INSTRUMENTATION AND

POWER TRAINING
Field Instruments

MOHAMMED AFZAL ASIF

CONTRACTING AND TRADING COMPANY “C.A.T.”

JANUARY 15, 2020
 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

Pressure instruments are used to measure, monitor, record, transmit or control pressure in pumps,
pipes, tanks, and other processes. There are several types of devices. Recorders are used to measure
values or accumulate totals. Controllers are used to regulate positive or negative (vacuum) pressure.
They receive sensor inputs, provide control functions, and output control signals. Complete pressure
instruments are self-contained devices that provide an output such as a display. Analog meters use a
simple visual indicator such as a needle. Digital displays present numeric or application-specific values.
Cathode ray tubes (CRT), liquid crystal displays (LCD), and other multi-line displays are also available.

(N.B.: Pressure is measured in three ways—absolute, gauge and vacuum. Absolute pressure is a measure of
actual pressure including ambient air, which is zero-referenced with a perfect vacuum, but can be as high as 14.7
psi at sea level. Absolute pressure readings are considered in applications interacting with ambient air, such as
the compression ratio calculation for flow (cfm) requirements. Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against
ambient pressure and is used in most applications operating in, but not with, ambient air, such as in fluid power
systems. Disconnected from equipment, gauge pressure will read zero. Finally vacuum “pressure” is expressed in
Torr, or referenced against ambient pressure, as with “in.-Hg” (inches of mercury) units, which measures pressure
below ambient.)

1. Pressure Indicator (Pressure Gauge) - PI:

Pressure gauges are analog or digital devices used to display the readings and provide local real-
time measurement for effective pressure monitoring. Pressure gauges are required for the set-up
and tuning of fluid power machines, and are indispensable in troubleshooting them. Without
pressure gauges, fluid power systems would be both unpredictable and unreliable. Gauges help
to ensure there are no leaks or pressure changes that could affect the operating condition of the
hydraulic system.
 Two types of pressure gauge:

A) U-tube manometer, in which differential pressure (up to about 90 psi) is measured as

the difference h between the high-pressure reading and the low-pressure reading,
multiplied by the density of the liquid in the tube. The manometer liquids most
commonly used are mercury, oil, alcohol, and water.

B) Bourdon-tube gauge, in which a coiled tube, flattened into the cross section shown
in figure and attached to a fixed block, is open to a pressurized fluid. The tube
straightens slightly under pressure to a degree measured by a pointer. It can measure
up to 100,000 psi.

Metal bellows and diaphragms are also used as pressure-sensing elements. Because of the large
deflections for small pressure changes, bellows instruments are particularly suitable for pressures
below atmospheric.

(N.B.: These instruments employ mechanical linkages and so are primarily useful for measuring static
pressures or pressures that change slowly. For rapidly changing pressures, electrical pressure transducers
that convert pressure to an electrical signal are more suitable. These include strain gauges, moving contact
resistance elements, and inductance, reluctance, capacitive, and piezoelectric devices.)

2. Pressure Transmitter – PT:

A pressure transmitter, also known as pressure transducer, converts
pressure into an analog electrical signal. There are four main types of
pressure transducers: Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers,
Capacitance Pressure Transducers, Potentiometric Pressure
Transducers and Resonant Wire Pressure Transducers. The most
common is the strain-gage base transducer. Pressure transmitters are
generally available with three types of electrical output; millivolt,
amplified voltage and 4-20mA.
To avoid issues, it is important to know which output suits the application to ensure proper
selection of a transmitter as well as how to correctly wire the pressure transmitter for the output
type. Below is a description the appropriate applications and wiring instructions for each output
type:

Millivolt (mV): Transducers with a millivolt output (nominally around 30mV) are generally used in
laboratory applications. They are low cost, small in size, and require a regulated power supply.
Remembering that the millivolt signal is very low level, it is limited to short distances (up to 200
feet is usually considered the limit) and is very prone to stray electrical interference from other
nearby electrical signals (other instrumentation, high ac voltage lines, etc.). Typical wiring
configurations are shown in figure below.

Volt (V): Transducers with an amplified voltage output (0-10Vdc) are generally used in a light
industrial environment and computer interface systems, where a higher level dc signal is
required. Due to the built-in signal conditioning, they are higher cost and larger in size than
the millivolt output transducers. Amplified voltage signals can travel up to medium distances
and are much better in their immunity to stray electrical interference than the millivolt signal.
Typical wiring configurations are shown in figure below.

Current (mA): A transmitter produces current output (4-20mA) only. Again, due to the built-
in signal conditioning, the transmitters are higher cost and larger in size than the millivolt
 output transducers. Unlike the millivolt and voltage output transducers, a current signal is
immune to any stray electrical interference, a valuable asset in the factory. A current signal
also can be transmitted long distances (1000 feet or more). Typical wiring configurations are
shown in figure below.

3. Pressure Indicator Transmitter – PIT:

A pressure indicating transmitter is an instrument for measuring,
controlling and indicating positive, negative or differential
pressures of different fluids. Unlike pressure transmitters,
pressure indicator transmitters (PIT) have a digital indicator for
providing a local indication of pressure reading, and a 4-20
milliamp output pressure transmitter for sending an analogue
signal to control & monitoring instrumentation. The built-in digital
indicators can be scaled via push buttons or adjustment pots to
any pressure unit or a 0-100% full scaling. No additional external
supply is required, since the digital indicator is powered by the 4-
20mA current loop from the pressure transmitter.
4. Pressure Switch – PS:

A pressure switch is a form of switch that closes an electrical contact when a certain set fluid
pressure has been reached on its input. The switch may be designed to make contact either on
pressure rise or on pressure fall. A pressure switch has either one or two ports. In a pressure switch
which has a single port, pressure will enter through the port and hit an internal diