (one of Hendrik’s current projects includes as-
engineering consultancies of the 1970s had in-house special- suring statutory compliance of dolomite land use); steel-fibre-
ists, but it was completely novel for geotechnical engineers to reinforced shotcrete led to plant root reinforcement of soils; key
establish independent businesses. The success was thanks to just stones in masonry vaults were found to explain the stability of
fortuitously being in the right place at the right time.” jointed rock around mining stopes at great depth; the princi-
The need for SRK’s specialist geotechnical expertise soon ples of mechanically stabilised earth were employed to arrest
came to the fore when they were appointed to design a new tail- squeezing of soft ground into tunnels; and mechanical ripping
ings dam at Bafokeng Mine and to investigate the reason or rea- of rock progressed to hydraulic erosion of soil and jet-cutting of
sons for a breach in the embankment wall of the tailing storage stainless steel and ceramics.

Post-tensioned concrete u-beams supporting the Gautrain over potential sinkholes

(see page 12, first paragraph)

Civil Engineering April 2016 7

SOME SIGNIFICANT PROJECTS Hex River Tunnel
The Hex River Tunnel was another of the early projects under-
Kowyn’s Pass rockfall shelter taken which helped establish Hendrik and SRK’s reputation. “The
Hendrik’s appointment to this project in 1977 confirmed that the project involved blasting a new tunnel through the Hex River
newly established consultancy was recognised for its expertise Mountains in the Western Cape for a railway line. The South
in geotechnics from the start. Loose boulders were periodically African Railways engineers had compiled the tunnel design and
dislodged from a steep 120 m high rock slope along the road from had let the contract on the basis of what was then a standard
Graskop to Hazyview. The sheer number of unstable blocks made it methodology for classifying rock masses and their response to
impossible to secure them by bolting to the bedrock. It fell to Hendrik tunnelling. SRK was appointed to oversee the rock engineering
to design a rockfall shelter across the road, much like the snow ava- aspects of the work from the start. The tunnelling did not pro-
lanche chutes in Europe. The structure comprised a pinned portal ceed as planned. The rock did not respond in key locations to
stayed against sway by horizontal anchors into the mountain. The excavation as envisaged; the support needed to prevent rock falls
project was a unique mixture of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and was more expensive than planned, and the tunnel took longer to
structural engineering that Hendrik pursued throughout his career. advance and cost more than estimated.” A very large claim gave
rise to a lawsuit on which Hendrik and SRK were the technical
experts.
From this landmark South African railway tunnel project
followed many more tunnel, embankment, slope and rock en-
gineering projects, in particular participation in the Lesotho
Highlands Project.

Failure of a segmented concrete pipeline in Edenvale

Another early project – the repair of a 2.1 m diameter seg-
mented concrete pipeline for Rand Water that had failed under
pressure and washed away part of the motorway in Edenvale,
Johannesburg – again highlighted Hendrik’s ability to solve unu-
sual problems. The contract involved redesigning all the anchor
blocks over several kilometres of pipeline, as well as redesigning
the concrete spigot-and-socket joints at the bends. Later Rand
Water would sell the patent rights for the joints Hendrik had
designed “for a lot more than the consulting fee of R8/hour,”
chuckles Hendrik.

Standard Bank Building

Hendrik was also the consultant on the Standard Bank
Services Centre Building – the first high-rise office building
in Johannesburg that was allowed to be built on undermined
Kowyn’s Pass rockfall shelter ground. It was on his advice that they had purchased the land,
and the foundation design helped transform the previously

Standard Bank Services Centre Building in Johannesburg

8 April 2016 Civil Engineering

unusable site on the footwall of old mining stopes into prime real appeared in 2014. It was not long after the first publication of this
estate by constructing 60 m deep mass concrete keys in the old guideline that the related Quality Management Implementation
workings. This paved the way for other developments over simi- Guideline was published in 2011 by CESA, also written by
larly undermined ground. Hendrik.
Towards the close of the project, Hendrik in 2012 reviewed
Steel-fibre-reinforced shotcrete the risks of derailment of the Gautrain and the adequacy of the
“De Beers’ Premier Mine also financed SRK in the late 1980s associated containment provisions.
to investigate whether, and under what conditions, steel-fibre- After twelve years Hendrik still serves on the Quality and
reinforced shotcrete would be equivalent to mesh-reinforced Risk Management Committee of CESA. He is committed to
shotcrete as surface support in tunnels that are subjected to very and has a passion for engineering consulting and recently par-
large deformations.” This was another novel problem and a big ticipated in the presentation of the CESA ‘Seminar on Practice
challenge. Hendrik established an industry-funded Shotcrete Notes’.
Working Group that took the development programme further The sustained quality of engineering practice in the future is
for a number of years and showed, for example, that in some a major concern to Hendrik. He believes that the public image of
applications long polypropylene fibres were equally suitable com- the profession, and the enthusiasm of students and young profes-
pared to steel fibres. sionals for the profession, should be raised and the commitment
This in turn led to Hendrik’s ground-breaking work on the of senior engineers to the profession should be proactively rekin-
role of vegetation in making soils erosion-resistant, which cul- dled.
minated in the award of PhD and MSc degrees to participating Hendrik currently serves as convenor of the WG3 Working
members of staff. Group responsible for the revision of Part 4 on Risk Management
of the South African National Standard on the development of
Risk and quality management dolomite land, SANS 1936:2012 that will be published in 2017.
With the advent of the new dispensation in South Africa in
the early nineties came a drive to improve the safety in mines. Probability-based design
This enabled Hendrik to add operational risk management to Prof Milton Harr brought the power of probability-based design
the array of consulting services that he could offer the mining to Hendrik’s attention during a visit to South Africa at the start
industry. The skills and experiences that Hendrik acquired in of the eighties. The absence of guidelines on acceptable probabili-
this field over a number of years led to a CESA (Consulting ties of failure and injury was a major challenge which Hendrik
Engineers South Africa) publication titled Risk Management overcame without delay by publishing a set of norms based on
Implementation Guideline, of which a second expanded edition the failure statistics for relevant engineering applications. In the

Sinkhole under single-storey dwelling

Civil Engineering April 2016 11

early nineties these norms were brought in line with those used for free during those tough years of establishment was welcome,”
in the financial and insurance industries. says Hendrik with a twinkle.
This enabled Hendrik to design (on a probability basis) road “We met at Wits, in the chemistry department where I had
bridge foundations under hydraulic action in the UK, tunnel sup- gone to ask for special soap for my final-year undergraduate
port in mines in the USA, the post-tensioned concrete U-beams research project. She was doing typing work, saving up to pay
for the Gautrain Rapid Rail Link over potential sinkholes, the for teaching studies. Needless to say, I never got the soap. In
population density in single-, double- and treble-storey residen- fact I never even asked for the soap, but came away set for life,”
tial developments, and multi-storey office and residential build- he quips. “We waited three years until she had completed her
ings on dolomite land, which included the safety of the largest studies, and in 1966 we were married, which makes this year our
private hospital in the southern hemisphere on dolomite land. golden anniversary.”
Hendrik is currently engaged in the design of tailings storage Hendrik and Yvonne are now also the proud grandparents of
facilities over ongoing underground mining operations on a their four children’s seven and counting children.
probability basis.
ACADEMIA AND INDUSTRY
Expert witnessing / engineering forensics Over the years Hendrik has published 90 technical papers, and
Major contractual disputes are often related to the foreseeability the research aspect of many of his projects led to an inseparable
of adverse subsurface conditions. In some instances, the disputes and critical link between academia and industry – even from
are related to the responsibility of the contractor to ensure the the early 1980s he was involved in the development of the Rand
stability and safety of temporary works, which is exacerbated Afrikaans University’s (now the University of Johannesburg)
when the temporary works are incorporated in the permanent engineering faculty.
works. The Hex River Tunnel was a particular case in point in- His ability to empower others in the skills he has devel-
volving both of these issues. oped over many years saw him appointed at the University of
Early in his career Hendrik was confronted with the inability Johannesburg as Professor of Civil Engineering from 2006 to
of steel arches to protect soft ground tunnels against squeezing, 2008, and as Executive Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and
which he overcame by reinforcing an annulus of material right the Built Environment in 2008.
around the tunnels with grouted cable anchors. This was met with
some resistance initially, but has now become standard practice. CHANGING ANGLES
Hendrik has been involved as an expert witness in numerous “I’ve had a privileged career to always be exposed to and in-
disputes including hard and abrasive rock in quarries, road and volved in novel things. One cannot wish for a better situation
runway excavations, submarine outfall sewers and machine- than to have a profession in which one is paid to do a hobby
bored tunnels. He has appeared as an expert witness in a number twenty-four-seven.”
of instances on the rippability of rock, as determined by the In 2001, however, desiring a change, Hendrik left SRK and
hardness and structure of the rock. This led to the development started his own one-man consulting practice, making himself
of his classification on the mechanical excavatability of rock. available to a wider set of clients, while being able to spend more
Adverse conditions in tunnels and open-pit excavations are time with his family.
related to the frequency and orientation of joints in the rock Hendrik, still not retired, remains in demand as a specialist,
which demarcate unstable wedges, widely separated joints (up to technical expert on legal cases involving geotechnical engi-
150 mm) that give rise to block fall-out, and soft ground in shear neering, and in supporting and expanding university education
zones that result in tunnel squeezing. Hendrik has also been in- in South Africa – having truly made and still making geotech-
volved in cases in which unstable ground has led to fatal injury. nical engineering his life’s work.
Collapsible materials can cause severe settlement of building “SRK still plays a unique role in my career, albeit that the re-
foundations if not identified in time and properly dealt with. lationship is completely independent. I have developed a greater
Hendrik has in a number of instances been involved as an expert awareness that one needs to continue engaging with people and
witness in disputes of this nature. Other disputes on which the world around one, and that one needs to participate in deci-
Hendrik has appeared as expert witness include shortfalls in
mining production, liquefaction and breaching failures of the
sand slopes of dredged harbour channels, and undue seepage into
bulk earthworks excavations.
Exposure to engineering failures and the consequent resolu-
tion of the resulting damages have greatly enriched Hendrik’s
insight into the pitfalls in engineering judgement and decision-
making. He has developed an acute sense for engineering foren-
sics, which is often the unidentified gap between lawyers and
technical experts on contractual disputes.

HIS GREATEST SUPPORT

His wife, Yvonne, has been his greatest support during the long
hours and travel which were demanded of him. In the early SRK
days, she would also do typing and office support on top of caring Hendrik with his wife Yvonne

for their four young children. “Anyone who was prepared to work

12 April 2016 Civil Engineering

sions of which the outcome is not a known certainty. One lives
and progresses by risk.”
At 74 Hendrik is still registered with ECSA as a professional
engineer and is actively working towards at least another five-
year cycle of registration.

APPRECIATING THE ROLE OF OTHERS

Paying tribute to the many collaborations which have characterised
his rewarding and successful career, Hendrik says: “One sets off with
a dream to climb a distant mountain, together with some fear of not
making it. The dream keeps the hope alive and the fear keeps the
midnight candle burning. That is all that you are aware of, and when
you lift up your head, the mountain is behind you, and you don’t Hendrik has been involved as an expert witness
know how that happened and you cannot take credit for it, because
somehow you were carried along by countless others.” in numerous disputes including hard and
abrasive rock in quarries, road and runway
ADVICE TO UPCOMING PROFESSIONALS
“Rest assured, you can achieve any goal that you may set for yourself, excavations, submarine outfall sewers and
provided you stay one step ahead, but that requires that you never
machine-bored tunnels. He has appeared as
stop publishing your work and sharing your thoughts. Embrace the
professional institutions and regulating authorities, and work together an expert witness in a number of instances on
with them to serve the public towards whom you have a fiduciary
the rippability of rock, as determined by the
obligation. In this way will you pay tribute to those who established
the great profession of which you can be proud to be a member.” hardness and structure of the rock. This led
to the development of his classification on the
Rebekka Wellmanns
[email protected] mechanical excavatability of rock.
Civil Engineering April 2016 13

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 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Founding improvement using geosynthetics

at the Cape Town harbour
BACKGROUND GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In 2013, Transnet National Ports A geotechnical site investigation was Patrick Beales
Alex van Niekerk Pr Eng
Senior Geotechnical Engineer
Authority (TNPA) commenced with up- conducted using a small-diameter rotary Planning, Toll and Traffic Manager
Kantey and Templer Consulting Engineers
grading of the existing fire-fighting system core barrel with standard penetration SANRAL
[email protected]
[email protected]
of the oil tanker terminals in the Port tests (SPT). The exploratory borehole
of Cape Town (Figure 1). This included was drilled to a depth of 23.5 m below
the construction of a new pump station, the existing ground level. The schematic
which would house booster pumps on diagram in Figure 2 shows the subsoil
Heinrich van Wijk
the ground floor and a 250 kilolitre water conditions that were encountered during AECOM SA
reservoir directly above the pump station the investigation. These subsoil conditions [email protected]
on the first floor. The design bearing pres- can be summarised as follows:
sure exerted on the ground by this new ■ Variable fi ll materials in terms of com-
structure would be 150 kPa. position, low consistency and thickness
The pump station site is located creating compressible soil conditions
Edoardo Zannoni
inside the Port of Cape Town. The fi ll (problem soil) Business Unit Manager: Geosynthetics
material (the placing of which started in ■ Presence of large obstacles, such as tet- Maccaferri Africa
1965) comprised hydraulically backfi lled rahedron dollies and very hard boulders [email protected]
material derived from dredging activi- up to 1.5 m in diameter, as well as a
ties, and highly variable end-tipped im- rockfi ll layer at depth (quay construc-
ported material. tion), which could hamper piling instal-
The objective therefore was to design a lation
The pump station site is
stable and effective foundation capable of ■ Soft, variable marine deposits in the located inside the Port of
handling loads from a dynamic structure order of 6.0 m thick
(the pump station) on a highly variable, ■ Weathered meta-sedimentary strata
Cape Town. The fill material
weak soil deposit. associated with Malmesbury rock, (the placing of which started in
1965) comprised hydraulically
backfilled material derived from
dredging activities, and highly
variable end-tipped imported
material. The objective
therefore was to design a
stable and effective foundation
capable of handling loads from
a dynamic structure (the pump
station) on a highly variable,
Figure 1: Site location of the new pump station (Source: Google Earth) weak soil deposit.

Civil Engineering April 2016 15

 with occasional discontinuities fi lled
with sand
■ Significant depth to competent rock.

12 METRE HIGH GEOTECHNICAL OPTIONS

EXISTING TANK
Based on the subsoil conditions the fol-
lowing three types of foundation improve-
ments were considered:
12 m

1. Deep compaction or re-compaction

EXISTING SERVICES of the fi ll soils: This option was ruled
out due to lateral working restraints
POSITION OF PUMP STATION and the potential of damaging existing
AND GEOTECHNICAL BOREHOLE
infrastructure in close proximity to
EXISTING GROUND LEVEL
the site.
EXISTING ROAD
2. Piled foundation: This option would

+- 2 m tidal lag
only have been viable using percus-
FINE FILL MATERIAL (DREDGED SOIL):
gravelly sand containing occasional oversize material sive or oscillator piling techniques to
3.45 penetrate through the large obstacles
SEA and the boulder layer (rockfi ll). The
pile seating depths were estimated at
23.5 m below the ground level into the
COARSE FILL MATERIAL (ROCKFILL): lower competent Malmesbury rock.
cobbles and boulders
3. Geosynthetic reinforced soil raft
foundation: This option would in-
volve the installation of geosynthetic
layers between suitably engineered
12.30
fi ll materials to improve the bearing
capacity of the subsoils.
After consideration of the geotechnical
MARINE DEPOSITS: conditions, construction challenges and
very silty fine sand and variably sandy silt potential solutions, the geosynthetic
18.20 reinforced soil raft foundation was found
UPPER WEATHERED MALMESBURY ROCK: to be the most viable solution for the site
sandy silty tending to highly weathered very soft rock with
sand infill deposited between rock discontinuities conditions.
21.30
LOWER MALMESBURY ROCK:
highly weathered very soft Malmesbury rock GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED
23.50 SOLUTION
The design technique is based on the
distribution of vertical pressures through
a geogrid reinforced layer (stiffened soil
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the subsoil conditions raft). The design method requires that the
pressure at the top of subgrade is less than
the allowable bearing pressure of the sub-
Foundation
grade soil to provide an adequate factor of
safety. This static method assumes that the
vertical pressures are distributed through
400 mm the platform soil layer, as outlined by the
Boussinesq theory (Das 1990).
Geogrid extruded (UTS 40/40 kN/m)
The design pressure of 150 kPa and
the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of 2%
400 mm (in-situ bearing capacity of 15 kPa) were
Geogrid extruded (UTS 40/40 kN/m) used for the design calculations. In unre-
inforced conditions the foundation thick-
200 mm Ballast layer 200 mm ness required was in the order of 2 m.
Woven geotextile (UTS 80/80 kN/m)
However, through the use of geosynthetic
reinforcements the thickness was reduced
CBR 2% - In situ layer to 1.2 m, as shown in Figure 3, with one
layer of woven geotextile (in polypro-
pylene with an ultimate tensile strength of
Figure 3: Section through the reinforced foundation 80 kN/m in both directions) functioning

16 April 2016 Civil Engineering

as a separator layer, and two layers of
extruded geogrids (polypropylene bi-
directional geogrids with an ultimate ten-
sile strength of 40 kN/m) placed within
400 mm thick of a G5 material (TRH 14),
which requires a minimum CBR of 45
once compacted to a minimum of 95% of
the modified AASHTO density.

CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES

Buried services
Attempts were made to identify the ex-
isting utility services prior to construc-
tion. However, due to the age of the
port, the record drawings did not reflect
the exact ground conditions upon exca-
vation. Damage to these services could
lead to safety risks for the construction
team, as well as risks to the environ-
ment and commerce.
All services were therefore located
by hand, and subsequently relocated
to an area outside the footprint of the Figure 4: Construction of the geosynthetic reinforced soil raft foundation

pump station structure. This was a

time-consuming activity, because these
services ranged from medium voltage
electrical cables, freshwater pipelines,
firewater pipelines, compressed airlines,
and sleeves housing telecommunication
cables (Figure 5).

Influence of the tidal zone

It was established that the bottom of
the excavation, in terms of the required
depth of soil improvement, fell within
the fluctuating tidal zone. During low Figure 5: Locating the existing buried services proved to be a time-consuming challenge
tide the area would be dry and safe to
work in, but during high tide the tidal
water would rise up to 500 mm above the
bottom of the excavation.
Because of the saturated founding
conditions, a 200 mm pioneering ballast
layer, using 26 mm single-size aggregate,
was placed and statically compacted un-
derneath the engineered layers to create a
stable working platform above the influ-
ence of the tidal water level.

QUALITY CONTROL
Plate load tests were undertaken on the in-
situ subgrade using a 600 m plate diameter
in the pioneering layer, as well as on the
installed geosynthetic layers (Figure 7). The
axial loads and the corresponding displace-
ment were recorded at predetermined load
increments, and the resulting data was
then used to generate applied load versus
deflection and subgrade modulus reaction
curves (Figures 8 and 9). Figure 6: Tidal influence – low tide (top) and high tide (bottom)

Civil Engineering April 2016 17

 The soil raft founding material (ap-
proximately 1.2 m below ground level)
comprised loose, variably silty fi ne-
grained sandy material. Test 1 confirmed
that the in-situ material comprised gener-
ally low-strength soils (bearing capacity
< 40 kPa), which necessitated the ground
improvement. The plate loads test results
at respective levels within the reinforced
soil raft are presented in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 7: Plate load test undertaken during construction During the construction phase the
settlement of the pump station was
Test 1 - In situ Test 2 - Pioneering layer Test 3 - GeosyntheƟc layer measured on a weekly basis to record its
14 average structure settlement. These read-
ings confirmed that minimal settlement
12
had occurred during the construction
10 phases (with 95% construction completed).
Total displacement (mm)

Following completion and leak detection

8
testing, the structure settled uniformly and
6
attained equilibrium with the ground.

4 CONCLUSIONS
2
The importance of an adequate geotechnical
investigation and retaining the geotechnical
0 engineer during the construction phases
0 50 100 150 200 250
remain the most effective methods of man-
Applied load (kN)
aging the subsurface risks where problem
soils are encountered. Sadly, in most civil
Figure 8: Applied load vs deflection engineering projects, the involvement of the
geotechnical engineer tends to terminate
Test 1 - In situ Test 2 - Pioneering layer Test 3 - GeosyntheƟc layer after the investigation phase.
160 The installation of the cost-effective
geosynthetic reinforcement improved the
Modulus of subgrade reacƟon (kPa/mm)

140
bearing capacity of the ground, ensuring
120
that the structural loading conditions were
100
met, thereby essentially eliminating the re-
80 quirement for expensive piling techniques.
60 Although this reinforced soil raft con-
40
cept is commonly undertaken overseas,
this solution is not regularly considered in
20
geotechnical applications in South Africa
0 from the perspective of a founding soil
0 50 100 150 200 250
improvement technique to develop the
Applied load (kN)
ability of weak soils to support structures.
Figure 9: Applied load vs modulus of subgrade reaction The behaviour of the layers indicates
that, with adequate geotechnical investiga-
tion, and assessment and design interpreta-
tion, suitable geosynthetics are capable of
supporting medium-loaded structures by
transferring the stresses and applied loads
through the layers. This 'transfer of soil
strength' is the key to designing geosyn-
thetic reinforced foundation pads.

PROJECT TEAM

Client: Transnet National Ports Authority

Consultant: AECOM SA (Pty) Ltd
Contractor: Stefanutti Stocks Marine
Figure 10: Booster pump station as of December 2015

18 April 2016 Civil Engineering

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 The effect of geogrid position on
the integrity of clay liners
INTRODUCTION
Tinus van Zyl Waste disposal can be implemented using a number of strate-
Junior Engineer gies. Landfill sites represent one type of these strategies and
WBHO Construction (Pty) Ltd
are specifically designed facilities built either on top of the
[email protected]
ground or into the ground in which waste is placed, and are
typically compacted and covered with topsoil (Ersoy et al
2013). An important factor to consider when designing a land-
The performance of clay liners can, even fill site, is the need for physical separation between the solid
after appropriate design and construction, be waste body contained in the landfill and the natural ground
water. This is usually achieved by installing a compacted clay
compromised by differential settlement of the liner (CCL) prior to the placement of any waste in the landfill.
Liners in waste disposal sites are commonly made up of fine-
underlying material, should this occur. CCLs are
grained soils such as natural clays, silty clays or clayey silts,
unable to withstand tensile strains and maintain their because of their natural availability and properties. These
properties include low permeability and diffusivity, high duc-
integrity. Even at low deformation levels tensile strains
tility, good constructability and high chemical compatibility
are induced in the clay, which may cause cracking (Rajesh & Viswanadham 2012). The prevention of possible
migration of pollutants (primarily leachates) in waste into the
(Ajaz & Parry 1975). The hydraulic conductivity and soil, groundwater and surface water is thus the main objective
strength of the clays may thus be affected by these of a CCL (Mohamaed & Anita 1998).
The performance of clay liners can, even after appropriate
phenomena and may create possible flow paths in design and construction, be compromised by differential
the clay for contaminants such as leachates. settlement of the underlying material, should this occur.
CCLs are unable to withstand tensile strains and maintain
their integrity. Even at low deformation levels tensile strains
are induced in the clay, which may cause cracking (Ajaz &
Parry 1975). The hydraulic conductivity and strength of the
clays may thus be affected by these phenomena and may
create possible flow paths in the clay for contaminants such
as leachates. In the case of a landfill liner design this can be

20 April 2016 Civil Engineering

severely problematic where clay has specially been chosen for in the top part had the lowest overall vertical displacement, as
its low permeability property (Da Silva 2014). It is proposed can be seen in Figure 3.
that the integrity of compacted clay liners can be improved by From the PIV analysis for each test, a vector plot and a shear
using geosynthetic reinforcement in the liner. The American strain plot were obtained. Vector plots indicate the magnitude of
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D4439 2014) defines movement of points within the clay layer. For each plot, the vector
geosynthetics as: “Products manufactured from polymeric magnification factor and scales were kept constant for all the tests.
material used with soil, rock, earth or other geotechnical Strain plots indicate the location of maximum shear strain in the
engineering-related materials as an integral part of a human- clay layer. It must be noted that the location of the shear zone is
made project, structure or system.” important for this discussion, rather than the exact value that is
There is currently a wide variety of geosynthetics available, associated with the strain. Typical results are illustrated in Table 1
which include geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geosyn- (detailed results are presented by Van Zyl (2015)). Shear strain
thetic clay liners, geocomposites, geonets, geopipes, geofoam plots for Test 1-3 showed the highest shear strain values at the in-
and geocells (Das 2011). The study on which this article is based flection points in the clay layer, as seen in Figure 4. Shear strain in
investigated the effect of geogrid reinforcement on the integrity Test 4 (centre reinforcement) appears to be spread across the layer
of a clay liner. The use of geogrids as reinforcement material in rather than being located at certain points.
geosynthetic clay liners is increasing rapidly. They have a net-like Test 3 also illustrated that it is most effective to provide ten-
appearance and consist of parallel sets of intersecting ribs with sile reinforcement in the top part of the clay layer where the re-
large enough apertures to interlock with the soil matrix sur- inforcement helped to reduce the tensile strains at two locations,
rounding it (Das 2011). as seen in Test 3, Figure 5(b), rather than one location, as seen in
Test 2, Figure 5(a).
RESEARCH PROJECT
To observe the different modes of behaviour, physical model CONCLUSIONS
studies were conducted on an unreinforced clay layer and three It was concluded that the inclusion of a geogrid in a clay layer
reinforced clay layers, with reinforcement placed at different improved the integrity of the clay liner. The reinforced clay layers
depths, and subjecting them to differential settlement and a sur- showed better performance in terms of less vertical displacement
charge load. The four different tests were: and lower shear strain than the unreinforced clay layer. Test 3, with
■ Test 1 – Control test with no geogrid in the clay layer the reinforcement in the top part of the clay layer, showed the best
■ Test 2 – Geogrid in the bottom part of clay layer performance in terms of limiting the vertical displacement and
■ Test 3 – Geogrid in the top part of the clay layer shear strain at any given percentage of volume reduction. Test 4,
■ Test 4 – Geogrid in the middle part of the clay layer.
The objectives of the experimental work were:
■ To investigate the shear strain and vertical displacement of an
unreinforced clay layer subjected to non-uniform settlement.
■ To investigate the shear strain and vertical displacement of a
reinforced clay layer subjected to non-uniform settlement.
■ To investigate the effect on the location of the reinforcement
HFPUFDIOJDBM
FOHJOFFSJOH
BOE
TPJM
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UFTUJOH
within a clay layer subjected to non-uniform settlement.
Only the location of the geogrid reinforcement was changed Services:
during the experiments. All other variables were kept constant. t
(FPUFDIOJDBM
*OWFTUJHBUJPO
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) (White et al 2003) was used as t
'PVOEBUJPOT

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measuring technique to determine the shear strain and vertical

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displacement in the soil for this study. t
(FPMPHJDBM
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A schematic representation of the model that was used
t
4PJM
1SPm
MJOH
can be seen in Figure 1. The container had openings both in
the front and back to allow a water-filled cylindrical rubber
t
4PJM
5FTUJOH
membrane to pass through it. Non-uniform settlement was
created by extracting water from the rubber membrane that
was placed at the bottom of the model container. Water from
the rubber membrane was extracted in a controlled manner Contacts:
during testing by means of an actuator. For the purposes of
$FMM



this discussion the term “volume reduction” will refer to the
amount of water that was extracted from the rubber mem-




brane. At the front of the container a 6 mm thick glass panel 'BY



was installed to observe any movement for soil strain analysis,
using PIV. XXXHFPUFDIOJRVFTDP[B
Typical results, as seen in Figure 2, showed that, at 50% FNBJM
HFPUFDIOJRVF!NXFCDP[B
PS
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volume reduction, a clear difference in vertical displacement of
office address:
the clay layer for the various tests could be seen. However, at /P

&NFSBME
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100% volume reduction, the unreinforced clay layer indicated the postal address:
largest overall vertical displacement, and the clay layer reinforced 1PTUOFU
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gauteng office:

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Civil Engineering April 2016 21
(FPUFDIOJRVFT
with the reinforcement in the middle of the clay layer, showed Ersoy, H, Bulut, F & Berkün, M 2013. Landfill site requirements on the
similar vertical displacement than that of Test 3, but only up to 50% rock environment: A case study. Engineering Geology, 154: 20–35.
volume reduction. Thereafter, the displacement increased signifi- Mohamed, A M O & Antia, H E 1998. Geoenvironmental
cantly. The results suggest that the overall performance in terms of Engineering. Elsevier, Netherlands.
minimising the settlement, and thereby preserving the integrity of a Rajesh, S & Viswanadham, B V S 2012. Centrifuge and nu-
clay layer, can best be improved by placing a geogrid in the top part merical study on the behaviour of clay-based landfill covers
(three quarters from the base) of the layer. subjected to differential settlements. Journal of Hazardous,
Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, 16(4): 284–297.
REFERENCES Van Zyl, T C 2015. The effect of geogrids on the integrity of clay
Ajaz, A & Parry, R H G 1975. Stress-strain behaviour of two com- liners. Final-year civil engineering research project report,
pacted clays in tension and compression. Geotechnique, 25(3): University of Pretoria.
495–512. White, D J, Take, W A & Bolton, M D 2003. Soil deformation meas-
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) 2014. ASTM urement using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and photogram-
D4439-14: Standard terminology for geosynthetics. metry. Geotechnique, 53(7): 619–631.
Da Silva, T 2014. Centrifuge modelling of the behaviour of geosyn-
thetic-reinforced soil over voids. First-year report, University of This article is based on Tinus van Zyl’s final-year research project in the
Cambridge. Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Pretoria (carried out
Das, B M 2011. Geotechnical Engineering Handbook. J Ross under the supervision of Prof SW Jacobsz) on the influence that geogrid
Publishing, USA. reinforcement has on the integrity of clay liners.

Applied load
PIV markers
40 110

Inflection points

Clay layer
Fine sand
200

Rubber CLAY LAYER

membrane

380
524

Figure 1: Model setup Figure 4: Approximate locations of inflection points

Horizontal distance [mm] Table 1: Vector plot and shear strain at 33% volume
0 47.5 95 142.5 190 237.5 285 332.5 380
0 reduction (Test 1)
-0.5
Test 1 at 33% volume reduction
Vertical displacement [mm]

-1
-1.5
Photo

-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
Vector
plot

-4.5
-5
-5.5
No reinforcement Top reinforcement

Centre reinforcement BoƩom reinforcement

Strain plot

Figure 2: Vertical displacement vs horizontal distance at 50%

volume reduction (Test 1-4)

Horizontal distance [mm]

0 47.5 95 142.5 190 237.5 285 332.5 380
0
-0.5
Vertical displacement [mm]

-1
-1.5
CLAY LAYER
-2
-2.5
a)
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
CLAY LAYER
-5
-5.5
No reinforcement Top reinforcement b)
Centre reinforcement BoƩom reinforcement

Figure 3: Vertical displacement vs horizontal distance at Figure 5: Location of reduced tensile forces for (a) in Test 2
100% volume reduction (Test 1-4) and (b) in Test 3

22 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 Est 1974

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Construction of the
Walter Meyer
Alex van Niekerk Pr Eng
Technical Engineer
Planning, Toll and Traffic Manager
Aquatan
SANRAL
[email protected]
[email protected]

first enhanced barrier Piet Meyer

Managing Director

system in the world

Aquatan
[email protected]

INTRODUCTION either be a compacted clay liner (CCL) or covering with a geomembrane induces
Geosynthetic materials have been suc- a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). damages such as squeeze of the bentonite
cessfully installed as effective barriers The performance of such composite and preferential flow paths through desic-
in various types of earth and concrete liners should be evaluated based on total cation cracks. The failure to pre-hydrate
structures over the past 50 years. However, solute transport, which considers both a GCL prior to its exposure to leachate,
as technology and research in the geo- advective losses and diff usion of volatile especially if containing hydrocarbons or
synthetics field evolved, it was found that organic compounds (VOCs) from the salts, will result in a loss of performance.
composite liners have certain limitations, waste stream (Foose et al 2002).
and that heat can significantly decrease the Service life influences
service life of geosynthetic components. Construction phase influences The lifetime prediction of a geomembrane
According to the highly respected The climatic conditions that are prevalent has been addressed by numerous authors
US Environmental Protection Agency, during construction can significantly (Sangam & Rowe 2002; Koerner & Hsuan
current standards do not adequately ad- reduce liner performance. Sunshine may 2003; Rowe 2005) for exposure to elevated
dress toxic pollutant discharge, frequently induce desiccation cracking of the clay temperature and various fluids.
resulting in toxic chemical seepage from component, in particular of pre-hydrated These elevated temperatures sig-
unlined ponds and dry waste landfi lls into and uncovered GCLs, as well as induce nificantly reduce the service life of the
ground and surface waters. Although the wrinkles in the geomembrane, which geomembrane, may induce desiccation
Agency’s concerns refer mainly to pollu- would lead to increased advective losses. cracking of underlying clay components
tion caused by coal-related products, the Excessive rain on the clay component can of composite liners and increase the total
reality is that clean water is the source of lead to displacement of the fine fraction solute transport.
life, and hence it is critical to a sustainable at the interface and resultant pervious The relatively small temperature in-
future. zones, while wind, too, can displace the crease in the lower range of 10°C to 35°C
The worldwide survey of regulatory fine fraction, which is critical to control- on a composite liner increased diff usion
standards for waste management and ling impermeability. by 100%, and hydraulic conductivity (or
pollution control (GRI Report No 34 of Hydration of the GCL component of advection) by 80% (Rowe 2005). Similar
2007: GRI’s Second Worldwide Survey a composite liner prior to its exposure to considerations need to be given to the
of Solid Waste Landfi ll Liner and Cover leachate is required. However, this hydra- drainage system performance which is
Systems) indicated that authorities prefer tion should take place after application affected by both normal stress resulting
geosynthetic composite liners for pollu- of a normal load (Vangapaisel et al 2002). in intrusion, and elevated temperature-
tion control over clay and modified soil This is extremely difficult when the GCL induced deformations, causing a reduc-
liner systems. is part of a composite liner and isolated tion in performance of geosynthetic
from soil moisture by either the leakage drainage systems.
COMPOSITE LINER detection system or underlying secondary
A composite liner can be defined as a flex- liner geomembrane. TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS
ible membrane liner in intimate contact Pre-hydration by means of spraying The negative effect of temperature on
with a mineral liner. The mineral liner can water on the GCL immediately prior to geosynthetic components is a topic that

Civil Engineering April 2016 25

attracted the attention of numerous This concept was verified by a range Figure 1 describes the working prin-
researchers over the past decade. The of laboratory experiments, as well as by ciple of the system in a solid-waste site,
seriousness of this limitation has been an infield application. The results of these specifically where all three functions of
recognised by leading geomembrane experiments were previously published the enhanced barrier system (EBS) are
manufacturers who are investing in the (Gundle et al 2013). utilised.
development of temperature-resistant
geomembranes (Ramsey & Wu 2013).
Investigation of the thermal con-
ductivity of GCLs showed that thermal
conductivity increased with the increase
in moisture content (Singh & Bouazza
2013). This may lead to the GCL acting as
an insulator if it is not properly hydrated,
which will cause elevated temperatures
on the primary geomembrane. The mois-
ture content of the clay component in the
composite liner has a significant impact
on thermal conductivity, and the leak de-
tection or under-drainage system has sig-
nificant air voids which act as a thermal
barrier, with the result that heat builds
up in the primary liner and accelerates its Figure 1: EBS working principle in a solid waste facility
degradation, unless mitigated.

INNOVATING TO OVERCOME
THE CHALLENGES
The foregoing shows that there is a need
in the geomembrane industry to mitigate
the effects of elevated temperature on
composite liners, post-loading hydration
of GCLs and the removal of VOCs to ex-
pand the performance of the conventional
geomembrane installations.

Principles of the enhanced barrier system

A concept was developed which involves
drawing a fluid under negative pressure
through a pervious zone adjacent to the
barrier, so that the fluid can be used both
to cool the primary composite lining and
adjacent drainage systems, and to intro- Figure 2: Barrier system and working principle of EBS
duce moisture to the GCL beneath the
overlying geomembrane for its hydration
(after placement of a normal load and prior
to the risk of its exposure to leachate).
The fluid (gas, liquid or two-phase
mixture) passing through the pervious
zone also maintains the leak detection
system at a low to zero concentration of
VOCs, thus preventing their further dif-
fusion into the adjacent environment.
The negative pressure is essential to
ensure no introduction of oxygen to the
waste body through a discontinuity of the
base geomembrane, which could induce
spontaneous combustion, depending on
the composition of the contained waste.
The negative pressure results in a net out-
ward flow towards the leakage detection
system sump. Figure 3: Earthworks preparation in progress

26 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 It is important to note that one or that the required design service life is life, extracts VOCs and overcomes con-
any combination of the three functions achieved. Furthermore, should VOCs struction challenges regarding hydrating
of the EBS can be utilised depending on be present in the containment facility, and maintaining the optimal hydration of
project requirements. the designer has to address these and the clay component – ultimately to pro-
provide a solution to prevent VOCs from tect the environment.
Benefits of the EBS contaminating the subsoil.
The regulatory standards are becoming The EBS provides designers with a PROJECT DESCRIPTION
increasingly strict. Regulators are practical, low-maintenance and cost-
moving in the direction of requiring de- effective solution to address the require- Design
signers to address the mitigation effects ments enforced by regulators. Even more The first EBS application in the world was
of heat on a barrier installation to ensure important, it extends the barrier’s service specified by the consulting engineering
firm Royal HaskoningDHV, to be installed
at a hazardous waste sludge lagoon. The
total solute transport analysis showed that
significant VOC concentrations in the
waste stream would diff use through the
contaminant containment barrier system.
The site foundations and operational
constraints favoured an all geosynthetic
solution in which both the primary and
secondary barrier would be a composite
(geomembrane plus geosynthetic clay
liner), separated by a leak detection system
which would also be a geosynthetic
product. Due to the nature of the liquid
waste to be contained, it was evident
that the GCL needed to be pre-hydrated,
i.e. hydrated prior to exposure to waste
Figure 4: Lining and pipe installation in progress containing hydrocarbons. Similarly the
diff usion of VOCs from the liquid waste
containment had to be prevented from
migrating to the groundwater regime, and
hence either a significant sorption layer
would be required, or VOCs had to be re-
moved from the leak detection system.
The facility is 13 hectares in footprint
and 10 metres deep. The waste facility de-
sign was able to conform to the conventional
double-composite liner, with an interme-
diate leak detection layer complying with the
hazardous waste lagoon containment bar-
rier standard (Class A Landfill in accordance
with NEMWA Regulation 636, published in
August 2013). This barrier design addressed
seepage, but required the EBS to mitigate
the risk of diffusion of VOCs and hydration
of the primary GCL. Figure 2 is a diagram-
matic explanation of the barrier system and
the working principle of the EBS.
The most important design aspect, to
ensure successful operation of the system, is
that of even airflow throughout the facility.
Each facility is unique, and the site-specific
parameters, as well as the composition of
the barrier system components, have to be
taken into account at the start of a design.
To ensure even airflow through the
facility, as well as to optimise the size
and power consumption of the me-
Figure 5: Segmentation between compartments taking place chanical extraction fan, the facility is

Civil Engineering April 2016 27

divided into compartments. The width of use of readily available fittings and the lowest point of the dam with subsoil
the compartments is calculated based on vacuum pumps. drains, standard compaction require-
the pressure drop over the corresponding The system is designed to induce con- ments and surface finishes.
flow section to ensure evenly distributed densation at the fluid inlet to assist with
flow, as well as taking into account the the rapid hydration of the primary barrier EBS installation
width of the geomembrane sheets to en- GCL. Standard geomembrane installation
sure a practical design. practice was followed, giving attention
Consideration was given to the pre- Construction to specific design principles, and thermal
hydration means of the GCLs in the pri- The earthworks construction commenced expansion and contraction wrinkles.
mary and secondary composite liners, the in mid-2013, and the liner installation in Anchor trenches were adapted to ac-
rate and direction of the advancing wet- November 2013. The project was success- commodate the fluid extraction system.
ting front, and the direction of potential fully completed in November 2015. Timeous backfi lling of trenches was im-
pollutant migration. This led to the selec- portant to prevent any localised tension in
tion of different GCLs for the enclosed Earthworks preparation the geomembrane due to thermal expan-
primary barrier and for the secondary General geomembrane-lined earth dam sion and contraction.
barrier applications. construction principles were applied, Pipe connections to the geomem-
The vacuum induction system, with which included engineered sloping walls branes, as well as the installation of other
inlets and outlets, was designed to make and floors, with a regular slope towards piping components, were of critical im-

Table 1: Cause of holes vs size of holes (Noske & Touze-Foltz 2000)

Size of holes Heavy Worker

Stones % % Welds % Cuts % % Total
(cm2 ) equipm directly

< 0.5 332 11.1 - - 115 43.4 5 8.5 - - 452

0.5–2.0 1 720 57.6 41 6.3 105 39.6 36 61.0 195 31.3 2 097
2.0–10 843 28.2 117 17.9 30 11.3 18 30.5 36 10.7 1 044
> 10 90 3.0 496 75.8 15 5.7 - - 601
Amount 2 985 654 265 59 231 4 194
Total 71.2% 15.6% 6.3% 1.4% 5.5% 100%

Figure 6: Electric leak detection (ELD) in progress

a b

Figure 8: Airflow measurement and

Figure 7(a) and (b): Two of the four defects picked up by the ELD calibration at one of the air intakes

28 April 2016 Civil Engineering

portance to ensure proper performance considerably enhanced the company’s After construction the facility was
of the system and the effective separation technical and quality control skills, which fi lled with hazardous waste sludge and the
between compartments. Particular care were put to good use on this project. leak detection system monitored for per-
was taken to ensure that the installation From a construction risk management formance. This confirmed the exceptional
fully met the design requirements. perspective the EBS part of the project value of the EBS in improving the post-
consisted of five major processes: construction performance of contaminant
Quality control ■ Earthworks preparation for geosynthetics containment barrier systems.
Being the first large-scale installation of this ■ Earthworks preparation for piping
innovative technology in the world, exten- ■ Geosynthetics installation CONCLUSION
sive quality control and diligent construc- ■ Piping installation As a result of effective collaboration between
tion supervision were imperative to ensuring ■ Capping operation. all project stakeholders, innovative engi-
the successful outcome of the project. As with any liner installation it was neering, quality workmanship and stringent
Strict quality control was enforced by shown that risks of defects to barrier construction supervision, the world-first
auditing both the geomembrane manu- systems resulted from stones (71.2%) and enhanced barrier system (EBS), an in-
facturer’s facility in Germany and the pipe heavy equipment (15.6%) (Table 1 refers). novative technology in the geosynthetics
manufacturer’s facility in South Africa to As a result of this, Aquatan performed industry, was successfully installed on this
ensure that materials were supplied ac- post-construction quality control by con- 13 hectare hazardous waste sludge lagoon.
cording to specification. Apart from this, ducting an electric leak detection (ELD) The EBS successfully performs its function
third-party quality control testing was con- survey on the completed facility, utilising to hydrate and keep the GCL in a hydrated
ducted on the various materials to ensure the dipole method. state, as well as preventing diffused VOCs
conformity to the project specifications. Despite the fact that there were spotters from negatively impacting the groundwater
Aquatan’s participation since 2012 in present during the process of capping the regime. Figure 8 shows the airflow measure-
the rigorous Certified Welding Technician liner, four defects were picked up by the ment at one of the air intakes located along
(CWT) and Approved Installation ELD process. All four defects were repaired the perimeter of the facility.
Contractor (AIC) programmes, admin- (see Figure 7). Had it not been for the ELD
istered by the International Association procedure, the performance of the barrier REFERENCES
of Geosynthetic Installers (IAGI), has and the EBS would have been compromised. References are available from the editor.

Civil Engineering April 2016 29

Innovatingthegeomembraneindustry


 
EnhancedBarrierSystemWorkingPrinciple ElectricLeakDetectioninProgress

EnhancedBarrierSystem
 ElectricLeakDetection
AQUATAN’SpatentedEnhancedBarrierSystemisatechnologythat
 It has been shown that 71% of defects in geomembranes are as a
has gained
 international recognition for its dedicated and focused result of stones within the protection layer and 16% due to heavy
performancecharacteristics. equipmentwhenplacingacappinglayeronthegeomembrane.

This innovative technology expands conventional containment AQUATAN is the only Geomembrane installer in South Africa

barrierboundariesby: equipped to find discontinuities in a geomembrane lined facility
 belowacappinglayer.
1. RemovingheatfromtheGeosyntheticcomponents,

2. ExtractingdiffusedVolatileOrganicCompounds,and
3. HydratingtheGeosyntheticClayLinerafterithasbeenloaded
 . Contactusformoreinformation.


 Tel:  +27(0)119745271
 Fax:  +27(0)119744111
 EͲMail: [email protected]
www.aquatan.com
30 April 2016 Civil Engineering
Geosynthetics – from product to
technology in road rehabilitation
INTRODUCTION
Edoardo Zannoni
Before the launch of the new South African Pavement Design
Business UnitAlex van Niekerk
Manager: Pr Eng
Geosynthetics
Method (at the time of writing), extensive research was under- Planning, Toll andMaccaferri
Traffic Manager
Africa
taken to evaluate current road pavement material performance SANRAL
[email protected]
[email protected]
(design versus long-term actual performance) in the develop-
ment of new materials. However, very little interest was shown
in a technology which has been proven to benefit pavements
by an unequalled value of up to 10 times normal traffic load, This technology, which is known as geosynthetics,
thereby allowing a reduction in layer thickness of up to 50%. has a record of more than 30 years of proven
Th is means a Category C (ES-0.01 to 0.1) road becomes a
Category B road. Applying this technology greatly reduces the results and efficiency in practice. Some new
cost of construction where a G1 or a cement-stabilised material
materials currently used in roadworks do not have
would have been used.
This technology, which is known as geosynthetics, has a proven records over such a time span. Although
record of more than 30 years of proven results and efficiency in
currently classified as materials or products, it
practice. Some new materials currently used in roadworks do not
have proven records over such a time span. Although currently is increasingly believed that geosynthetics in
classified as materials or products, it is increasingly believed that
geosynthetics in fact represent a new technology. Geosynthetics
fact represent a new technology. Geosynthetics
technology is the result of thorough research, field tests and cali- technology is the result of thorough research, field
bration towards the development of a strongly-based formulation
for designing.
tests and calibration towards the development of
Geosynthetics technology was recently successfully used in a strongly-based formulation for designing.
a road rehabilitation project currently under construction near
Glentana in the Southern Cape.

MR348 – MORRISON ROAD

REHABILITATION NEAR GLENTANA
Kantey & Templer Consulting Engineers were appointed by
the Road Network Management Branch of the Western Cape
Government to design and supervise the rehabilitation of Main
Road 348 near Glentana. The investigation of the road revealed
that major deep-seated deformation/settlement had taken place
over certain sections. A geotechnical investigation, using dy-
namic probe super heavy (DPSH) testing, indicated the presence

Civil Engineering April 2016 31

of a deep (up to 8 m in certain locations), soft, low-strength
subgrade. SPT N-values as low as 1 were recorded in certain lo-
cations, due to penetration generally occurring under self-weight
of the equipment with no drop weight activation required, indi-
cating a very poor subgrade.
From test pits the subgrade material was classified as sand
containing decomposed organic material.
Various pavement rehabilitation options were investigated
during the design stage of the project. Th is included the pos-
sible removal and replacing of the poor subgrade material,
but this option was found to be impractical, considering the Figure 1(a): DPSH testing on road subgrade
depth of the poor subgrade and the restrictive environment.
Other options investigated included the use of micro-piling,
but, due to its high cost, this option was also not considered
viable. The rehabilitation strategy that was found to be the
most cost-effective was a ground-stabilisation technique using
geosynthetics to reduce the overburden pressure caused by the
increase in pavement thickness.

BACKGROUND OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENT

The first recorded projects where geosynthetics were used in
pavements were in the 1930s in test sections on highways in
South Carolina, Rhode Island, Montana and New Jersey. This Figure 1(b): Subgrade consisting of sand containing
was done by the United States Department of Agriculture in decomposed organic material
collaboration with the United States Bureau of Public Roads
(forerunner of the Federal Highway Administration). From 120
the records, it appears that these tests were very successful.
Percentage of design aggregate

The technology, however, lay dormant until the early 1970s 100

when, in Scotland and North America, test sections were

80
constructed to supply information on how geotextiles would
thickness

perform in roadways. There was a growing interest in this

60
application by geotextile manufacturers. The first design pro-
cedures were published by John Steward in the 1970s, followed 40
by Giroud and Noray in 1981. In the early stages the main
function of geotextiles was to protect good-quality imported 20

material from being contaminated by poor-quality in-situ ma-

0
terial. Without geotextiles, the contamination of the imported 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.50
CBR
material in reality resulted in a percentage increment of its
design thickness (Figure 2).
With the development of geosynthetics, such as woven Figure 2: Aggregate loss due to weak subgrade
geotextiles, and in particular geogrids characterised by high
stiffness, a new concept was introduced – the reinforcement 500
of soil, where the geosynthetics were able to cater for tensile 450
strength development in soil. This resulted in the soil, in com- Unreinforced
1 Layer
bination with the geosynthetic, being able to sustain higher 400
2 Layers
stresses, enhancing the mechanical properties of the soil up to 350
Dev. stress (kPa)

3 Layers
four times more, as shown in Figure 3 through a triaxial test 4 Layers
on silty sand. 300
The inclusion of geosynthetics reinforcement therefore al- 250
lowed a reduction in the thickness of structural layerwork (thus
shallower box cut profi les), increased design life and reduced 200
overall construction time (Figure 4). 150
The structural integrity of the imported layers is increased
100
by the mechanical bonding between the soil particles and the
geogrids. Both gravel and surfaced roads can benefit by the intro- 50
duction of geogrids. Different design strategies should, however,
0
be considered, such as the Leng-Gabr design method for gravel
0 5 10 15 20
roads where the influence of the geosynthetics is based on the
Axial strain (%)
stiff ness of the geotextile or geogrid, and taking into considera-
tion the interlocking effect. Figure 3: Triaxial test on reinforced silty sand

32 April 2016 Civil Engineering

THE MODIFIED AASHTO 1993 INCLUDES GEOGRIDS i.e. same base course depth, subgrade CBR (California Bearing
For surfaced roads, the formula determining layer thickness Ratio) and rut depth. In Figure 5 LCR values are shown versus
for AASHTO 1993 was modified to include the performance of the CBR of the subgrade applicable to Maccaferri MacGrid EG,
geogrids. obtained by interpolation of curves available in literature.
The structural contribution of MacGrid EG geogrids on a The LCR graph shows the improvement in the subgrade CBR
flexible pavement system can be quantified by the increment of when a geogrid is introduced. For high-quality soils (high CBR
layer coefficient in the aggregate base and subbase as follows: values) the improvement is constant. However, when the soil has
a low strength (CBR less than 5), the improvement to the soil as a
SN = a1 x D1 + LCR x a2 x D 2 x m2 + LCR x a3 D 3m3 + ... result of geosynthetics increases.
where LCR is the layer coefficient ratio.
THE DESIGN OF MAIN ROAD 348 NEAR GLENTANA
The LCR value is determined based on the results from labora- One of the main design criteria was to maintain an undisturbed
tory testing on flexible pavement systems, with and without stress state in the soft, poor subgrade material to avoid deforma-
geogrid: tion and resultant failure.
SNr – α1 * D1 Traditional design, using SAMPDM and considering a
LCR = Category B road as per TRH 4 with an ES3 (3 million ESAL), re-
SNu – α1 * D1
sulted in a total pavement depth of 1.2 m as shown in Figure 6.
The SNs (structural numbers) of the reinforced and unreinforced Subsequently the AASHTO model was calibrated to match
sections are both evaluated under the same pavement conditions, the SAMPDM in an unreinforced scenario (no geogrids present)
in order to have a consistent design (not included in this article).
Note that the 250 mm C3 subbase was replaced by 2 x 150 mm
Unreinforced Geotextile reinforcement Geogrid reinforcement
G4. Table 1 refers.
The results from the model are shown in Figure 7 where
h = 660 mm
two geogrids were placed, one in the G7 and one in the G4 base,
h = 440 mm h = 300 mm
reducing the excavation from 1.2 m to 0.7 m, resulting in a no-
stress variance in the soft layer (which would have failed due to
the overburden pressure caused by the extra layer thickness), as
well as maintaining the same road surface level, which was para-
Subgrade Subgrade Subgrade mount, due to the main intersections and road annexures.

Thickness savings Thickness savings

33.33% 54.55%
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MR348 NEAR GLENTANA
Construction commenced in March 2014. Stormwater reticula-
Figure 4: Reduction in layer thickness using geotextiles and geogrids tion along the edges of the road prism was upgraded before

Figure 5: Layer coefficient ratio for Maccaferri EG geogrids vs subgrade CBR

Civil Engineering April 2016 33

 Table 1: AASHTO parameters

AASHTO
Layer Classification TRH 14
Layer coeff – a Drainage coeff - d

Surface layer not considered

Base layer G2 0.18 1

Subbase layer G4 0.16 1

Selected subgrade layer G7 0.06 1

Subgrade CBR 0.5

G2: Base layer 150 mm

C3: Subbase layer 250 mm

G7: Upper selected layer 300 mm

G9: Lower selected layer 500 mm

CBR 1%: Subgrade layer

a

Figure 6: TRH 4 pavement structure

G2: Base layer 150 mm

MacGrid EG 30S
300 mm
G4: Subbase layer

250 mm
G7: Upper selected layer
MacGrid EG 30S

CBR 1%: Subgrade layer

b
Figure 7: AASHTO design improved with geogrids Figure 9(a) and (b): Particulars of the geogrid overlapping

Figure 8: First geogrid placed beneath the G7 Figure 10: Project successfully completed

34 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 proceeding with the layerworks. Due to traffic constraints, the GEOSYNTHETICS – PRODUCTS OR TECHNOLOGY?
contractor was initially only allowed to work half widths, but The versatility of geosynthetics has been controversial, despite
he requested access to the full width to reduce the construction increasingly rigorous research and the improvement of the
time. The request was accepted by the client, and traffic was product and its application in less than 30 years. Traditional
redirected through the municipal area. By constructing in full engineering tends to view the concept as ‘too good to be true’.
width, the contractor was able to lay down the geogrid in one The answer is probably somewhere in the middle, as it will take
operation, minimising jointing and effectively using only three time to digest the incredible results that geosynthetics have
roll widths to cover the road prism. The fi rst geogrid layer was achieved so far. Research has in fact proved that this concept is
placed on the road box cut and then covered with a G7 sub- not being used to its full potential yet. It is certainly true that a
grade (Figure 8). geosynthetic material – be it a geogrid, a geotextile or a mat – is
Particular attention was given to the jointing of the geogrid. a product that, on its own, will not create any interest. It needs
A minimum overlap of 300 mm was required to ensure that the to be supported by research, field testing and analytical calcula-
tensile forces in the geogrids would be transmitted through the tions. From that perspective it is therefore not just a product, but
layerworks (Figures 9(a) and (b)). real current technology, which is amazingly applicable to many
The second geogrid layer was placed between a lower and engineering fields, such as landfi lls, water retention, walls, ero-
upper G4 layer. A G2 base course was then constructed and sion control, coastal protection, and of course roads, as has been
sealed, and the road opened to traffic. In total, 40 000 m2 of illustrated in this article.
geogrid were placed in the layerworks. Most motorists will use
this road oblivious to the fact that it has not been constructed by
Due to traffic constraints, the contractor was
conventional methods, and that the road prism was constructed
by a more efficient method, saving time and cost. initially only allowed to work half widths, but he
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reflective cracking. municipal area.
Civil Engineering April 2016 35

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Shear beauty of the Franschhoek Pass
SUMMARY deep-seated slope failure on the lower
The Franschhoek Pass (R45) is one of western flank of the pass. The solution in- Frans van der Merwe Pr Eng
Alex van Niekerk Pr Eng
Engineer: Geotechnics
South Africa’s iconic mountain passes, volved the use of an unconventional slope Planning, Toll and Traffic Manager
SMEC South Africa
serving as a gateway to the Overberg. The stabilisation method synchronous with SANRAL
[email protected]
[email protected]
year 2013 saw numerous cases of slope the surrounding environment (Figure 1).
instability along the route due to unsea-
sonably high rainfall. In response, SMEC INTRODUCTION
South Africa (Pty) Ltd was tasked by the The history of the Franschhoek Pass, Charles Warren-Codrington
Western Cape Department of Transport which is a vital link between the small Engineer: Geotechnics
and Public Works with repairing damaged towns of Franschhoek and Villiersdorp, SMEC South Africa
[email protected]
drainage infrastructure and road sur- stretches back to the early 18th century
facing, implementing erosion-mitigation when a route over the Middagkransberg
measures and stabilising a progressive, was sought by Lord Charles Somerset,

Figure 1: Overview of the primary slope stabilisation works set against a backdrop of the Franschhoek Valley

Civil Engineering April 2016 37

the governor of the Cape Colony from
1814 to 1826. Completed in 1825, the
Franschhoek Pass is one of South Africa’s
oldest roads, along which South Africa’s
oldest operational bridge traverses Jan
Joubert’s Gat. Legend has it that a route
over the Middagkransberg was cut into
the mountain side following a popular
elephant migration path, dubbing the
route Oliphants Pad for almost 150 years.
Whether accurate or not, it was these
cuttings that were a major cause for
concern almost 190 years on, following
unseasonably high rainfall in the region
during the latter half of 2013. Surficial
instability in the form of ravelling and
rock falls was prevalent, resulting in a
breakdown of the road drainage infra-
structure, severe scouring, and, in a gully
on the lower western flank, a deep-seated
slope failure.
Remediation measures to reinstate the
safety of the route and mitigate the risk of Figure 2: Unseasonably high rainfall resulted in rock falls, erosion and
future instability-related problems were scouring along the Franschhoek Pass in November 2013
required. These comprised:
■ The stabilisation of a scoured embank-
ment (Figure 2) by means of an an-
chored gabion wall
■ Steel meshing of several cuttings to
mitigate future ravelling
■ Reinstating and improving sections of
the route’s road drainage, including dis-
sipater structures, culverts and debris
barriers
■ Shear reinforcement, by means of soil
nails and high tensile strength steel wire
mesh, of the progressive deep-seated
slope failure along the lower western
flank (the primary focus of this article).
Figure 3: A soil nail and high-tensile strength steel mesh configuration was used to
AN UNCONVENTIONAL APPROACH stabilise the lower reaches of the slope undergoing a progressive, deep-seated failure.
In the design for the remediation of the Dyed sprayed concrete and soil nails were used on the upper reaches. Erosion control mats
deep-seated failure on the western flank, and 12 m inclined purpose-made subsoil drains were used to control seepage
the need to avoid the use of unsightly
concrete anchoring blocks and retaining
walls required an unconventional and
multi-faceted approach, as outlined below
(and illustrated in Figure 3).
■ Optimisation of the slope geometry 1.090
to reduce the slope’s gradient, while
not compromising the slope’s stability
through disturbance to the toe of the
slope – this resulted in a shallow lower
slope and a steeper upper slope.
■ Tecco® high-tensile strength steel wire
mesh, four times stronger than normal
steel wire mesh, was used together with
Figure 4: A combination of limit equilibrium and finite element method modelling techniques
large steel anchor plates on the lower were used to evaluate overall slope stability, as well as the structural capacity of the soil
portion of the slope where anchor loads nails and high-strength steel mesh based on different soil nail spacing, diameter and lengths,
were greatest. groundwater conditions and external loads; this was carried out in accordance with SANS 10160

38 April 2016 Civil Engineering

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■ A hydro-seeded erosion control mat surficial rock support system to that of a of rainfall, the groundwater table rises,
was placed between the subsoil and global soil instability problem. However, leading to an increase in pore-water pres-
high-strength steel mesh to mini- this was not without its challenges, most sure and an associated loss in the shear
mise erosion and to aid in the timely notably the numerical modelling of strength of soils. The converse is true for
revegetation of the slope. matric suction and partially saturated soil completely dry soil fabrics. However, this
■ On the upper, steeper portion of the conditions – a common phenomenon in behaviour relates to just two extreme lim-
slope, sprayed concrete was required. decomposed quartzite, granite and talus iting conditions of a soil.
By using various dyes the mottled effect slopes – some details of which are pre- The traditional soil mechanics ap-
closely matched the surrounding soils, sented in the following section. proach was inadequate in describing the
thus providing an aesthetic, pseudo- behaviour of the slope failure, due to its
natural finish. SOME NUMERICAL MODELLING partially saturated nature and the central
■ The surface and subsurface drainage CHALLENGES role that matric suction plays in such
was improved, thus reducing pore- Groundwater is one of the main factors scenarios.
water pressures acting on the failure responsible for slope failures. However, The effect of matric suction is de-
plane. To this effect 12 m deep quantifying its influence accurately can picted graphically in Figure 5 in the
perforated-pipe-and-geotextile drains be challenging. During extended periods extended Mohr-Coulomb plot whereby
were inserted at regular intervals at
several different levels into the slope at
an inclined angle. The surface drainage
was improved by providing a cut-off φ’
trench over the crest of the slope, and
by providing benches to the slope with
drainage channels on each step to col-
lect and rapidly discharge the collected
water.
In order to ensure that the mesh-and- φ’
soil-nail solution worked as intended
– by distributing the high anchor loads
anticipated into the mesh – detailed
analyses of both the geotechnical and
structural elements were required. This
was particularly important, as this system
is conventionally used for shallow super- Figure 5: Extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for unsaturated soils
ficial failures and thus would result in (Fredlund 2012)
over-stressing of the mesh if poorly de-
signed. In addition, as the load deflection
properties of the mesh are specific to the
site conditions, nail spacing, mesh-soil in-
teraction and the associated yield stresses,
detailed geotechnical and structural
analysis were required to ensure that the
design would function as intended.
The geo-structural components were
modelled utilising Limit Equilibrium
(LE) and Finite Element Method (FEM)
software to ensure the integrity of the
chosen system, and that each component
integrated with the overall geotechnical
solution. The nails were spaced and sized
according to these results. Results of one
of the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) analyses
are illustrated in Figure 4.
Thereafter, structural FEM modelling
of the mesh was undertaken to evaluate
the yield characteristics, considering the
specific soil interface at specific applied
loads, whilst varying the spike plate sizes
and nail spacing.
This in-depth numerical modelling fa- Figure 6: Structural FEM analysis incorporating pressures from the
cilitated the application of an established geotechnical FEM analysis

40 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 (u a – uw) . tan(φb) results in an increased mesh and to ensure an extended drainage ■ The inlet allowed by a standard
apparent cohesion and associated in- profi le (Figure 5). polymer grid was too small and
crease in shear strength. u a , uw and φb After assessing the effect that clogged easily. Once clogged, the
denote the respective atmospheric and matric suction has on reducing the lat- water would overshoot the inlet,
pore-water pressures, and φb the unsatu- eral pressures, the high-strength steel causing significant scouring of the
rated shear strength angle. Th is influence mesh was modelled in structural FEM road shoulder and side drains. Th is
is often ignored during design due to the software to assess the moments that was overcome by redesigning the inlet
nature of uw to fluctuate, through infi l- would develop in the mesh, as shown in with a narrow slot, and offsetting this
tration of groundwater, over the service Figure 6. This was an iterative process within a channelled collector dish.
life of the slope. which involved revisiting the geotech- ■ Furthermore, rock falls and ravelling
Based on the results of back analyses nical FEM models and changing the in the vicinity of the stormwater inlets
and sensitivity evaluations, the drainage nail spacing to reduce pressures, and were deemed to pose an elevated risk
measures implemented on the reme- the associated moments, to acceptable to the functioning of the inlets, as de-
dial slope were designed specifically to levels. In other parts of the world the bris can overwhelm the inlet. Keeping
minimise infi ltration of groundwater. mesh has been doubled up where mo- the inlets open and operational was
Following this, various FEM seepage ments cannot be controlled sufficiently. considered key to the functioning of
models, incorporating soil nails and mesh, the stormwater drainage system and
were constructed to assess the effect of DRAINAGE INFRASTRUCTURE AND minimising damage after heavy rain-
the drainage measures on the water table. ANCILLARY WORKS fall events. Subsequently, at identified
Thereafter matric suction functions, in- A number of stormwater inlet and outlet inlets, the slopes above the inlets were
corporating the Soil-Water Characteristic structures were damaged during the stabilised and or protected from erosion,
Curve (SWCC), were used in the FEM flood events. These were redesigned as either through the provision of gabion-
analysis to assess the increase in stability follows, fi rstly to protect them from theft type structures, or more commonly by
due to negative pore-water pressures. The and vandalism, and secondly to make providing localised steel mesh.
slope geometry was optimised further to the standard provincial design purpose- ■ Dissipating structures were constructed
reduce the effect of overburden pressures suited to the particular challenges faced in regions of concentrated flow to
exerted on the high-tensile strength steel on the project: prevent scouring of inlet and outlet

Civil Engineering April 2016 41

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 structures and the subsequent under- implemented along the pass. ■ With access to the face of the slope
mining of the road pavement. being difficult, the design solution was
■ Where sprayed concrete was necessary, CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES tailored for the use of light drilling
this was coloured and shaped to blend Due to the urgent nature of the project, equipment which could be operated by
in with the natural slope. the contract was let out on the basis of a hand, using rope access and harnesses
Retaining walls, with the primary pur- preliminary design for which certain vari- on the slope. This equipment had been
pose of preventing rock debris from ables would need to be confi rmed once developed by the contractor, Penny-
infringing the road, were also required. the contractor had established himself farthing (Pty) Ltd, on previous projects,
These were cladded with packed sand- on the site. This emergency project thus and could therefore be tailored for use
stone rock on the road side to match required on-site design inputs during on this particular slope geometry and
the surrounding mountainside and the construction, with regular oversight or soil nail dimensions.
existing historic dry stone walling along advice from specialist design engineers to ■ As part of the hydro-seeding opera-
the route. However, there existed a risk assist in the on-site problem-solving. This tions, small pockets were excavated
that the cladding could delaminate, espe- was all overseen by the project manager/ into the face of the slope where seeds
cially after an impact. The cladding was engineer who collaborated and kept in and topsoil could be placed, as the
therefore monolithically cast into the regular contact with the client to ensure excavated slope was not an appro-
retaining wall. that his interests were also met. priate growing medium. The slope
Figures 7(a) to (c) illustrate a few of Notwithstanding this, a number of was subsequently hydro-seeded before
the drainage measures and other works construction challenges were faced: a biodegradable erosion control mat

a b c

Figure 7(a), (b) and (c): Improved culvert inlets, energy dissipaters, and stone-clad retaining walls were a few of the measures put in place to
improve the drainage of stormwater along the route

Figure 8: Tailored drilling plant and installation methods were used to ensure a safe and efficient construction sequence for the soil nails

42 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 was placed over the seeds, followed by A gradation system was created whereby illustrated this clearly, and showed that a
the mesh. slope stabilisation and other interventions multidisciplinary design team and design
■ In one instance a natural gully on the were focused on higher-risk and/or high- approach, integrated with the contracting
slope needed to be protected from ero- frequency areas. party throughout construction, can reduce
sion, requiring geotechnical stabilisation. The design team formed an integral this uncertainty, resulting in the delivery of
The high-tensile strength steel mesh and part of the construction monitoring, a holistic solution.
erosion control mat was not suited to thereby ensuring that designed elements
high concentrated flows, so this was inte- were suited to the conditions, as some of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
grated subsequently with a bolted down these, due to the nature of the project, The authors would like to thank the
reno-mattress to achieve a strengthened only became evident once areas were Western Cape Department of Transport
mesh facing and the flexible erosion solu- cleared or opened up during construction. and Public Works, notably Mr Llewellyn
tion offered by the reno-mattress. The final solution was a direct product Truter, for kindly allowing the publica-
Figure 8 illustrates the challenging working of the quality of the design process and tion of this article. George Kustner,
conditions, the novel drilling techniques the adaptability thereof to suit conditions project manager, Fernando Pequenino,
and the plant that had been developed. on site, coupled with rigorous quality geotechnical lead, and Johnny Neethling,
assurance monitoring. This attests to engineer’s representative, are also acknowl-
RISK MANAGEMENT the value of maintaining close contact edged for their valuable contribution to the
The project is highly visible and recog- between the geotechnical design team, delivery of this project.
nisable, and the design involved the use the site personnel and the contractor
of a number of innovations in order to throughout construction.
PROJECT DATA
effectively mitigate, at a reasonable cost,
a proportion of the risk associated with CONCLUSION Client: Western Cape Department of
the frequent failures. Ultimately, as with Geotechnical problems are inherently high Transport and Public Works
most underground and geotechnically in uncertainty, requiring solutions that are Engineer: SMEC South Africa (Pty) Ltd
related projects, the solution cannot effective, but adaptable. The stabilisation Contractor: Penny-farthing (Pty) Ltd
be both practical and risk free without of a progressive slope failure and drainage Value of works: R30 million
becoming too robust and uneconomical. improvement on the Franschhoek Pass

Civil Engineering April 2016 43

Port Louis Ring Road –
design approach for post-failure stabilisation
BACKGROUND and the National Convention Centre.
Marie Basson
Over the past six years Mauritius em- Terrain elevation and road alignment
Geotechnical Engineer and
Engineering Geologist barked on major road and traffic infra- required the construction of several large
ARQ (Pty) Ltd structure upgrade projects as part of solu- cuts and fi lls. Space restrictions justified
[email protected] tions to improve road user safety, alleviate the implementation of large mechanically
traffic congestion, boost the industry stabilised earth walls (MSEWs) in lieu of
and facilitate economic growth, with traditional fi lls.
Alan Parrock
Geotechnical Director added social and environmental benefits. In early 2014, cracks appeared on the
(semi-retired) Positive population growth and an in- northbound carriageway, followed by the
ARQ (Pty) Ltd creasing number of road users required collapse of a 15 m high MSEW portion
[email protected]
construction of dual-carriageway roads of the fill (Photos 1 and 2). Observations
capable of accommodating high volumes pointed to a textbook slope failure with “slip
of traffic. Massive capital investments and at the lip” and “bulge at the toe”, indicating
acquisition of land were required for these that deep-seated movement had occurred.
projects, ultimately leading to the plan- This article summarises the geotechnical
ning and alignment of these roads over investigation conducted to identify the
very challenging topographical, hydrolog- failure mechanisms, the design of remedial
ical and geological terrain and environ- measures, and the knowledge and under-
ments. The Ring Road Phase 1 project was standing gained for use in future projects.
constructed during 2010–2013, and com-
prises a 4.9 km dual-carriageway, and one INITIAL EVALUATIONS
large bridge over the St Louis River, with An evaluation of the MSEW, assisted by a
access roads to industrial and retail areas finite element analysis, was conducted by

Photo 1: Initial cracking of the road Photo 2: Ultimate failure of the

surface on the northbound carriageway mechanically stabilised earth fill

44 April 2016 Civil Engineering

ARQ (Pty) Ltd in April of 2014 to deter- tion it crosses alluvial deposits along
CONSTRUCT
mine the cause of this failure: the St Louis River, other natural water
■ From this evaluation, it was concluded courses and underground water seepage ON
that the internal stability of the MSEW zones.
was satisfactory, and that failure had
occurred behind and below the rein- General geology CLAY
forced soil block. The majority of the site falls within the
■ It was deemed possible (and probable) base of the Port Louis-Moka mountain
that a low shear strength seam, or soft, range. The general geology of the site
highly plastic strata were instrumental consists of variable degrees of weathered
in the failure. These soft, highly plastic basalt, deeply weathered in some areas,
strata were commonly encountered in overlain by a mixture of scree, talus, hill-
borehole profiles. wash and colluvium, with particle sizes
■ Further testing and analyses were re- ranging from large boulders to a combina-
quired to define the cause and mecha- tion of both rounded and angular cobbles,
nism of failure. pebbles, gravel and silt. Soil derived from
completely weathered in-situ basalt is
OR
FIRST STAGE TESTING present as high plasticity clay with very
Initially 25 boreholes were drilled inde-
pendently and four viable samples were
low shear strength. Alluvial deposits are
present on the valley floor. Founding
SAND
sent for triaxial testing. Sampling during material is therefore highly variable in
drilling was conducted without full-time size, shape, character and in terms of its
supervision of an engineering geologist engineering properties, presenting a con-
or geotechnical engineer. Triaxial test siderable challenge for both designer and with

BubbleLock™
results from the initial investigation indi- contractor.
cated some inadequacies – cohesion was,
for example, reported to be zero (it was SUPPLEMENTARY GEOTECHNICAL
considered highly unlikely that clay mate- INVESTIGATION Interlocking
rial would not exhibit any cohesion), the In August 2014, ARQ conducted a sup-
majority of Skempton’s B parameters were plementary investigation to obtain reliable Blocks
< 0.95, and the initial slope of the stress geotechnical parameters and geologically
path was 1:1, indicating that the sample accurate cross sections in the failed por- cast in situ
was tested unsaturated. tion of the fi ll to be used in the design of
remediation work. The investigation com-
GEOLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL prised the drilling of some six rotary core
CONSIDERATIONS holes via triple tube to ensure maximum Hyson Cells BubbleLock
Figure 1 shows the locality of the site core recovery and minimum sample is lightweight sacrificial
along the Ring Road in Pailles taken from disturbance. A total of 24 standard pene- plastic formwork used to
Google Earth®. The alignment follows the tration tests (SPTs) were conducted and cast interlocking,
mountain and valley, and necessitated 34 undisturbed cylindrical samples were flexible / quasi-rigid
construction of several large cut-to-fi ll obtained, of which 21 viable samples were concrete block paving
and valley-type fi lls. Via cursory inspec- air-freighted to South Africa for triaxial and liners in situ with the
formwork remaining
embedded in the
structure as perfectly
fitting jointing

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HYSON CELLS®
Tel +27 (0) 11 957 2478

Cell +27 (0) 83 565 7111

Figure 1: Site locality and topography [email protected]

www.hysoncells.co.za
Civil Engineering April 2016 45
and materials testing. Preservation and completely weathered basalt. The shape of aim was to reach an SRF = 1.5 for ser-
transportation of the samples were con- the failure zone is therefore a combination viceability limit state (SLS) condition.
ducted according to ASTM D 4220-5. of circular and planar, which confirms the 2. Pore pressure coefficient ru-value,
Based on engineering parameters initial observations made on site. which was assumed as 0.15 in the ini-
(strength and deformation characteris- tial serviceability limit state analysis,
tics), the profi le within the failed zone was FINITE ELEMENT EVALUATIONS FOR but was then upped to 0.25 and com-
divided into four main horizons, namely: REMEDIAL WORK bined with a seismic acceleration of
■ Imported/backfi ll FILL material The failed area was interrogated and five 0.2 g in an ultimate limit state (ULS)
■ Transported COLLUVIUM representative sections were derived from case. The aim was to reach an SRF >
■ RESIDUAL basalt an interpolated 3D model. Each of these 1.01 for ULS.
■ Basalt and/or breccia ROCK. sections was subjected to the Phase 2 3. Axial force in the upper anchor position.
Version 8 finite element software and 4. Tensile force in the high-strength
Laboratory results analysed over some 13–16 construction geosynthetic.
Results of the triaxial tests were analysed steps which represented the envisaged 5. Maximum moment in the pile.
in detail, such that representative shear construction process. The key parameters The above are depicted in graphical
and deformation parameters were de- observed were: format in Figures 4-1 to 4-4, for one of the
duced (see example in Figure 2). 1. Strength reduction factor (SRF). The cross sections.
This technique enabled any devia-
tions from ideal to be determined, as
well as representative Mohr-Coulomb,
Duncan and Chang (1970) and Duncan
et al (1980) hyperbolic parameters, to
be derived.

FINITE ELEMENT EVALUATIONS OF

FAILURE MECHANISM
Before remedial measures could be de-
signed, the mechanism of failure needed
to be identified and clearly understood.
Figure 3 shows a section through the
MSEW and underlying strata.
The yellow line shows the approxi-
mate zone of failure, occurring more or Figure 2: Graphical depiction of a typical triaxial test with (a) deviator stress/strain,
less parallel to the bedrock within the (b) stress path and (c) Mohr circle

Fill material

Colluvium

Competent basalt bedrock

Highly to completely weathered basalt

Figure 3: Cross section through mechanically stabilised earth fill prior to failure

46 April 2016 Civil Engineering

RELIABILITY CHECK These numbers indicate a very high nitude check was made on (a) force
Here the method of Duncan et al reliability index, or a very safe structure. in anchors and (b) moments in pile.
(2014) was used to determine a reli- These sanity checks indicated fairly
ability index (RI). Twelve cases were HAND CALCULATION CHECKS good compliance, leading to a verifica-
evaluated, which required some six In order to assess correctness of finite tion of the correctness of the finite
hours of computer time. This was, element calculations, an order of mag- element model.
however, conducted as a batch process
overnight, freeing up day usage. The

100
Critical SRF: 1.51
results obtained can be summarised as Maximum
Shear Strain
0.00000

follows: 0.07000
0.14000
0.21000
0.28000
0.35000
0.42000

90
RI (normal distribution) = 2.17 0.49000
0.56000

RI (log normal distribution) = 2.65 0.63000

0.70000
0.77000
Probability of failure = 0.42% 0.84000
0.91000
0.98000
80 1.05000
1.12000
Evaluation using this technique indi- 1.19000
1.26000
1.33000
cates that the log normal (LN) distribu- 1.40000

tion is more correct, indicating (from

Phoon 2008) “Average Reliability”. It
70

is interesting to note that work on the

new RSA geotechnical design procedure
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

assigns a number near 3 as a desirable 3URMHFW

3RUW/RXLV5LQJ5RDG)DLOXUH
$QDO\VLV'HVFULSWLRQ
RI. Although 2.65 is a little low, the 'UDZQ%\
0%DVVRQ
6FDOH
6/665)&URVV6HFWLRQ&&

&RPSDQ\
$54&RQVXOWLQJ(QJLQHHUV
'DWH )LOH1DPH
redundancy generated by multiple piles, ,17(535(7
30 6/665)6HFWLRQ&&IH]

a robust capping beam and multiple

anchors is deemed to add significantly Figure 4-1: Critical SRF in the serviceability limit state (SLS)
to reliability. (Here it is desired that the SRF should be 1.5. This condition is thus satisfied, if only just.)

Civil Engineering April 2016 47

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100
Critical SRF: 1.27
Maximum

PROJECTS Shear Strain

0.00000
0.01500

■ During conceptual design, consider 0.03000

0.04500
0.2
0.06000

the influence of the following char- 0.07500

0.09000
0.10500

90
acteristics on the final site selection: 0.12000
0.13500

topography (like mountainous terrain), 0.15000

0.16500
0.18000
geological features, variability of and 0.19500
0.21000
0.22500
problem soil conditions, hydrological 0.24000

80
0.25500

and geo-hydrological factors. 0.27000

0.28500

■ Conduct a risk assessment

0.30000

on identified hazards.
■ Perform appropriate type and level

70
of investigations, based on the risks
identified and the category and size 5 10 15
3URMHFW
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

3RUW/RXLV5LQJ5RDG)DLOXUH
of development. It could include from $QDO\VLV'HVFULSWLRQ
8/665)&URVV6HFWLRQ&&

a desktop study or site walkover, to 'UDZQ%\

'DWH
0%DVVRQ
6FDOH

&RPSDQ\

)LOH1DPH
$54&RQVXOWLQJ(QJLQHHUV

,17(535(7
30 8/665)6HFWLRQ&&IH]

a more detailed investigation in-

cluding in-situ or laboratory testing. Figure 4-2: Critical SRF in the ultimate limit state (ULS)
(Here it is desired that the SRF should be > 1.01. This condition is thus also satisfied.)
■ More than one alternative should be
considered for final site selection, to-
gether with careful consideration of the $[LDO)RUFHLQXSSHUEROW

outcomes of the initial investigation. %ROWPPVWUDQGDQFKRUN1WHQVLOHFDSDFLW\ N1



■ Depending on the scope of the 

initial investigation during site 

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it our duty and responsibility, but Figure 4-4: Moments in the pile
our communities and society will be (The maximum moment in the pile should be < 1 200 kNm for the steel which is detailed as 18 Y32. This
stronger for it. condition is thus satisfied.)

48 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 Photo 4: Construction of the pile guide beam
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mr Nazir Korimbocous, Mr Tawfick
For their support and assistance, sincere Raymode and Mr Anwar Ramdin
appreciation and gratitude go to: (MD).
■ Fellow geotechnical engineer and col-
league Katy O’Brien of ARQ REFERENCES
■ Our client and main contractor, The list of references is available from the
REHM Grinaker: in particular editor.

Photo 3: Removal of the failed portion of the mechanically

stabilised earth wall, and normal backfill post-failure

Civil Engineering April 2016 49

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N2 upgrade – taming the uMdloti
BACKGROUND
Fernando Pequenino Pr Eng The freeway expansion project involves the widening of the
Section Manager: Geotechnics N2 from eMdloti Interchange to Tongaat Plaza, for the South
SMEC South Africa
African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd (SANRAL). The ap-
[email protected]
proximately 10 km section has been widened by adding two
lanes to each carriageway at a cost of R390 million. The project
forms part of SANRAL’s strategic development of the N2 north-
Frans van der Merwe Pr Eng coast route, which has become necessary due to increased
Engineer: Geotechnics traffic volumes.
SMEC South Africa
[email protected] GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Although investigations for this phase of the project were lim-
ited, it is necessary to recognise that there are two obvious dif-
The first phase of the upgrade of the N2 Freeway ferences between an investigation of a project which comprises
Section 26 has seen extensive geotechnical the upgrading of existing infrastructure and that of a greenfield
development:
works. A feature of this phase of the project ■ Firstly, there is potentially a wealth of information comprising
previous investigations, as-built drawings and reports which
included the widening of the dual uMdloti River
can be studied to develop an understanding of ground condi-
viaducts. The viaducts are founded on 45 m tions and the design of the existing infrastructure.
■ Secondly, there is the performance history, sometimes formal-
deep piles that required subcontractor Keller-
ised through maintenance records, or simply by observations,
Franki to import a massive Bauer BG28 rig for which can be useful in understanding how the infrastructure
has behaved given its design and the prevailing ground condi-
the project. The project also included over 2 km tions.
of fabric-reinforced mechanically stabilised earth The process of obtaining, sorting and studying this information
can be cumbersome and implies a significant amount of work to
walls and 2 km of cut retaining walls. This article be done during the planning stages of the project, in advance of
discusses some of the more interesting facets of any investigative site works.
However, depending on the quality of the information, the
the geotechnical components of the project. planned investigative works can be curtailed. Additionally, that

Widened N2 freeway just south of the King Shaka International Airport, showing sections of the CBR wall

50 April 2016 Civil Engineering

which is done can be focused on particular geotechnical prob- Foundations for the viaducts comprised 4 x 900 mm di-
lems or project optimisations. The geotechnical engineer would ameter permanently cased screwed-in-casing-augered piles
thus need to target the investigations on aspects where: (SICAPs). The SICAPs were well suited to this project and
■ there are significant changes to the infrastructure and/or im- provided a number of specific benefits. Depths up to 45 m were
posed loads achieved using the oscillator attachment, installation was pos-
■ new or alternative construction methods can be considered sible under high water table conditions, and the pile was suited to
■ less conservative designs can be adopted the difficult soil profi les encountered without collapse of the pile
■ the impact of new construction adjacent to existing infrastruc- annulus.
ture needs to be considered The pile shaft was constructed by driving an open-ended
■ information obtained from historic records is unclear or inad- casing into the ground by means of a casing drive adaptor on the
equate Kelly Bar. An oscillator attached to the piling rig was utilised
■ performance history of existing infrastructure is poor. when depths exceeded approximately 20 m. The soil on the inside
of the casing was then augered and removed, whilst the side walls
UMDLOTI VIADUCTS – FOUNDATIONS were supported by the temporary casing.
A significant feature of this phase of the project was the
widening of the 281.5 m long dual viaducts over the uMdloti INCREASED SHAFT STRESS
River using the incremental launch method (ILM). The struc- Although the final pile configuration did not differ from that uti-
tural design included a deeper deck section with a continuous lised on the existing piers, the additional load and stricter settle-
cast in-situ stitch to the existing structure. Th is implied that ment criteria required shaft stresses on piles to be increased from
the new widened deck attracted more load and was more sensi- an estimated 8 MPa (on existing) to over 11 MPa. In so doing,
tive to settlement, which needed to be accommodated in the the same pile configuration could be used, thereby eliminating
foundation design. the need for a fi fth pile at each pile cap, resulting in an estimated
The foundation design was further complicated by chal- saving of some R2 million.
lenging geological conditions. The uMdloti River is character- The design loading of a pile is a complex relationship between
ised by the presence of a deeply incised paleo-channel which the quality and reliability of the pile itself (affected by factors
has since fi lled with various sediments after the recovery of sea such as piling method, strength and integrity of concrete, and
levels after the last Ice Age. Factors such as the nature of the quality control and supervision) and the geotechnical design and
material in suspension and the velocity of the river contribute geological conditions (such as rock/soil strength and integrity,
to the type of material that was deposited. Materials encoun- soil-structure interaction and stress-strain behaviour). This
tered, including running sands, boulders and Hippo Muds, are influences geo-structural design aspects such as foundation
typically highly variable and very weak, and can present a chal- settlement, rotation and stiff ness, which ultimately affect the
lenge to piling. design of the superstructure.

Piling on the outside of the existing dual viaducts over the

uMdloti River, which were doubled by two additional lanes

Civil Engineering April 2016 51

 Due to the poor soils, emphasis was placed on the formation favoured empirical methods relate the end bearing and shaft
of rock sockets which need to be embedded in hard, but very capacity of the socket only to the strength of the rock itself.
highly fractured, rock. In the design of rock sockets, the more However, authors such as Rotehberg (1976) and Pells (1981)
have shown that when the bedrock is fractured, these methods
can incorrectly estimate the capacity. Thus methods which
consider settlement criteria with due consideration of the rock
quality (fracturedness) are preferred.
In addition, to achieve the increased shaft stress, the
piles were provided with a 5 mm thick permanent casing and
constructed using 45 MPa concrete. The permanent steel
liner was provided to protect the wet concrete from flowing
groundwater and soil influx. In the long term, the liner would
also protect from debris impact and chemical attack from
coastal conditions.
SANRAL’s construction manual advocates that when piles
are raked, a thin-walled casing must be used, as the soil face
would be prone to collapse during extraction of a temporary
casing. However, the casing can also fulfil a structural func-
tion, and the pile can be designed as a composite element
allowing larger shaft stresses to be placed on the piles. The
casing thickness, when purely used to prevent influx, would
need to be some 3 mm thick for the uMdloti site, which would
in all likelihood corrode in 130 years. Casings on the site were,
however, much thicker, providing additional capacity where it
was required.
Keller-Franki’s BG28 at work on one of the 45 m deep SICA piles Each pile was also equipped with 4 x 80 mm diameter steel
tubes through which concrete integrity cross-hole sonic logging
(CHSL) and base integrity core testing were conducted under
direct full-time supervision.
Demonstration of permanent casing
reinforcement and CHSL tube configuration
RETAINING WALLS
Two final aspects of the project which are worth noting are the
approach fi lls and cuts to the uMdloti viaducts.
A prominent V-shaped valley, with embankment heights
of up to 15 m, occurs in the median just north of the uMdloti
River. Widening of the road without some form of retaining
structure would imply narrow sliver construction along the
side of the embankment, and would also imply the encroach-
ment of works into a local stream, which was an environ-
mental concern.
The investigations confi rmed that the embankments
had been constructed with Berea Red sands. Below this fi ll,
weathered products of either shale or sandstones were present,
followed by the respective rock. A geosynthetically reinforced
concrete block reinforced wall (CBRW) was utilised to support
the widened freeway. The walls were designed with assistance
from ARQ Consulting Engineers. The fi nal structures com-
prised two CBRW walls, each about 0.5 km long on the north-
bound carriageway, up to 3.5 m in height, constructed on top of
the existing embankments of 15 m.
On the southern approach to the uMdloti viaduct, the
N2 goes through an area where a large amount of cut had to
take place to accommodate the widened road. Adjacent to the
northbound carriageway (NBC), a 25 m deep cutting occurs in
dolerite, while adjacent to the SBC a 10 m deep cutting occurs in
dolerite and shale.
A detailed study of the NBC cutting was undertaken
by Davies Lynn & Partners in 1983 during construction of
the existing freeway following two slip failures. The report
concluded that, due to unfavourable joint orientations, a pre-

52 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 existing failure plane and the risk of a high water table devel- control and direct full-time supervision. It also requires con-
oping in the cut, this should be cut back at approximately 1:3. tinued involvement of the design teams throughout construction.
Additional investigations were undertaken to determine Piling data and integrity testing from each pile were analysed
whether the cut toe could be stabilised using a vertical retaining by the design team during construction before approvals were
wall. Investigations showed the upper portions of the cut to com- provided, and, where necessary, remedial actions were recom-
prise very poor silty and clayey soils of residual dolerite. These mended and implemented.
soils were poor both in terms of their shear strength and their
suitability for use in engineered layerworks. Below this hard rock ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
dolerite occurred along the toe of the cut. The dolerite varied The authors would like to thank SANRAL for its kind per-
from a dense weathered gravel to a highly fractured hard rock mission to publish this article and for its support during the
dolerite. No ground water was encountered. project, specifically Project Manager Ms Zandile Nene. The
The good quality interlocking rock with occasional gouge contributions of William Martin (Chief Technical Principal
implied that a soil nail wall could be utilised, which resulted Structures), Dawie Erasmus (Functional General Manager,
in a R10 million saving in earthworks. Two rows of nails of ap- Roads and Highways) and Stuart Anderson (Resident
proximately 6 m length each at 1.5 m spacing were utilised, with Engineer), all from SMEC, as well as Alan Parrock from ARQ,
provision being made for some hollow self-drilling injection an- are also acknowledged.
chors where more highly fractured dolerite was present. The soil
nail wall was cladded with a precast panel to provide an aesthetic
Caution must be exercised when using
façade to the cutting.
increased design shaft stresses on piles. This
CONCLUSION can only be done where there is adequate
By obtaining and studying previous records, an understanding of
ground conditions and the structural design and performance of quality control, direct full-time supervision
the existing infrastructure was developed. The benefits were that
and continued involvement of design teams
the ground conditions were well understood and the investiga-
tions could be focused. As an example, a deep cutting previously throughout construction.
cut back at 1:3 was provided with a conventional, vertically-
installed soil-nailed retaining wall, resulting in a considerable
cost saving in earthworks. PROJECT TEAM AND STATISTICS
At the same time, for the piling to the uMdloti viaducts, little
additional investigation was necessary, but the design could be
Client: South African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd (SANRAL)
optimised by using contemporary design theories in close col-
Consultant: SMEC South Africa (Pty) Ltd
laboration with structural engineers. The increase of design shaft
Contractor and subcontractors: Group Five Construction,
stresses and loading resulted in the elimination of a fifth pile at
with Keller-Franki as piling subcontractor
each of the piers.
Project value: R390 million (2015, excluding CPA)
However, caution must be exercised when adopting such an
approach. This can only be done where there is adequate quality

Civil Engineering April 2016 53

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Artist’s impression of the Rea Vaya Sandton BRT cable-stayed bridge over the M1

Foundation design and construction challenges

at the Rea Vaya Sandton BRT cable-stayed bridge
INTRODUCTION
Dr Michael Pavlakis The M1 cable-stayed bridge, currently under construction
Principal
near the Marlboro Drive off-ramp in Sandton, forms part of
Michael Pavlakis & Associates
[email protected] the Rea Vaya Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) network, one of the
largest projects ever undertaken by the City of Johannesburg.
The bridge, which is built in partnership with the Johannesburg
Development Agency (JDA), will provide vehicular and pedes-
John Pavlakis trian access from Sandton, across the M1, towards Alexandra.
Senior Geotechnical Engineer/Associate Michael Pavlakis & Associates were appointed to carry out the
Michael Pavlakis & Associates geotechnical investigation and the design of the pile foundations
[email protected]
for the bridge.

THE BRIDGE
The 271 m long structure extends from Katherine Street in
Sandton, across the M1 highway and on to Lees Street in

T.O.PYLON 1651,000

ALEXANDRA
SANDTON ℄ PIER 4 ℄ PIER 5 ℄ PIER 6 ℄ BEARINGS
EAST ABUT.
1615.890 1615.940
1615.455
℄ M1 1614.695

3000
MECHANICALLY
TYP
STABILISED
6500

℄ PIER 2 ℄ PIER 3
℄ PORTAL ℄ PIER 1 RETAINING WALL
℄ BEARINGS
7700

WEST ABUT. (FIXED) 1608,384

JOINT ACCESS
SHOULDER SHOULDER
1200

1607.172 ROAD

M1
1800
±6500

M1
min

1605.691
1800

60 ASPHALT 50 BLINDING
1603.539 5200
1000

7500

3700
7100

5200
7100
(5200 MIN.)

GWT PRETORIA
MECHANICALLY
5864

KATHERINE STREET
STABILISED (DIRECTION WOODMEAD)

(JOHANNESBURG)
6995

RETAINING WALL

v v v v
1800
1500

5200
50 BLINDING
1200

50 BLINDING

3700
50 BLINDING

RESIDUAL GRANITE v v v
v v v v RESIDUAL DIABASE
HIGHLY WEATHERED GRANITE v v v WITH BOULDERS
v v v v
v v v v
GRANITE BEDROCK DIABASE BEDROCK DIABASE
DYKE
20 M
271 m

Figure 1: Longitudinal section of the bridge with underlying geology

54 April 2016 Civil Engineering

Wynberg, and incorporates eight spans, as shown in Figure 1.
The cable-stayed section comprises a main span of 83 m crossing
the M1, and a 39 m long back span provided with a central ten-
sion pier. Most remaining spans vary in length from 25–30 m. A
50 m high slightly inclined concrete pylon, comprising dual col-
6 BH.18
umns each having a base length of 6 m, carries the cable-stayed
section. Mechanically stabilised earth walls form the transition Depth = 8.5 m
from the abutments to the roads on either side of the bridge. Two
ramp bridges provide pedestrian access from either side of the 5
highway to the 3 m wide pedestrian section of the bridge deck,

Corrected pressure (MPa)

which has a total width of 13.35 m over the freeway.
4
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
A two-stage geotechnical investigation was carried out, with
the second stage related to a more extensive study of the pylon
and back span piers – as the original bridge design envisaged the 3
construction of a ‘normal’ bridge. Further drilling work was car-
ried out at the early stages of construction. The exploratory work
included: 2
■ The drilling of a total of 15 rotary core diamond drill boreholes
down to depths varying from 15–35 m, as part of a geotech- Em = 100.1 MPa
P*L = 7.2 MPa
nical investigation that included other bridges along the route.
1
■ Two 800 mm auger holes drilled to ‘refusal’ of a relatively weak Em/P*L = 13.9
Soilmec auger rig. Refusal near the pylon occurred at 15.1 m.
■ Standard penetration tests (SPTs), uniaxial compressive
strength tests with strain measurements and point load index 0
tests on rock core. 200 300 400 500 600 700
■ Laboratory index, consolidation and shear box tests on undis-
Volume (cm3)
turbed and remoulded soil samples, and chemical analysis of
groundwater samples. Figure 2: Typical pressuremeter test curve

Construction of the cable-stayed main span between the pylon and Pier 4

Civil Engineering April 2016 55

■ A series of Menard pressuremeter tests (PMT), carried out
mostly at 1 m depth intervals within the pylon and back span Pressuremeter modulus
section of the bridge for a more accurate appreciation of the
engineering behaviour of the various formations encountered.
(Em, MPa)
The tests were carried out using the latest pressuremeter
equipment.
Typical results of a pressuremeter test carried out within very
dense residual granite, tending towards very soft rock, at the
depth of 8.5 m, are shown in Figure 2. The pressuremeter
modulus E m is related to the stiff ness of the soil or rock tested
while the net limit pressure P*L is a parameter that can be used
to compute shear strength and bearing capacity.

GROUND CONDITIONS
The simplified geology along the bridge route is shown in an ide-
alised geological section in Figure 1.

Depth (m)
The site is situated within the 3 200 million-years-old
Johannesburg granite-gneiss dome, part of the Basement
Complex, at an average elevation of 1 600 m AMSL, in a region of
annual water surplus. It occupies part of a gentle rise that begins
at Sandspruit to the west (where another bridge, part of the same
project, is under construction) and reaches a maximum elevation
near Louis Botha Avenue, from where it falls eastwards towards
the Jukskei River.
The granites would thus be expected to be deeply weath-
ered, and they are indeed so, with the residual soils, comprising
orange-brown silty and gravelly sands (mostly ancient soils that
probably formed on the African erosion surface over 100 million
years ago), extending down to depths of 6–8 m. Typical strength BH.17
parameters from shear box tests are listed in Table 1. Below these
depths, the granite rock has undergone extensive differential BH.22
weathering, which has resulted in large variations in the subsoil
BH.21
conditions along the bridge route. Thus, the west abutment and
Pier 1, as well as Pier 6 and the east abutment, are underlain by
competent granite bedrock of medium-hard rock or hard rock
quality at the depths of 6–11 m, while within most of the re-
maining bridge route, including the cable-stayed section, severe Figure 3: Some pressuremeter test results showing variation of
weathering has taken place down to average depths of 23–25 m, pressuremeter modulus with depth

Table 1: Shear box test results on undisturbed and remoulded samples of residual granite
Borehole no and Depth Dry density Moisture content Cohesion C’ Friction angle φ’
Auger hole no (m) (kg/m3 ) (%) (kPa) (degrees)
Undisturbed samples
BH.17 3.05 1 814 7.6 66.5 28.6
BH.19 3.25 1 781 17.7 42.4 27.1
Remoulded samples
AH.K1 4.0 1 355 12.6 18 30
AH.K1 8.0 1 487 8.3 22 30

Table 2: Typical results of uniaxial compressive strength tests on weathered granite rock core

Borehole Depth Density UCS Secant modulus E (MPa) Strain at failure

number (m) (kg/m3 ) (MPa) (at 50% UCS) (%)
BH.18 8.7 2 250 0.1 0.3 0.13
11.3 2 150 2.8 0.7 1.04
14.9 2 400 7.4 0.2 0.85
17.7 2 330 1.6 0.2 0.80
20.8 2 380 4.9 0.2 1.60

56 April 2016 Civil Engineering

where the competent, slightly weathered or unweathered granite ‘refusal’ of the drilling rig at geotechnical investigation stage,
rock is found. Hard, coarse pegmatite bands are present in at the depth of 15–18 m, above the proposed founding level of
places, mostly in the pylon area. The results of uniaxial compres- the pylon and some piers.
sion tests on weathered granite rock core, showing the significant ■ The presence of hard rock pegmatite bands causing further
variation of strength with depth in a single borehole, are shown difficulties, especially in the construction of rock sockets.
in Table 2. The groundwater table is present mostly within the ■ The diabase intrusion, which affected the foundation of Pier 4
depth range of 3–8 m. and some foundations of the eastern pedestrian ramp bridge;
A narrow diabase dyke that intruded the granites, was identi- the residual diabase contained large hard boulders (spheroids)
fied during construction at the position of Pier 4, near the eastern ‘floating’ within the relatively incompetent decomposed dia-
edge of the M1. The pier is situated in an area that was covered base, making it difficult to pile through to bedrock with usual
by the old pedestrian bridge access ramp, and some 8–10 m east piling equipment.
of the exploratory borehole drilled, with the edge of the dyke
being only a few metres away from the nearest borehole. Trial THE PYLON
holes and an additional rotary core borehole drilled at the centre The pylon foundation consists of a single pile cap 12.6 x 16.2 m
of Pier 4 indicated that the diabase comprised a clayey-sandy in size, supported by a pile group comprising 20 bored (augered)
silt containing large 300–1 500 mm very hard rounded boulders cast-in-situ piles to resist the large imposed pylon loads. The
(weathering spheroids), extending down to the level of the hard 1 200 mm diameter bored piles were socketed a minimum of
diabase bedrock at a depth of 9 m. Pressuremeter tests were also 2 m into the hard granite bedrock or very hard pegmatite at the
carried out in the borehole to determine the engineering proper- depths of mostly 25–27 m.
ties of the residual diabase. All piles were drilled by a Casagrande B180 auger rig, while the
sockets were constructed by a purpose-made core bucket using the
DESIGN CHALLENGES same rig. Approximately one half of the piles intersected very hard
Although the decomposed granite was mostly dense within a few pegmatites at depth, making it difficult to form the rock sockets,
metres from the surface, in certain sections it was found to be each of which often took more than a day to complete.
less competent and medium dense down to depths of 3–5 m. The The large-diameter shafts, which carry serviceability limit
heavy imposed foundation loads, and bridge performance re- state axial loads of 7.5 MN each, provide the necessary stiff ness
quirements, necessitated the use of pile foundations. The design and robustness to limit pylon foundation settlement and tilt
challenges included the following: movements to acceptable levels. They also served to minimise
■ The proximity of the pylon to the edge of the highway, the foundation size and to limit excavation depths. Even so, the
requiring the minimisation of the size of the foundation; as- edge of the pile cap is only some 5 m distant from the edge of the
sociated excavation depths would also have to be minimised M1. The piles were provided with moderate rake of 1:8.
to avoid possible destabilisation and/or cracking, and possible In carrying out pile group analyses, much reliance was placed
disruption of the M1. on the results of the pressuremeter tests (PMTs), which provided a
■ The presence of the high groundwater table, making it difficult near-continuous record of the soil/rock engineering properties, from
to manually clean the base of large diameter piles, despite the the surface to a depth of 33 m (information from the SPT tests was
slow flow rates. limited due to early ‘refusal’ at depths of 5–8 m, while, due to the
■ The highly variable depths to competent bedrock, and the vari- presence of joints and fractures, much of the weathered rock core
able engineering characteristics of the residual granite. was not suitable for laboratory testing). These were also particularly
■ The presence of soft rock bands and occasional spheroids useful in establishing the resistance of the piles to large applied hori-
within the less competent very soft rock granite, which caused zontal loads, as the test models this condition directly.

The installation of pylon bored piles Exposing and trimming 1 200 mm bored piles for the pylon

58 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 An important issue was the cleaning of the base of the pile ■ The high groundwater table, the possibility of local pile hole
shafts to ensure adequate end bearing, which would serve to sidewall collapse and the difficulty of cleaning the base of the
increase the factor of safety against overall bearing failure to the auger piles
required value. Although groundwater seepage rates were very ■ The pressure of alternating hard and soft layers to large depths,
slow, the long duration of the pile-forming activities allowed the and occasional boulders which could cause premature refusal
water to enter and fi ll the pile holes up to the groundwater table. of the proposed relatively small diameter piles in the case of
Pumping of the water and manual cleaning of the pile holes, both auger and CFA piles.
with personnel working inside a steel casing, was considered, but Each of the DCIS piles were founded at the fi xed depth of 8 m
this was deemed to be difficult and unsafe at the depths under below natural ground surface. They were founded within dense
consideration. It was therefore decided to clean the base of the to very dense gravelly sand (residual granite), and occasionally
pile holes by means of airlifting. This worked well, due to the granite rock, to carry a serviceability limit state axial load of
high groundwater table, as evidenced by the probing of the pile 2.1 MN. The piles were provided with a 1:4 rake, which assists in
hole bottom after airlifting. All pylon large-diameter shafts were stiffening the pile cap.
airlifted and concreted immediately afterwards by tremie. They
were also provided with 50 mm diameter steel tubes to enable PIER 4: DIABASE INTRUSION
concrete quality checking by cross-hole sonic logging. Pier 4, which is situated near the eastern edge of the M1, is
underlain by a 20 m wide diabase dyke striking in a roughly
BACK SPAN AND INTERMEDIATE PIERS north-south direction, perpendicular to the bridge centre line.
The back span and intermediate piers are supported on 1 050 mm The dyke contained an abundance of very large, hard, up to
diameter bored piles founded at a depth of 20 m. They are re- 1 500 mm spheroids/boulders which prevented the installa-
quired to resist a total uplift force of 18 MN (SLS), in addition to tion of the DCIS piles. The boulders were embedded within
other substantial imposed loads. Tensile restraint is achieved by firm, mostly saturated clayey silt and extended to hard diabase
installing stressed rock anchors through 200 mm diameter steel bedrock at a depth of 8.5–9.0 m. A suitable piling rig to pen-
sonic tubes installed within the piles. The anchor-fi xed length etrate the boulders would be costly and would take months
was installed within the hard rock granite below the depth of to organise. Consideration was also given to supporting the
24 m. The anchors incorporated 32–40 mm diameter SAS950 pier within the residual diabase, but this was rejected due to
threadbars, provided with double corrosion protection. the random occurrence of the boulders, which could give rise
to significant foundation tilt, depending on their configura-
REMAINING BRIDGE PIERS AND PEDESTRIAN RAMPS tion. Pemissible foundation settlements would also be much
All the remaining piers, as well as the abutments, were supported smaller than values that would normally apply, as the adjacent
on pre-drilled 610 mm diameter driven cast-in-situ (DCIS) piles. pier was piled and would not settle significantly. Therefore,
Pad footings were also possible, but these would have resulted in any settlement that the Pier 4 foundation would undergo,
large and deep excavations in Katherine and Lees Streets, effec- would be mostly differential.
tively necessitating the closure of those roads. Consideration was An alternative was investigated, comprising excavation to
also given to using other pile types, including augered cast-in- bedrock and mass fi lling with weak concrete to a suitable level,
situ and continuous flight auger (CFA) piles, but these were not where a normal concrete footing could be constructed. This
practical or economical due to the following reasons: would, however, require a steep excavation, as the centre of the
■ The variable subsoil conditions and difficulties in controlling pier was only 15 m from the edge of the highway. Strength data
the depth of founding, unless taken to ‘refusal’, which would for analysing the excavation was obtained from the pressure-
have been uneconomical for certain areas meter tests performed in a borehole drilled at the centre of the

Near-completed pile group for pylon View from the western abutment in Katherine Street

Civil Engineering April 2016 59

base, which indicated an undrained shear strength of 79 kPa, and to the highway, and could not be diverted. The overall excavation,
2 SPT tests (N-value = 16–17). however, proved to be stable, with the undamaged sewer line vis-
A drained analysis, based on estimated strength parameters, ible at its northern edge. The entire operation was completed, and
indicated that the excavation would be unstable if left standing the weak concrete mass fi ll was placed, within a period of three
for a significant period, bearing in mind the high water table days. The deeper section of the excavation (below 5 m) and the
at that position. An undrained analysis, however, based on the pouring of the mass concrete fi ll took two days, with the second
measured strength data, indicated a short-term factor of safety of day stretching to close to midnight, by which time the remaining
2.3 for a benched excavation cut at the steep angle of 70° below excavation for the pier footing was much shallower and safe in
the depth of 2 m, and an average slope angle of about 60°, as the longer term.
shown in Figure 4. It was therefore decided to proceed with this
solution, on condition that the excavation would be strictly and PILE TESTING, SONIC LOGGING AND
continuously monitored for stability. ANCHOR PULL-OUT TESTS
During the final stages of excavation, a local collapse oc- Taking into account the importance of the structure, a com-
curred, associated with the high moisture content and relative prehensive programme of static pile load tests (maintained load
looseness of the trench backfi ll, linked to an old sewer pipeline. tests) was implemented in order to confirm design parameters.
The sewer line was present at the edge of the excavation closest This comprised the testing of two bored trial piles 900 mm and

Large boulders were encountered within the Pier 4 excavation Mass filled excavation for Pier 4

Figure 4: Slope stability analysis of excavation at Pier 4

60 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 1 200 mm in diameter, with the latter loaded to 15.7 MN (just Two working DCIS piles were also tested up to 150% of
over twice the working load), and of three DCIS trial piles along working load, and the results also proved to be satisfactory.
the route of the 271 m long bridge. The measured load-settlement Sonic logging was implemented as part of the quality assur-
behaviour of the piles proved to be close to that predicted, vali- ance process. The test proved reliable, picking up a fault in one of
dating the design parameters. the pylon piles (highlighted by the contractor before testing) very

Static load testing of a bored pile

Civil Engineering April 2016 61

SOUND, INNOVATIVE 9Mining,

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
PRACTICE IN: 9Heavy Industrial,
9Public Infrastructure,
9Commercial, and
9Residential Projects.
Sethokga Hostel Re-Development on Dolomites

Sandton BRT Cable Stayed Bridge

257 Barry Hertzog Avenue, Emmarentia, 2195, Johannesburg, RSA

Telephone: (011) 888 7232 Telefax: (011) 888 7428 E-mail : [email protected]
P.O. Box 84298, Greenside 2034

Raadgewende Geotegniese Ingenieurs Menard Pressuremeter

close to the suspected problem depth. dation design, and minimises construction difficulties and
Three 40 mm diameter thread bars were grouted within the expensive delays.
granite rock within the depth range of between 23–30 m and
subsequently tested to their ultimate tensile strength. The results ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
confirmed the high frictional bond developed between the non- The authors wish to thank the Johannesburg Development
shrink cement grout and the hard granite rock. Agency for permission to publish this article, as well as the
highly motivated design teams, consulting engineers Royal
CONCLUSIONS HaskoningDHV & Hatch Goba, and construction teams, WBHO
This article highlights some of the geotechnical challenges & Terrastrata. The commitment of the entire project team to
associated with building in the Basement granites in the quality and safety has enabled the efficient resolution of the chal-
Sandton area, and the importance of an adequate and fit-for- lenges presented by the ancient granitic environment in which
purpose geotechnical investigation. The principle that rock the bridge is situated, at below budgeted cost, and assisted in
becomes less weathered and more competent with depth does providing a solid foundation to a structure that is destined to
not necessarily hold (at least within the normal founding become an important landmark on Johannesburg’s skyline.
depth range), nor the assumption that if the ground condi-
tions are the same at two relatively close positions, these REFERENCES
same conditions will apply between them. The pressuremeter Brink, A B A 1985. Engineering Geology of Southern Africa
testing work carried out, in combination with other routine Volume 1. Building Publications.
SPT and laboratory tests, enabled a firm appreciation of the Jennings, J E, Brink, A B A & Williams, A A B 1974. Revised guide
engineering behaviour of the soils and rocks underlying the to soil profiling for civil engineering purposes in Southern Africa.
site, leading to more economical and reliable foundation Transactions of the South African Institution of Civil Engineers,
design. Experienced contractors, coupled with close supervi- 15(1): 3–12.
sion during construction, and synergy between all parties in Pavlakis, M 2015. Menard Pressuremeter testing in residual
working towards the common goal, serve to ensure quality of soils and weathered rocks in South Africa. Keynote lecture,
construction. An allowance for a comprehensive geotechnical Proceedings ISP7-Pressio 2015, International Symposium –
investigation programme ensures safe and economical foun- 60 years of pressuremeters, Tunisia.

62 April 2016 Civil Engineering

LET BAUER TAKE YOU

INTO THE FUTURE.

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www.bauer.de Anchors Slurry handling
Stability of wind turbine foundations –
accounting for gapping and eccentric loading
INTRODUCTION
Alex van Niekerk Pr Eng
In the last two decades, the global development model has Byron Mawer
Planning, Toll and Traffic Manager
Graduate Structural Engineer
shifted to idealise sustainable development, as well as to SANRAL
Jeffares & Green Consulting Engineers
promote ‘green’ and renewable ideals. South Africa, following [email protected]
[email protected]
the example of other more developed nations, has tackled
these ideals by beginning to supplement its energy production
infrastructure with more sustainable alternatives and, with the
exception of its planned new nuclear scheme, has committed to Dr Denis Kalumba
Senior Lecturer
a reduction in non-renewable production methods over time.
Department of Civil Engineering
Th is was highlighted in the country’s 2012 Integrated Energy University of Cape Town
Plan, where the National Energy Regulator committed to in- [email protected]
vesting 1 600 MW a year in renewable energy infrastructure, of
which half is dedicated to wind energy and the creation of wind
farms. With this increase in scope, understanding the com- LOADING ON TURBINES
plexities of turbine engineering has never been more important To fully appreciate the complexities of the structural and geo-
for South African engineers. technical design of wind turbine foundations, it is critical to
Foundation designs for these structures pose a series of understand the origin of turbine loading and the number of
complex challenges, due to the unique loading characteristics forces that must be accounted for in design. A turbine, at an
that turbines inherently possess, as well as the wide variety idealistic level, could be considered a concentrated mass sup-
of soil conditions that exist within the South African wind ported by a very long, slender column, which is exposed to very
energy corridors. One of these challenges is to provide a safe large lateral loads and dynamic actions throughout its lifetime.
approximation of the bearing capacity, which must account Besides the large self-weight of the structure and the mechanical
for the extremely large gravity and moment loads that the components that the structure houses, turbine design is mainly
structure experiences during normal operating conditions. influenced by the aerodynamic forces caused by wind. These
This leads to very large eccentricities, which can often desta- can be treated as both static and dynamic loads caused directly
bilise a footing to the point of failure. This article introduces by airflow and its interaction with the turbine structure, most
and discusses the various turbine loads and how they can be notably the blades of the turbine. The intensity and type of load
theoretically accounted for in the design of a conventional is governed by a number of factors, including average wind
gravity footing for a wind turbine structure. speed, turbulence of the air flow, rotational speed of the rotor, air

Civil Engineering April 2016 63

density, the shape of the rotor blade, and any interactive effects
between the blade and the air flow, such as drag.
Ultimately, these loads can be reduced to a combination of
two simple forces and two moments, based on direction and
magnitude of action. Each resultant load or moment is provided
by the manufacturers after they have undertaken numerous Mz y
models and practical tests for their specific turbine type within
its operating limits. Many turbine manufacturers produce their x
own specification and loading documentation that note a certain Fres z
sign and symbol convention in order to communicate the loads
experienced. Figure 1 highlights one of these representations,
as presented by Vestas (2011) in their documentation. The loads
highlighted include the following:
■ Fres – a lateral load acting through the hub of the turbine due to
aerodynamic forces
■ Fz – a vertical downward acting load typically consisting of
weights of the structural elements
■ Mres – a moment caused at the base due to Fres acting at hub Mres
height
■ Mz – additional moments caused due to rotation of the tur- Fz
bine, subsidiary aerodynamic effects and other loading.
With the Fres force often exceeding 600 kN under normal
operating conditions, combined with tower heights of approxi-
mately 100 m for the 3 MW turbines that dominate the South
African energy market, design moments (Mres) are generally
within the range of 60 000 kNm (Vestas 2011). For the new
larger 8 MW turbines currently being erected in Europe, which
extend to heights of 150 m, the design moments can eclipse Figure 1: Simplified annotation of loading as applied to wind
turbine structure (Source: Mawer 2015)
100 000 kNm. With a gravity foundation design, the structure

Table 1: Simplified Vestas V112 3 MW turbine load cases

(Source: Mawer 2015)
LOAD CASE 1

Normal conditions

Mres Mz Fres Fz

[kNm] [kNm] [kN] [kN]

66 700 –353 695 –4 590

LOAD CASE 2

Extreme conditions

Mres Mz Fres Fz

[kNm] [kNm] [kN] [kN]

85 100 1 551 1 031 –4 500

LOAD CASE 3

Serviceability conditions

Mres Mz Fres Fz

[kNm] [kNm] [kN] [kN]

49 100 731 554 –4 620

Table 2: Eccentricities calculated for each load case (Source: Mawer 2015)

ECCENTRICITY (m)

LC1 LC2 LC3

1.40 1.79 1.03

64 April 2016 Civil Engineering

is stabilised against sliding and overturning by the large mass of tion radius, the eccentricities of the vertical loading can be
the foundation base. However, it must also not be so large or so calculated using Meyerhof ’s approach. For an assumed 21 m
heavy that it exceeds the bearing capacity of the supporting soils. diameter footing, and the loads stipulated in Table 1, the ec-
Typically in foundation engineering, designers account for base centricities presented in Table 2 can be calculated. These are
moments by making use of Meyerhof’s effective area method, then used in the calculation of the effective area as per the
which assumes a reduced contact area between the supporting DNV/Risφ (2002) method.
soil and the base by adopting the theory that the moment causes
the vertical loading applied through the centre of the base to act Circular foundation
eccentrically. With such high moment loads, eccentricities can In contrast to a square or rectangular footing, which has the ef-
become very large, which in effect dictate the need for extremely fective area reduced to a smaller rectangle with a new eccentric
large base sizes. This, coupled with the prevention of gapping (the centre, a circular foundation is generally represented best by an
temporary uplift of the footing base during operation), as well as ellipse centred laterally at a spacing of e from the foundation
limiting settlements and meeting manufacturers’ soil stiff ness centre (Figure 2). The effective area is then calculated by:
requirements, poses a complex design challenge.
An additional consideration to be given attention is the dif- Aeff = 2[R2 arccos ( Re ) – e√R2 – e2] (1)
ferent load cases that apply to wind turbine structures. Load
combinations in turbine design apply to the IEC 61400-1 (2005) where:
which stipulates load scenarios that require consideration in R is the radius of the footing, and
all the crucial operating conditions of the turbine, i.e. parked, e is the eccentricity calculated using e = Mres/(Fz+V)
start-up, normal operation, abnormal operation, shut down, etc.
This list is often reduced by turbine manufacturers into specific where:
loading conditions for each necessary design check, such as over- V is the mass of the footing.
turning, sliding, bearing capacity, etc. However, in principle, the with effective dimensions of (as shown in Figure 2):
design dimensions to be used must apply to worst load case, as
theoretically this will produce the worst eccentricities. The worst be = 2(R – e) (2)
be 2
loading that a turbine experiences is generally in an extreme le = 2R √ 1 – (1 – 2R ) (3)
weather condition when wind speeds have increased beyond the
acceptable operating window and the turbine has been parked As an ellipse is a shape that is usually hard to work with in
to avoid damage to the internal mechanics. In this state, the Fres design, a rectangle with the same effective area as the ellipse is
and Mres loads are up to 20% larger than that experienced during
normal operating conditions. While these exaggerated loads will
not occur for extended periods of time over the lifetime of the
structure, it is important that the overturning resistance and the Pile Driving Analyzer ®
bearing ability of the supporting soils are able to safely handle
the extreme wind conditions. PDA model 8G - Trust, Period.
For the purpose of this explanation, Table 1 presents three
load cases that were identified by author Mawer (2015) to illus-
trate the principles behind the foundation design for large eccen-
The best system for
tric loading. Load Case 1 (LC1) can be identified as the normal
Dynamic Load Testing
operating condition, Load Case 2 (LC2) can be considered the
of any type of deep
extreme weather condition and LC3 is for the serviceability state
CAPWAP® foundation got
requirements. These loads are specific to Vestas V112 3 MW tur-
bines which are widely used in South Africa. sleeker, faster and
more powerful.
DESIGNING FOR ECCENTRIC LOADING
The majority of representations for Meyerhof’s effective area On site or remotely
method in geotechnical literature are presented for square with
or rectangular footing shapes, which are arguably the most
common in everyday construction. However, for wind turbines, Foundation capacity
circular bases are the most common shape adopted, due to the by Case Method or
fact that turbine rotors are able to rotate around the tower axis to
iCAP® in real time.
account for changing wind direction. The resulting effective area
reduction is slightly more complicated for a circular foundation, w/ CAPWAP® for
but follow the same principles as suggested by Meyerhof. reliable total capacity,
The DNV/Risφ (2002) publication, titled Guideline for the resistance distribution
Design of Wind Turbines, presents an adaptation of Meyerhof ’s
and simulated static
effective area method specifically for circular bases subjected
load test.
to large moments, and is the basis of the method described
below. After taking into account the assumed mass of the
foundation base, using an initial estimate of the founda-

Civil Engineering April 2016 65 [email protected]

+1 216-831-6131 www.pile.com/pda
assumed, centred over the same centre as the ellipse (at a lateral Risφ (2002) suggests that this scenario is checked by conducting
spacing of e from the foundation centre). This shape and these an additional bearing capacity calculation given by Equation 6.
dimensions are then used in design. The new dimensions are In the case that the eccentricity is less than B/6, it automatically
referred to as the effective breadth and length given in Equations follows that this further bearing capacity check is not needed.
4 and 5.
qd = y,beff Nysyiy + cdNcscic (1.05 + tan3φ) (6)
leff = √ Aeff bele (4)
H
with: ic = 1 +
V + Aeff .c .cotφ
beff = leff b
e (5) and: iy = iq2
le

The results of these calculations are the effective dimensions GAPPING

highlighted in Table 3, with Load Case 2 presenting the most Gapping can be described as the tendency for wind turbine
critical effective area, as expected. foundations to experience uplift at the heel due to the footing
being too small to manage the high moment loads applied
Extremely eccentric loading to the structure. Both the DNV/Risφ (2002) and Eurocode 7
Before bearing capacity calculations can be attempted, it is (2004) make no mention of allowances for gapping of footings,
important at this point in the design process to assess the im- with only the IEC 61400-1 (2005) stating that the prevention of
plications of the eccentricities calculated. Allowable limits for overturning must be ensured under normal operating condi-
eccentricities in foundation designs are commonly considered as tions. The effect of this is that all data surrounding gapping
B/6, because any eccentricity larger than this will begin to cause considerations comes directly from the manufacturer’s tech-
uplift at the extreme edges of the footing perimeter. Uplift – also nical directions and specifications.
referred to as gapping in terms of wind turbine structures – is in It is generally understood that uplift would have a nega-
some circumstances permitted in the extreme loading case, but tive effect on the stability of the structure. However, under
often limited to 25%. The majority of turbine manufacturers and strict control, the loss of contact area has been found to have
design guidelines, however, suggest that 0% gapping should be a number of notable benefits to geotechnical design, including
allowed for. When uplift has been allowed for, a further bearing limiting permanent settlements, as well as limiting the ef-
capacity check is required, particularly when the eccentricity is fects of dynamic amplification due to resonance (Vestas 2011).
considered “extremely eccentric”. Unfortunately most turbine failures worldwide have been due
The point at which this occurs is when the eccentricity to overturning, leading most major manufacturers to suggest
exceeds the ratio of 0.3B. At this point it is possible for bearing that little to no uplift should be designed for, even under ex-
failure to occur beneath the unloaded area of the footing. DNV/ treme conditions, although practically a certain amount can be
allowed if absolutely required.
e The easiest way to prevent loss of contact with the soil is to en-
y sure that the foundation is sufficiently sized to guarantee that little
to no uplift takes place. To plan for this, the foundation is assumed
R to have a breadth or diameter large enough that the eccentricity of
the loading is within the limit B/6 under normal operating condi-
tions (LC1). The effect of this choice in foundation size is then
assessed in terms of the extreme load case, when gapping must be
L.C ensured to occur only within certain limits defined by the manu-
leff le
x facturer, or not at all. Vestas (2011) recommends that, if allowed
for, only uplift of 25% of the footing base is acceptable to ensure
foundation stability in the extreme condition. This is calculated
from the extreme edge towards the main axis of the foundation
and assuming an elastic soil pressure distribution.
General Electric (2013) recommends that the gapping design
criteria should comply with the Germanischer Lloyd Wind
Energy GmbH IV Rules and Guidelines Edition 2003, 6.7.6.3
Aeff beff Part (3) and Part (4). From this guideline, 100% contact area be-
be tween the foundation and soil during normal operational loading
Figure 2: Calculation of effective area of circular-shaped is required, and for the extreme load case, at least 50% contact
gravity footing (Source: Adapted from DNV/Risφ 2002)
must be maintained.

Table 3: Effective area and dimensions for circular foundations

Load case Radius (m) Area (m2 ) Aeff (m2 ) be (m) le (m) leff (m) beff (m)

1 21.0 346.4 287.85 18.21 20.81 18.14 15.87

2 21.0 346.4 271.71 17.43 20.69 17.96 15.13
3 21.0 346.4 303.26 18.94 20.90 18.29 16.58

66 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 An additional problem that is experienced when gapping has and their effect on turbine footing design are also extremely
been allowed for in design, is that it directly affects the stiff ness important for the stability of the structure, with particular
of the soil, which can be mobilised in rocking. The kθ value must emphasis on the fact that 0% gapping should be allowed for in
be recalculated for a new rotation angle that has been factored in normal operating conditions. Gapping can be permitted under
to account for the loss of contact area. Equation 7, adapted from extreme conditions, although this should be subject to the
Vestas (2011) can be used, where CM is spring stiff ness of soil in manufacturer’s specific guidelines, and stiff ness effects should be
rotation: accounted for.
M M
kθ = φ =
(σ max – σ min)
(7) REFERENCES
Beff .CM Det Norske Veritas & Risφ National Laboratory 2002. Guidelines
for the design of wind turbines. 2nd Edition. Det Norske Veritas.
It must be ensured that, in the extreme load case, the soil stiff- Copenhagen, Denmark.
ness degradation due to this lower rocking stiff ness will not European Committee for Standardization 2004. Eurocode 7:
increase the risk of differential settlements. It is vital that the Geotechnical design – Part 1: General Rules (EN 1997-1(2004)).
turbine manufacturer’s technical guidelines are consulted to Brussels, Belgium.
assess how their specific turbines should be treated for the General Electric Report 2013. Technical Specification Wind Turbine
allowance of uplift, or whether it should be avoided under all Generator Systems All Types. Document No 109W4732.
loading conditions. International Electro-technical Commission 2005. IEC 61400-1
Wind Turbines Part 1 – Design Requirements. 3rd Edition.
CONCLUSION International Electro-technical Commission. Geneva,
The complex loading associated with wind turbine structures Switzerland.
poses an extreme challenge in assessing bearing capacity for Mawer, B W 2015. An Introduction to the Geotechnical Design
wind turbine gravity foundations, particularly when taking large of South African Wind Turbine Gravity Foundations. MSc (Eng)
eccentricities due to high inherent moment loads into account. Dissertation. University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
The DNV/Risφ (2002) method simply accounts for the effective Vestas Report 2011. Foundations Design Guidelines: Foundations
area for circular footings and prescribes for additional bearing with Anchors. Document No 0020-3286 V00. Class 2: V80/V90/
capacity checks for extremely eccentric loading. Gapping criteria V100/V112. 2011-07-08.

Civil Engineering April 2016 67

Slope failure on Lusaka-Chirundu Road in Zambia

Social geotechnics
question by reviewing various news articles dealing with issues
Charles MacRobert of geotechnics.
Lecturer
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of the Witwatersrand SURVEY
[email protected] Over a one-week period (22–28 July 2015) a class of roughly
100 non-engineering second-year students at the University of
the Witwatersrand (Wits) were instructed to find a news article
THE FOLLOWING DEFINITION of geotechnical engineering pertaining to any aspect of geotechnics. Each article was read
is suggested by a popular search engine: “Geotechnical engi- and analysed based on keywords (Table 1) and the following
neering is a civil engineering discipline that is concerned with questions:
building on, in, or with soil and rock. Geotechnical engineers 1. Which geotechnical engineering problems are addressed?
design dams, embankments, cuts, foundations, retaining walls, 2. Which social aspects are associated with the geotechnical
anchors, tunnels, and all other structures directly interacting problem?
with the subsoil, both onshore and offshore.” (1) I assume that 3. Is an expert or source quoted for technical aspects?
this definition would generally be accepted by most geotechnical 4. From which geographical region is the article?
engineers as an adequate definition of geotechnics. However, 5. When was the article published?
as Victor de Mello pointed out, we are first human beings, then Although limited, the review carried out here is more than suf-
civil engineers, and then specialists (2). Therefore we need to be ficient to get an overview. A more rigorous analysis of the articles
aware of the society we serve. This article sets out to answer this can be the subject of future study.

Table 1: Keywords used to analyse papers

Aspect Keywords
Dam failure, Demolition, Earthquake, Erosion, Excavation, Floods, Foundation failure, Liquefaction, Mining,
Geotechnical Problem soils, Research, Road damage, Settlement, Sinkholes, Slope stability, Soluble rock, Tailings dams,
Tunnels
Airport closure, Environmental damage, Evacuation, Fatalities, Financial loss, Inconvenience, Legal, Property
Social
damage, Relocation, Road closure, Safety
Department of Civil Engineering, Department of Geology, Geo-engineer, Geological Engineer, Geological
Expert
Survey, Geologist, Geotechnical Engineer, Soil Engineer, Soil Scientist

68 April 2016 Civil Engineering

OVERVIEW PERSPECTIVE
A quarter of the articles submitted were written within the A more nuanced perspective can be obtained by comparing
week assigned to acquire articles, half were written in 2015 and articles dealing with similar geotechnical problems but within
the earliest were written in 2001. The geographical distribution different social settings.
of articles was consistent with internet use (Figure 1), with over
half the articles from North America and just under a quarter Apartheid dolomite
from Africa. In the latter half of 2011, two articles were written on
The most common word found in the titles of the articles sinkholes, one in Gauteng, South Africa (3) and the other in
was “collapse”, typifying the content of most stories. The most
common geotechnical problem raised by the articles was slope
stability (Figure 2), followed by sinkholes and problem soils. In
three quarters of the cases, an expert source is cited for tech-
nical aspects.
Of the social aspects, legal issues (Figure 3) were discussed
most. Legal issues included arbitration, building codes, court
cases, government debates, government inquiries, litigation,
policy-making or political debate. A third of the articles
cited either fatalities or safety issues. This is to be expected,
as many dealt with the collapse of a structure. Closure of
transportation infrastructure (roads, airports and railways)
was also a significant social implication. More articles dealt
with property damage and financial loss than environmental
damage. A tenth of the articles highlighted that evacuation of
people was required, but permanent relocation was only nec-
essary in half as many cases. Figure 1: Geographical distribution of articles

Figure 2: Common geotechnical problems raised by news articles (font size corresponds to frequency)

Figure 3: Social aspects associated with articles on geotechnical engineering (font size corresponds to frequency)

Civil Engineering April 2016 69

Florida, United States (4). The main themes of these articles lapse was not finally attributed to foundation failure, but to
contrast the social settings of the two problems. The theme of structural deficiencies (7), although initial discussions considered
the article in Gauteng addressed how best to protect vulner- the possibility. Slope failure is being considered as the main
able citizens from sinkholes, whereas the theme of the Florida cause of failure for the apartment block collapse (8, 9). Although
article focused on how vulnerable people can make the most collapse was not finally attributed to geotechnical problems in
of insurance payouts. these two cases, media coverage of the two inquiries highlighted
Common to both articles is that engineering solutions can the importance of engineering ethics.
be used to mitigate the risk of sinkhole damage. However, in the In the case of the guesthouse, absurd notions of infrasonic
case of the Gauteng citizens, limited access to finance in order weapons were proposed as possible causes for the collapse (10).
to mitigate risk resulted in government bodies seeking to relo- Presumably to try and add scientific rigour to this proposition, an
cate them. The fact that more affluent citizens, literally across academic paper was published on the possibility (11). The journal
the road, were not required to move, presumably as their more in which the paper appeared (International Journal of Scientific
robust structures were deemed to be at a lower risk, was seen Engineering and Research) is a predatory journal of question-
as discrimination based on race and class. Whereas, in Florida able repute. The article itself has entire paragraphs plagiarised
the homeowners, in some cases, were receiving insurance pay- from websites that, borrowing a biblical expression, can best be
ments of up to ten times their property value for mere cracks. described as those that “creep into households and take gullible
Payments, in many cases, were not used to repair damage and persons captive”.
mitigate future risk. The situation was worsened by collusion In the case of the apartment block, discourse was much more
between lawyers and contractors, and litigation between parties. realistic. Although there was prior evidence of slope failure,
Government bodies, in this case, were seeking to put in place the actual site investigation was not deemed comprehensive
legislation to regulate insurance claims better and ensure that enough to fully quantify the risk (9). The geotechnical engineer
repairs were done. in question admitted failing to adequately perform his duties (8).
These two stories highlight how completely different social However, it was also apparent that a review of ground conditions
issues can arise surrounding similar geotechnical problems, and carried out by another practitioner was withheld by the con-
these are often the most difficult to solve. tractor. This inquiry is ongoing.
The SAICE code of ethics requires that members take per-
Deadly landslides sonal responsibility for work completed, and that work be del-
Landslides in urban areas are deadly events that can claim the egated to competent persons. Admittedly, taking responsibility
lives of residents and cause extensive damage to property. From for mistakes is not easy, but this is a basic tenant of engineering
a geotechnical engineering perspective, classifying areas as high practice. Understanding failures is a key means for engineers to
risk is not a difficult task. Costs associated with classifying areas, broaden their competence.
in many cases, would offset property and financial losses. Two
articles, one from Japan in 2014 (5) and another from the United CONCLUSIONS
States in 2015 (6), highlight both technical and social difficulties Whilst geotechnical engineering is ostensibly about building
around implementing landslide hazard maps. Both countries structures safely with, on or within soil and rock, the interaction
have attempted to implement landslide hazard maps, but the of these structures with society is equally important. Failure
work to implement these has been hampered by shortages of of these structures can result in considerable social disruption.
funds and relevant staff. In both cases these delays were ques- These range from fatalities to inconvenience, legal wrangling to
tioned following a devastating landslide. financial loss, and closure of transport infrastructure to environ-
Hurdles to implementing hazard maps are not merely due to mental damage.
funds and personnel not being available. In Japan, for example, Social issues do not merely arise following the failure of a
there has been resistance to zoning as it leads to a devaluation structure. They can also arise when trying to mitigate risk. While
of property and land being deemed unsuitable for construc- it may seem prudent to warn or relocate people due to ground
tion. Similar concerns in the United States have led to State risks, such as dolomite or landslides, these warnings can be ig-
Legislatures shutting down hazard-mapping initiatives. This nored. The cost to mitigate risk, be it social or financial, does not
highlights that socio-political factors can often have an over- seem justified in many cases, even when money is made available.
riding influence. Engineers have a duty to serve society with integrity, applying
Classifying areas as being at risk may be easy, but predicting suitable skills, sound judgement and technical innovation to
when landslides will occur in order to permit timely evacuations, solve problems. When our solutions fail, we need to take the re-
is a much harder task. In the case of the landslide in Japan (5), sponsibility and not create smoke screens around the real issues.
warnings were issued an hour after the event. This delay was Exploring the reasons for failure can prevent mistakes in the fu-
blamed on the warning criteria that were not able to take into ture. Acting without integrity does a disservice to our profession,
account extreme localised downpours. Th is is a potential area for as it portrays us in a bad light.
research.
REFERENCES
Infrasonic weapons 1. NTNU 2016. What is Geotechnical Engineering: Norwegian
The final comparison presented here is between two inquiries University of Science and Technology [cited 17 Feb 2016].
into collapsed buildings. The two collapsed buildings were a Available from: https://www.ntnu.edu/bat/geotechnics
guesthouse in Lagos (Nigeria) and a multi-storey apartment 2. Burland J B 2008. Reflections on Victor de Mello, friend, engineer
block in Morvant (Trinidad and Tobago). The guesthouse col- and philosopher. Soils and Rocks, 31(3): 111–123.

70 April 2016 Civil Engineering

3. De Wet P 2011. The curious case of the apartheid dolomite
South Africa: Daily Maverick [updated 16 Sept 2011]. Available
from: http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2011-09-16-the-
curious-case-of-the-apartheid-dolomite
4. Martin S T, De Witt D 2011. Sinkholes become Florida's latest
insurance disaster. United States: Tampa Bay Times [up-
dated 30 Dec 2011]. Available from: http://www.tampabay. INFRASTRUCTURE & ENVIRONMENT
com/news/sinkholes-become-floridas-latest-insurance-
disaster/1208473
Ports & Terminals | Rail | Water | Resource Infrastructure
5. Martin A 2014. Japan mudslides raise disaster management
Power | Master Planning | Geotechnical
issues. United States: The Wall Street Journal [updated 21 Aug
Environmental Services
2014]. Available from: http://www.wsj.com/articles/japan-
mudslides-raise-disaster-management-issues-1408615879
6. Montgomery D R, Wartman J 2015. How to make land-
slides less deadly. United States: The New York Times Complete solutions...
[updated 20 Mar 2015]. Available from: http://www.nytimes.
com/2015/03/21/opinion/how-to-make-landslides-less-deadly. for the resources and
html?_r=0
7. Akintunde A 2015. T B Joshua's church, contractors face energy sectors
prosecution, indicted for criminal negligence. Nigeria: This
Day Live [updated 9 Jul 2015]. Available from: http://www.
thisdaylive.com/articles/t-b-joshuas-church-contractors-face-
prosecution-indicted-for-criminal-negligence/214174/
8. Paul A-L 2015. Slope analysis was geotechnical engineer's
duty – Elder Trinidad and Tobago: Trinidad and Tobago
Guardian [updated 26 Jun 2015]. Available from: http://www.
guardian.co.tt/news/2015-06-26/slope-analysis-was-geotech-
nical-engineers-duty%E2%80%94elder
9. Paul A-L 2015. Engineer: Not enough done to probe site
stability. Trinidad and Tobago: Trinidad and Tobago Guardian
[updated 8 Apr 2015]. Available from: http://www.guardian.
co.tt/news/2015-04-08/engineer-not-enough-done-probe-
site-stability
10. Hartleb T 2015. 'Infrasonic weapon' causes T B Joshua church
collapse – academic. South Africa: News24 [updated 28 Jul
2015]. Available from: http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/
News/Infrasonic-weapon-caused-TB-Joshua-church-collapse-
academic-20150728
11. Iguniwei P D 2015. Elimination of the structural failure and the
placement of chemical explosives options, for the infrasonic
weapon option as the cause of the synagogue (SCOAN) building
collapse. Intl J Scientific Eng Research, 3(7): 152–3.

Social issues do not merely arise following the

failure of a structure. They can also arise when WorleyParsons supports the resources and energy
sectors, offering environmental and restoration services,
trying to mitigate risk. While it may seem prudent
development of water processes, rail and port assets,
to warn or relocate people due to ground risks, power generation and transmission sectors.
such as dolomite or landslides, these warnings
- 1,800 local employees
can be ignored. The cost to mitigate risk, be - Deep local knowledge
it social or financial, does not seem justified in - Global expertise
- BBBEE Level 2
many cases, even when money is made available.
Engineers have a duty to serve society with
integrity, applying suitable skills, sound judgement
46 countries 148 offices 31,400 people
and technical innovation to solve problems ...
www.worleyparsons.com
Civil Engineering April 2016 71
 Variance of geotechnical
properties and implications for
the selection of design values
INTRODUCTION
Maarten Kamper Historically, geotechnical engineering has had little use for
Geotechnical Engineer
standard statistical analyses, due to the high intrinsic variability
GIBB
[email protected] of the ground, small data sets and often zero replication, which
render statistical analyses of geotechnical data rather meaningless.
This has had the undesired effect that geotechnical practi-
tioners are often unaware of the enormous variation associated
Published results of investigations of variance with a chosen value of a geotechnical parameter, often described
in geotechnics are understandably scarce. The as the “characteristic” (Eurocode 7) or “moderately conservative” /
“cautious estimate” parameter (British Standards).
first study on soil variability was undertaken by Published results of investigations of variance in geotech-
nics are therefore understandably scarce. The first study on soil
Lump (1966), and only in the late 1990s was
variability was undertaken by Lump (1966), and only in the late
there renewed investigation. A seminal study was 1990s was there renewed investigation. A seminal study was un-
dertaken by Phoon and Kulhawy (1999), which investigated the
undertaken by Phoon and Kulhawy (1999), which
variances of each parameter in terms of the coefficient of vari-
investigated the variances of each parameter ance (CoV) for various techniques, such as triaxial testing, cone
penetration testing (CPT) and standard penetration testing (SPT)
in terms of the coefficient of variance (CoV)
(summarised in Table 1). Bond and Harris (2008) listed some
for various techniques, such as triaxial testing, other common parameters and their associated CoVs for UK data
(shown in Table 2).
cone penetration testing (CPT) and standard It was also found by Phoon and Kulhawy that the CoV was
penetration testing (SPT). generally higher for sands than for clays, and that even results
from ‘elegant’ techniques, such as CPT, exhibit a remarkably high
variation, and that its recorded variation is also strangely similar
to that of the ‘cruder’ SPT.
An intriguing observation was that for many parameters –
such as the undrained shear strength (Su), the angle of friction,
plasticity index, liquidity index and relative density – the vari-
ation decreases with an increase in the value of the parameter,
i.e. an inversely proportional relationship between variation and
strength. This observation is summarised in Figure 1 (for the
angle of friction to illustrate the principle).

72 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 It is therefore evident that from a low to a high strength, the
intrinsic variation is not constant, and distinctly nonlinear.
Many studies have since been undertaken using prob-
ability theory and Bayesian theorem (Wang et al 2015). Most
of these methods seem to be useful for academic research
purposes, but are rather irrelevant for practitioners in in-
dustry, as they do not seem to offer any tangible advantages
for real designs.
The aim of this study was to investigate the variation of in-
situ techniques on various South African sites and to compare
the findings with published values. The objective was to ascer-
tain, using a boundary value problem, whether current limit state
designs, such as Eurocode 7 and SANS 10160-5, accommodate
this variation.

INTRINSIC VARIATION OF STRENGTH

Intrinsic variation in the ground is in two components, namely
horizontal and vertical. On a uniformly stratified deposit it can
be assumed that the horizontal component is kept to a min-
imum. For this study two sand deposits and a residual clay were
selected. These are of estuarine (Isipingo Formation) and aeolian
(Gordonia Formation) origin, and a clay stratum of residual
norite of the Rustenburg Layered Suite. Cone penetration testing
(CPT) and dynamic probe super heavy (DPSH) probing were
carried out on the sand strata, and dynamic cone penetrometer
(DCP) measurement on the residual norite.

Table 1: Variation of geotechnical parameters

(after Phoon & Kulhawy 1999)
Test type Parameter CoV (%)
Triaxial Su 10–55
Cone Penetration qc 20–60
Vane shear Su 10–40
SPT ‘N’ 25–50
Pressure meter EPMT 15–65

Table 2: Variation of geotechnical parameters

(after Bond & Harris 2008)
Parameter CoV (%)
tanφ 5–15
c’ 30–50
Su 20–40
mv 20–70
γ 1–10
Coefficient of variance (%)

Angle of friction ( φ’)

Figure 1: Example – mean angle of friction and its variance

Civil Engineering April 2016 73

 The CoV was calculated for each depth increment using the Site 1: Gordonia Formation
following relation: DCP, DPSH and SPT probings were carried out on a site in the
Northern Cape on aeolian sands. The SPT probings were not nu-
σ
CoV(%) = μ × 100 merous enough, so only the DPSH data was used for the study of
variation. The DCP and DPSH data and the ‘N’–CoV relation are
where σ = standard deviation, and μ = mean. presented in Figure 2.
It can be seen that the variance does follow the same trend
It is assumed that only vertical variance is recorded and that this ena- as the literature values, as shown in Figure 1, but are higher.
bles the determination of the variance of each investigative technique, The DCP was correlated to ‘N’ values using the relation of Brink
and the variance with each respective soil strength increment. The (1982). The DCP’s variance is lower than the DPSH’s variance.
ground strength gradually increases with depth, hence increase or
decrease of variance with respective soil strengths can be measured. Site 2: Isipingo Formation
CPT, DPSH and SPT probings were carried out on estuarine sands
with some intercalated clay strata in KwaZulu-Natal. The CPT was
related to ‘N’ values using the relation suggested by Robertson (2014):
qt
Depth mBGL

pa = 10(1.1268 – 0.2817Ic)
N60

where qt = normalised tip resistance, Pa = 100 kPa,

DPSH ‘N’ N60 = energy normalised ‘N’, and Ic = soil factor.

Fixing a value for the Ic factor is problematic for the 2–9 m

depth, as much of the borehole information is unavailable. The
Depth mmBGL

available borehole logs record a sand stratum, whilst the CPT

Coefficient of variance (%)

DCP mm/blow


DCP
DCP

CoV (%)

‘N’ value
Figure 2: DPSH and DCP values with depth and the variance per Average mm/blow
consistency of each Figure 4: DCP values with depth and the variance

+ DPSH
 CPT
 SPT
Coefficient of variance (%)

-.-.- DPSH
–.–.– CPT
Depth (m BGL)

----- SPT

DPSH average
CPT average
SPT average

‘N’ value ‘N’

Figure 3: CPT, DPSH and DCP values with depth and the variance per consistency of each

Table 3: Parameters for each case

Case Average CoV (%) Range in ‘N’ Range in friction angle (°) Range in E (MPa)*
‘N’ = 20 60 13–32 31–37 13–32
‘N’ = 40 45 28–58 35–43 28–58
*For the Young’s Moduli, the ratio of 1 ‘N’ = 1 MPa was used (Clayton 1995)

74 April 2016 Civil Engineering

probings calculate a ‘clay’ stratum (Robertson & Campanella
1983). Due to the effect of wash boring, which tends to wash out
fines, even the borehole information may not represent the actual
ground accurately. An average Ic value of 2.53 was selected from
calculated values, and it also gives comparable ‘N’ values with
those from the SPT. The results are shown in Figure 3.
It can be seen that there is remarkable correlation between
the CPT and DPSH. The variance of even an elegant technique
such as the CPT is high for ‘N’ values less than 40. The DPSH’s
variation is the lowest.

Site 3: Residual Norite of the Rustenburg Layered Suite

To ascertain whether fine-grained strata exhibit the same behav-
iour, as well as whether the size of a data set can affect the CoV,
the CoV was determined for a site near Tshwane, where 35 DCP
soundings were carried out to a depth of 1.5 m on completely
weathered norite, recorded as stiff clay in test pits. The DCP has
the advantage that a large data set can be generated at low cost.
The CoV of this large data set is presented in Figure 4.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
In summary it can be stated that:
■ In-situ testing techniques show the ground’s intrinsic variation
to be non-linear and with high scatter of data at low strengths.
The CoV does not seem to decrease with a large amount of
data.
■ The implication of these results is that input parameters have
much higher variation at low consistencies than at higher con-
sistencies. This could have implications for limit state design in
the case where parameters are factored.
■ Variance is technique-dependent, with the SPT having much
higher variance than the DPSH and DCP. Therefore the de-
signer should take cognisance of the variance associated with
each technique used to determine the design value.

2 000

1 1

Figure 5: Finite element model for pile settlement

Table 4: Pile settlement analyses for the two cases

Case φ’ (°) E’ (MPa) Settlement (mm)
31 13 210
‘N’ = 20 33 20 161
37 32 117
35 28 133
‘N’ = 40 37 40 104
43 58 76
ww
Civil Engineering April 2016 75
 SIMULATION OF PILE SETTLEMENT
To simulate the effect of variation of input parameters, a
boundary value problem was used to test the effect of vari-
ance. Pile settlement was simulated using Rocscience’s Phase 2
finite element program with a thick sand stratum. The rela-
tion between friction angle and ‘N’ value was determined
using Peck et al (1974). Two cases were considered, shown in
Table 3.
The pile was modelled as a 15 m long, 1 m diameter cast
in-situ auger pile, and a loading of 2 000 kN was applied. For
each case the upper- and lower-bound values were used as input
parameters to determine a range of pile settlement. The outline
of the model is shown in Figure 5.
The results of the analyses are given in Table 4.
It can be seen that the range of settlement due to the in-
trinsic variation of the input parameters is much more at a
lower consistency.
Current limit state design codes, such as Eurocode 7 (2004)
and the SANS 10160-5:2011, have partial factors for earth ma-
terials (material factors) which are used to derive a design value
and are calculated to determine whether a particular limit state
is satisfied:
It is also clear that each investigative technique
Xk
Xd = ŋ
records a different intrinsic variance. The DPSH γm
technique does appear superior to the SPT, as it where Xd = design value of geotechnical parameter, ŋ = con-
has lower variance. This variance may also be due version factor, normally taken as unity, Xk = characteristic
value or ‘cautious’ estimate, and γm = partial factor for the
to the ground being disturbed prior to the SPT material.
sounding being carried out. The sensitivity of the
The suggested values of the codes for the partial material factors
CPT may account for the high observed variation, are fi xed between 1.25 and 1.4, irrespective of soil strength.
In the case of friction angle, the design friction angle (φ’d) is
and the comparison to the cruder techniques may
related to the characteristic friction angle (φ’k) by means of the
not be correct. Particularly if the designer only has material factor (γm) as follows:

SPT data, taking cognisance of its inherent high tanφ

φd = tan-1 γm
variability at low consistencies is essential.
If the average values of Table 4 are taken as ‘characteristic’, design
Table 5: Settlement analyses using a material factor of 1.25 values are arrived at using a material factor of 1.25 as per SANS
10160-5 and Eurocode 7, and settlements of the pile can be deter-
Case φk’ (°) φd’ (°) E’ (MPa) Settlement (mm)
mined. This is presented in Table 5.
‘N’ = 20 33 30 10 225
For the lower consistency case, the use of the material factor
‘N’ = 40 37 33 20 161 appears over-conservative, but as Figure 3 clearly shows, the
CoV can reach up to 100%, and the settlement prediction using a
‘mean’ value will still be correct.
However, it is clear that the same value for the material factor
(1.25), irrespective of ground strength, yields an over-conserva-
tive prediction of settlement at a high consistency.
‘N’ value

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Taking cognisance of variance for partial factors

Even an elegant technique such as the CPT exhibits high varia-
tion in homogeneous, stratified ground which is also distinctly
nonlinear – high variance at low ground strength and low vari-
ance at high strengths. The observed variance for South African
Suggested partial factor sites does appear higher than for the published values for over-
Figure 6: Suggested change to partial material factor in seas sites. For inhomogeneous ground, the variance is thought to
relation to consistency
be much higher.

76 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 The suggested values of the codes for the partial factors
The Formwork Experts.
range between 1.25 and 1.4, irrespective of soil strength.
This study shows that variance can range from 20–100% for
the same ground using the same test technique on homoge-
neous ground.
Real-time
It can be assumed that the use of the current values for the
partial factors may lead to over-conservative designs at high
measuring of
ground strength. Th is is especially likely to occur when the de-
signer has little ground data at hand.
concrete strength
It also shows that accurate predictions can be obtained using Concremote® – Redefine your program. Push progress.
mean or average values for the characteristic values. www.doka.co.za
The variances found in this study suggest that, for a high
strength material (‘N’ > 30), the partial factors can be decreased to
1.1, until verification is obtained from case studies. The suggested
partial factors per strength range are presented in Figure 6.

Taking cognisance of each technique’s effect on variance

It is also clear that each investigative technique records a dif-
ferent intrinsic variance. The DPSH technique does appear supe-
rior to the SPT, as it has lower variance. This variance may also
be due to the ground being disturbed prior to the SPT sounding
being carried out.
The sensitivity of the CPT may account for the high ob-
served variation, and the comparison to the cruder techniques
may not be correct. Particularly if the designer only has SPT
data, taking cognisance of its inherent high variability at low
consistencies is essential.

CONCLUSIONS
■ The intrinsic variance of ground materials was found
to be high and also varies with strength in a non-
linear way. This trend was previously observed for
nearly all geotechnical properties. The magnitude of
the observed variance of various in-situ techniques
on various South African sites suggests a higher vari-
ance than that for the overseas case studies.
■ The observed trend of variance is similar on soils of dif-
ferent consistencies and composition, and, unexpectedly,
even large data sets do not show a decreased variance.
■ Variance is strongly technique dependent.
■ As this study was carried out for uniform strati-
fied ground, the variance of inhomogeneous
ground is likely to be much higher.
■ The findings of this study have implications for limit
state design codes where fixed partial factors are used
for materials, irrespective of ground strength. The cur-
rent specified values for the partial factors for ULS and
SLS are to be used, irrespective of ground strength. This
may result in significant over-design on high strength
materials and under-design at low ground strengths. It is
suggested that materials are not factored at all, such as for
Design Approach 1 Combination 1 or DA2. Good correla-
tions have been achieved in France (using DA2) between
predicted and measured deflection, using 140 pile tests
(Burlon et al 2014). This suggests that, when geotechnical
parameters are left unfactored, the predictions are ac-
curate. This is particularly true if the data set is small.

REFERENCES
The list of references is available from the editor.

Civil Engineering April 2016 77

SAICE Geotechnical
Division News
lectured by both Prof Blight and Prof Fourie at Wits, and this is
Trevor Green sure to be an occasion to remember.
Chairman
The conference is being held under the auspices of the
SAICE Geotehnical Division
[email protected] International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering (ISSMGE), and the President, Secretary and the
Vice-President for Africa have all been invited to attend.
As most engineers would have already guessed, the confer-
THE YEAR 2016 IS ALREADY WELL UNDER WAY, and shaping ence is only being held at Sun City due to its proximity to the
to be a very active one for the Geotechnical Division. Aside from the Pilanesberg Alkaline Ring Complex. This is one of only three
traditional Jennings Lecture and a short-course on piling, both pre- alkaline volcano complexes in the world. At over 2 000 million
sented by Dr Mark Randolph in March, we are also looking forward years old this is one old lady! At its peak the volcano was over
to the 1st Southern African Geotechnical Conference in May, and 7 000 m in height, i.e. approximately 1 000 m higher than Mount
several fascinating evening lectures that have been confirmed for Kilimanjaro (5 895 m). Now that would have been something to
the latter half of the year – these include presentations on dolomite see! Obviously, the proximity of the conference to the casino and
by Dr Fritz Wagener, lateral support by Ken Schwartz, and a com- vertical water slides is purely coincidental.
parison of compaction techniques by Alan Parrock.
17TH AFRICAN REGIONAL CONFERENCE
ST
1 SOUTHERN AFRICAN GEOTECHNICAL CONFERENCE The ISSMGE African Regional Conference (ARC) has been held
In early May this year anyone looking for a geotechnical engineer in South Africa only four times in the past – the 1st in 1955 in
or engineering geologist to do their bidding is going to find it a Pretoria, the 4th in 1967 in Cape Town, and the 6th and 12th in
rather fruitless search. Durban in 1975 and 1999 respectively. So, despite South Africa
Following a lack of large-scale geotechnical conferences having the majority of ISSMGE members in Africa, we have not
in South Africa for many years, this year is all about moving hosted an ARC for over 15 years.
things up a gear. The 1st Southern African Geotechnical In 2015 Dr Denis Kalumba, from UCT, successfully presented
Conference takes place at Sun City on 5 and 6 May, and the our bid (at the ARC held in Tunisia) to host the 17th ARC in Cape
response of the professional community to this has been such Town (visit www.geotechnicaldivision.co.za for details). A great
that plenary sessions are being planned so that all the accepted deal of work was put into preparing and presenting the bid, and
papers can be presented. thanks must go to all those involved.
The conference will incorporate the Geoff Blight Memorial The 7th African Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference
Lecture, with Prof Andy Fourie flying in from Australia to pre- will be held over the same period, so both young and not so
sent the lecture. I was fortunate to be among the students to be young will have a forum at the conference.

78 April 2016 Civil Engineering

MEMBERSHIP
The Geotechnical Division currently has 547 members of whom
495 are in good standing. All those who think they may be on
the ‘not-so-good’ list should contact the SAICE Membership
Department and query their membership status.
It is also worth noting that, at 536 members (out of a total of
945), we are by far the biggest member of the ISSMGE in Africa
(with Egypt following at 108).
We really are quite an active division and there has been a
big push recently to improve communication with our members.
If you are not receiving regular news and updates, please e-mail
Luzaan Hamel ([email protected]) and she will include you
on the mailing list.

DIVISION AWARDS
At the Geotechnical Division’s Annual General Meeting held
towards to end of last year, the following awards were made:

Barry van Wyk Award

The award is presented annually to the author of the best final-
year dissertation on a geotechnical topic at a South African uni- David Marx (right) receiving the Barry van Wyk
award from SAICE COO Steven Kaplan
versity. David Marx from the University of Pretoria was the 2015
recipient for his dissertation The tensile strength of unsaturated
sands.

JE Jennings Award
The JE Jennings Award is presented annually to honour the
late Professor JE Jennings and the outstanding role played
by him in the development of geotechnical engineering in
South Africa. The award is presented to the author/s of a
meritorious publication relevant to geotechnical engineering
in South Africa published during the previous year, either in
South Africa or elsewhere. The 2015 recipients were Profs SW
Jacobsz, Wynand Steyn and Elsabé Kearsley for their publica-
tion Centrifuge modelling of ultra-thin continuously reinforced
concrete pavements. It was published in the Proceedings of Prof Elsabé Kearsley (left) and Prof SW Jacobsz, recipients of the
the 8th International Conference on Physical Modelling in 2015 JE Jennings Award, with SAICE COO Steven Kaplan
Geotechnics 2014, which was held in Perth, Australia. (the third recipient, Prof Wynand Steyn, could not attend the event)

Civil Engineering April 2016 79

 OBITUARIES

Dr AAB (Tony) Williams

1926 – 2016
DR AAB TONY WILLIAMS passed away peacefully at home Symposium on Problem Soils in South Africa, and the recogni-
in Johannesburg on 4 February 2016, just short of his 90th tion that the shear strength along existing slickensides was close
birthday, leaving his wife Veronica (whom he married in 1953), to the residual strength of the mass (typically about 50% of the
four children and six grandchildren. peak mass strength). The importance of the latter is of course
Tony was born in Kokstad and attended school at Highbury crucial for design locally, particularly regarding slopes, in con-
and Michaelhouse. He joined the Navy during World War II, trast to the common overseas practice of using peak strength for
serving on a frigate out east. analysing ‘first time’ slides.
He studied civil engineering at the University of the What is less known is his compilation of the computerised
Witwatersrand where he obtained the degree BSc (Eng) in 1948 Bibliography of South African Geotechnical Publications, cov-
(and a PhD in 1976). ering the period 1947–1976, which also incorporated a keyword-
After three years in bridge and road construction with the in-context search and retrieval system.
then Transvaal Roads Department he went to Imperial College, Tony received a number of awards for his work, including
London, where he obtained a DIC in soil mechanics. In 1954 he a SAICE Best Paper Award in 1962 (with Basil Kantey),
joined the National Building Research Institute (NBRI), then the JD Roberts Award for Building Research in 1980, the
under the directorship of Jere Jennings, to work on unsaturated South African Geotechnical Medal in 1991, and the Gold
soils, where he also first met Tony Brink. He later spent ten Medal of the South African Institute for Engineering and
years at the National Institute for Road Research as Head of the Environmental Geologists in 2005. He was also due to re-
Soil Mechanics Division before returning to the NBRI. Tony ceive the SAICE Medal for Meritorious Research at the 2016
retired from the CSIR as Head of Structural and Geotechnical Jennings Lecture – the official notification of this arrived in
Engineering in 1989, but continued acting as a consultant until the mail on 4 February, and he read it with quiet enjoyment on
final retirement in 1993. the day of his passing.
A feature of Tony’s research had always been an apprecia- Tony, who was a Fellow of SAICE, formerly served on
tion of the forces of nature when dealing with soil conditions Council, and on the committees of the Pretoria Branch and
in southern Africa, and the necessity of ‘whole engineering’. Geotechnical Division, as well as on the organising committees
Towards this end he advocated a multidisciplinary approach to of several Regional Conferences for Africa on Soil Mechanics
work, drawing in people like Tony Brink. and Foundation Engineering. In addition, he contributed to
He authored or co-authored some 63 publications covering many Division lecture courses, represented SAICE on the SABS
the influence of climate on soil behaviour, field characteristics 0161-1980 Code of Practice for the design of foundations for
of South African soils, soil profi ling, mapping and data storage, buildings, and chaired the development of the 1980 Code of
the role of engineering geology, soil suction measurements, slope Practice relating to the safety of men working in small-diameter
stability (including slimes dams), foundations and roads on active vertical and near-vertical shafts for civil engineering purposes.
clays, settlements on low-density residual and transported soils Tony was also a keen sportsman (squash), and an enthusiastic
and the value of the then new impact roller, and the in-situ prop- conservationist and ornithologist.
erties of fissured clays. We salute a man who was a true gentleman, quiet in his
He is perhaps best known for his co-authorship with Jennings manner, generous with his knowledge, honest in his assessments,
and Brink of their 1973 Revised guide to soil profiling for engi- and kind with his criticism.
neering purposes in southern Africa (which was adopted as an
industry standard), his 1982 book, Soil survey for engineering, Dr Frank Netterberg
with Tony Brink and Tim Partridge, the state-of-the-art report With inputs from Fritz Wagener, George Dehlen and Peter Day
with Terry Pidgeon and Peter Day on expansive soils for the 1985 [email protected]

80 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 Bryan Edward Tromp
1949 – 2016
BRYAN TROMP’S LIFE ebbed away peacefully on the night of formed to establish Codes of Practice for foundations for residen-
17 January 2016 following a protracted struggle of nearly two tial units, and structural and serviceability assessment criteria
years with cancer, during which time, in spite of increasingly for housing units, and his later appointment to the NHBRC peer-
unbearable pain, painful treatment and diminishing mobility, he review panel for dolomite-related works.
never lost his sense of humour and enthusiasm for life and his In spite of the ‘modern tendency’ to reduce many engineering
family, as he continued to press on towards the goal of defeating problems to numerical analysis and mathematical modelling, I
this insidious enemy. knew Bryan to generally reduce most problems first to simple
Bryan’s last two years developed into a special time of close hand-calculations, from which to derive first-order estimates,
family relationships with his wife Helen, their sons Brett and before accepting the computer-generated results.
Warren, their spouses and five grandchildren, during which time And this was his great strength – a down-to-earth, hands-
also he came to know the Lord in an even more meaningful way on geotechnical specialist, together with a well-developed ‘feel’
which, I have no doubt, made bearable his final months. for the engineering properties, based on the well-established
Bryan was born in Pietermaritzburg and the family spent his southern African soil profi ling criteria, established by the likes
early years in Bulawayo in the former Rhodesia. He completed his of our eminent geotechnical predecessors, Jere Jennings, Tony
schooling at Roosevelt Park High in Johannesburg, before going on Brink and Tony Williams.
to Wits University where he obtained his Civil Engineering degree Bryan’s consideration for all our staff members was always
in 1971 under the tutorship of eminent engineering educators of exemplary, as was his mentorship of young engineers and geolo-
the era, including Professors Jennings, Ockleston and Midgeley. gists into the so-called ‘black art’ of geotechnical engineering. His
His professional career began with the Johannesburg City business acumen came to the fore in our negotiations which led to
Engineers Department, then moved on to Gough Cooper STA being successfully absorbed into the global engineering and
Construction, developing an early interest in matters geotechnical, environmental practice of Golder Associates in 2009, where we
combined with housing, and on to the (then) fledgling geotechnical continued to operate as their all-Africa geotechnical arm.
engineering practice of Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten (SRK) in Apart from family, Bryan’s great loves were cricket, and his
1977, at which time he also met Ken Schwartz, with whom he dogs – the most beautiful Golden Retrievers which accompanied
formed the practice Schwartz Tromp and Associates (STA) in 1980. him to the office most weekends, often terrorising the other
Bryan was registered as a Professional Engineer in 1981 and members of the practice hierarchy who dared to invade ‘their
soon became recognised for his skill in all aspects of geotech- master’s space’, and sometimes also accompanied us as our se-
nical engineering and engineering geology. curity detachment on remote site investigation operations. Our
STA developed into a geotechnical consulting practice of fun forays onto the golf course, sadly too few in number, without
great repute, professionalism and integrity over the succeeding exception resulted in much golf being played and much territory
15 years. When Ken left the practice in 1995, Bryan approached being visited.
me with a view to merging our respective geotechnical practices, In commemorating the passing of a great friend and fellow pro-
while retaining the STA brand, and so began a roughly 20-year fessional engineer of the highest ethics and integrity, our thoughts
association during which I got to know Bryan well as professional turn to Helen, Brett and Warren, their spouses and grandchildren,
engineer, business colleague, entrepreneur, considerate employer, as they grieve over their most special one – Bryan Tromp.
engineering mentor, family man and close friend. To Almighty God be the glory for a life lived well.
Bryan’s main professional interests of relevant geotechnical
site investigation work and design of special foundations for the Alastair Morgan
civil engineering and building industries, were encapsulated in Former business partner, fellow engineer and friend
his published works and appointment to technical committees [email protected]

Civil Engineering April 2016 81

SIKHULISA SONKE Ȉ WE DEVELOP TOGETHER

”‘—†Ž›‘—–Šˆ”‹…ƒǡ
ˆ”‹ƒȋ’”‡˜‹‘—•Ž› ‡ơƒ”‡•Ƭ
”‡‡Ȍ
provides civil and structural engineering and environmental
consulting services throughout Africa. With a century of
in-depth industry experience, a rich history, and strong
ˆ”‹…ƒ”‘‘–•ǡ
ˆ”‹ƒ…‘–‹—‡•–‘‘ơ‡”…Ž‹‡–••—•–ƒ‹ƒ„Ž‡
solutions of uncompromising quality and integrity.

Tel: +27 11 231 2200

[email protected]
www.jgafrika.com
Johannesburg - Cape Town - Durban - Maputo - Maseru - Maun - Pietermaritzburg - Port Elizabeth - Postmasburg - Pretoria
 MARKET NEWS

JG AFRIKA:
Engineering a new future, developing together
SOUTH AFRICA remains the beloved
country; a land of great opportunity. So,
too, the continent of Africa.
One engineering and environmental
consultancy has pledged its commitment
to the country, its love for the continent,
and its dedication to a transformed and
democratic Africa. To express this com-
mitment, and in celebration of its con-
tinued independence, the firm, formerly
known as Jeffares & Green, embarked on a
rebranding exercise at the end of 2015.
Now known as JG Afrika, the com-
pany and its staff are excited about the
Phakamile Ngqumshe
message they are sending – a message Paul Olivier Director, JG Afrika, and Johannesburg
that tells the world that Africa has a Managing Director of JG Afrika Branch Manager
lot to offer. “Our name change speaks
to our commitment to being proudly
South African. We want to make a bold ating the naming options and involving and health. These characteristics reflect
statement that we are locally owned and our staff,” says Paul Olivier, Managing the company’s culture.
managed, and plan to remain so. The Director of JG Afrika. “In planning for 2016, part of our goal
company has a rich heritage and history The firm announced its new name to for the new year was to sustain the advance-
in Africa. We are very excited about the clients in February 2016, and launches the ment and success that we have achieved
future and remain committed to our new brand throughout Africa in April. for the past 94 years. Over this period, the
beloved continent,” confirms Phakamile “The brand identity was developed company has progressed and evolved to
Ngqumshe, Director and Johannesburg and designed with a purpose – to keep pace with fluctuations in demand,
Branch Manager. remember the company’s history, to re- the industry and customer requirements.
The inclusion of ‘JG’ in the company’s flect its ethos and project its future,” says To remain relevant, this must be a con-
new name denotes its acknowledgement Olivier. “The logo’s icon is representative tinuous process,” says Olivier. “As such, a
of and appreciation for its history, while of man-made, engineered, symmetrical strategy plan was meticulously devised to
‘Afrika’ indicates its independence, its lines. These lines are contrasted with take JG Afrika to the next level on all fronts.”
love for the continent, and is a nod to organic shapes which represent the As the African proverb goes: If you
the traditional spelling of ‘Africa’. “This environment (green) and water (blue), want to go quickly, go alone. If you want
is most obviously represented in our denoting the environmental sphere of to go far, go together. This is the basis of
first democratic National Anthem, Nkosi JG Afrika’s services. The design and JG Afrika’s long-term plans. “Together we
Sikelel’ iAfrika. With this name, we will name incorporate the three pillars of the will continue to grow, learn and develop,
show the world that we are true to our company’s ethos – experience, quality with a focus on continuous improvement.
African roots, while remaining unique and integrity – while displaying fresh, The time has come to look to the future
and maintaining our independence,” innovative thinking.” and to align our corporate identity with
believes Ngqumshe. The JG Afrika personality is perfectly our diverse expertise, our modern ap-
“The brand development started with portrayed through the new brand colours, proach and the great future Africa has as
the selection of a new name, and after being blue and green. In addition to the a growing continent,” concludes Olivier.
much research the selected options were environmental connotations of these
presented to our staff and a vote held. colours, they are associated with trust, INFO
We really enjoyed the process of evalu- dependability, strength, peace, growth www.jgafrika.com

Civil Engineering April 2016 83

 Engineering a Greener Future

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84 April 2016 Civil Engineering

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 SAICE Training Calendar 2016
CPD Accreditation Course
Course Name Course Dates Location Contact
Number Presenter
9–10 May 2016 Cape Town
12–13 May 2016 George
23–24 May 2016 Upington
26–27 May 2016 Bloemfontein
6–7 June 2016 Mafikeng
GCC 2015 (Third Edition) SAICEcon16/01869/19 Benti Czanik [email protected]
9–10 June 2016 Polokwane
13–14 June 2016 Kimberley
28–29 June 2016 Nelspruit
16–17 August 2016 Pretoria
6–7 September 2016 Midrand
31 May 2016 Durban
20 June 2016 George
GCC 2015 and 27 July 2016 Cape Town
SAICEcon16/01890/19 Benti Czanik [email protected]
GCC 2010 Differences 1 August 2016 Port Elizabeth
22 August 2016 Polokwane
29 August 2016 East London
19–20 July 2016 Midrand
13–14 September 2016 Durban
Project Management of
27–28 September 2016 Cape Town SAICEcon15/01754/18 Neville Gurry [email protected]
Construction Projects
4–5 October 2016 Port Alfred
11–12 October 2016 Bloemfontein
30–31 May 2016 Durban
29–30 June 2016 Midrand
25–26 July 2016 Port Elizabeth
Technical Report Writing SAICEbus15/01751/18 Les Wiggill [email protected]
1–2 August 2016 East London
5–6 September 2016 Cape Town
17–18 October 2016 Midrand
Structural Steel Design to
24 October 2016 Midrand SAICEstr15/01726/18 Greg Parrott [email protected]
SANS 10162-1-2005
Reinforced Concrete Design
25 October 2016 Midrand SAICEstr15/01727/18 Greg Parrott [email protected]
to SANS 10100-1-2000
Practical Geometric Design 21–25 November 2016 Midrand SAICEtr13/01418/16 Tom Mckune [email protected]
Business Finances for Built Wolf
9–10 June 2016 Midrand SAICEfin15/01617/18 [email protected]
Environment Professionals Weidemann
Handling Projects in a Wolf
Consulting Engineer's 6–7 June 2016 Midrand SAICEproj15/01618/18 [email protected]
Weidemann
Practice
4–5 May 2016 Midrand
Leadership and
8–9 June 2016 Cape Town
Management Principles and SAICEbus15/01784/18 David Ramsay [email protected]
17–18 August 2016 Durban
Practice in Engineering
14–15 September 2016 Port Elizabeth
20–21 September 2016 Durban
Hubert
Water Law of South Africa 27–28 September 2016 Cape Town SAICEwat13/01308/16 [email protected]
Thompson
20–21 October 2016 Midrand
18–19 May 2016 Mthatha
24–25 May 2016 East London
The Legal Process dealing 31 May–1 June 2016 Port Elizabeth SAICEcon13/01368/16 Hubert
[email protected]
with Construction Disputes 26–27 July 2016 Polokwane SACPCMP/CPD/15/010 Thompson
2–3 August 2016 Nelspruit
23–24 August 2016 Bloemfontein
Earthmoving Equipment,
Technology and Prof Zvi
Management for 20–22 July 2016 Midrand SAICEcon15/01840/18 [email protected]
Civil Engineering and Borowitsh
Infrastructure Projects
Sanitary Drainage 27 May 2016 Durban
SAICEwat12/01103/15 Vollie Brink [email protected]
Systems for Buildings 10 June 2016 Midrand

Civil Engineering April 2016 85

 SAICE / Induna Training Services
CPD Accreditation Course
Course Name Course Dates Location Contact
Number Presenter

29–30 July 2016 Cape Town

Comparing Construction
SAICEcon15/01855/18 Lydia Carroll [email protected]
Contracts
8–9 September 2016 Durban

10–11 May 2016 Midrand

FIDIC Contracts and
Agreements – A Practical 29–30 August 2016 Cape Town SAICEcon15/01774/18 Kevin Spence [email protected]
Approach
16–17 November 2016 Durban

Management of Claims
16–17 November 2016 Durban SAICEcon15/01775/18 Kevin Spence [email protected]
under FIDIC

The Implementation of the

Model Services Agreement
23 June 2016 Midrand SAICEcon15/01858/18 Peter Glass [email protected]
including the Role of the
Engineer

27 May 2016 Durban

New Engineering Contract SAICEcon15/01856/18 Lydia Carroll [email protected]
8 July 2016 Port Elizabeth

FIDIC Claims and Dispute

27 June 2016 Cape Town SAICEcon15/01857/18 Peter Glass [email protected]
Resolution

SAICE / South African Road Federation (SARF)

Asphalt: An Overview of SAICEtr15/01806/18 [email protected] /
5–6 July 2016 Durban J Onraet
Best Practice SARF15/5001/18 [email protected]
Assessment and Analysis SAICEtr15/01805/18 [email protected] /
25–26 May 2016 Durban R Berkers
of Test Data SARF14/0001/17 [email protected]
29 June 2016 Cape Town

20 July 2016 Durban

Concrete Road Design and SAICEtr15/01802/18 B Perrie, [email protected] /
Construction CSSA-N-2013-08 Dr P Strauss [email protected]
20 September 2016 Gauteng

27 September 2016 Port Elizabeth

SAICEtr15/01810/18
14–15 June 2016 Gauteng Prof Kim
Pavement Rehabilitation SARF15/0004/18
Jenkins, [email protected] /
by Recycling / Bitumen SAICEtr15/01807/18
D Collings, [email protected]
Stabilisation 10–11 August 2016 Bloemfontein (Assignment)
K Louw
SARF15/0041/18
Construction of SAICEtr15/01809/18 [email protected] /
18 July 2016 Cape Town E Kleyn
G1 Bases SARF14/9103/17 [email protected]
C Brooker,
SAICEtr15/01808/18 [email protected] /
Stormwater Drainage 6–10 June 2016 Cape Town Matt Braune,
SARF12/0107/15 [email protected]
Alaster Goyns

SAICE / Classic Seminars

6–7 June 2016 Jhb/Midrand

13–14 June 2016 Durban

20–21 June 2016 Cape Town

Nicolette
The NEC Contract SAICEcon13/01448/18 [email protected]
3–4 November 2016 Jhb/Midrand Calasse

10–11 November 2016 Durban

17–18 November 2016 Cape Town

86 April 2016 Civil Engineering

 SAICE / Mentoring 4 Success
CPD Accreditation Course
Course Name Course Dates Location Contact
Number Presenter

Introduction to
Philip Marsh /
Structured Mentoring 24 May 2016 Midrand SAICEbus16/01893/19 [email protected]
Celestine Jeftha
in the Workplace

Generational Differences
and Learning Styles
Philip Marsh /
Workshop – in the 14 June 2016 Midrand SAICEbus16/01889/19 [email protected]
Celestine Jeftha
Engineering and
Construction Workplace
Behavioural and
Emotional Dynamics – in Philip Marsh /
15 June 2016 Midrand SAICEbus16/01888/19 [email protected]
the Engineering and Celestine Jeftha
Construction Workplace

Foundations in Structured Philip Marsh /

25 May 2016 Midrand SAICEbus16/01894/19 [email protected]
Mentoring in the Workplace Celestine Jeftha
Mentors Masterclass in
Philip Marsh /
Engineering and 13–14 July 2016 Midrand SAICEcon14/01675/17 [email protected]
Celestine Jeftha
Construction
Knowledge Mentoring
Philip Marsh /
in Engineering and 23–24 August 2016 Midrand SAICEbus16/01886/19 [email protected]
Celestine Jeftha
Construction

Kick-start Structured Philip Marsh /

Book on request – SAICEbus16/01887/19 [email protected]
Mentoring Programme Celestine Jeftha

Head Start Structured

Mentoring Programme Philip Marsh /
Book on request – SAICEot14/01701/17 [email protected]
in Engineering and Celestine Jeftha
Construction

½-day, 1-day and 2-day courses are based on a minimum of 10 participants.

In-house courses and workshops are limited to a maximum of 15.

Candidate Academy
18 May 2016 Midrand

Road to Registration for

2 August 2016 Durban CESA357-04/2016 Allyson Lawless [email protected]
Candidates

12 September 2016 Midrand

24 May 2016 Durban Stewart Gibson

23 August 2016 Midrand Peter Coetzee

Road to Registration for

7 September 2016 Cape Town CESA484-01/2017 Peter Coetzee [email protected]
Mature Candidates

15 November 2016 Durban Peter Coetzee

1 December 2016 Midrand Stewart Gibson

Basic Contract 31 Aug–2 Sept 2016 Durban

Administration and Quality CESA359-04/2016 Theuns Eloff [email protected]
Control 9–11 November 2016 Midrand

Getting Acquainted with 6–8 June 2016 Midrand

Road Construction and CESA379-05/2016 Theuns Eloff [email protected]
Maintenance 5–7 September 2016 Durban

Civil Engineering April 2016 87

 Candidate Academy
CPD Accreditation Course
Course Name Course Dates Location Contact
Number Presenter

Pressure Pipeline and

Pump Station Design and
20–21 October 2016 Cape Town CESA376-05/2016 Dup van Renen [email protected]
Specification – A Practical
Overview

5–6 May 2016 Midrand

Getting Acquainted with
CESA377-05/2016 Theuns Eloff [email protected]
GCC 2015
11–12 August 2016 Durban

19–20 July 2016 Midrand

Getting Acquainted with

13–14 September 2016 Durban CESA378-05/2016 Peter Coetzee [email protected]
Sewer Design

22–23 November 2016 Cape Town

In-house courses are available.

For SAICE in-house courses, please contact Cheryl-Lee Williams ([email protected]) or
Dawn Hermanus ([email protected]) on 011 805 5947.
For Candidate Academy in-house courses, please contact Lizélle du Preez ([email protected]) on 011 476 4100.

Civillain by Jonah Ptak

For more engineering humour, please visit “Unreal Bridges” on Facebook and “@TheUnrealBridge” on Twitter.

88 April 2016 Civil Engineering

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April 2016 Civil Engineering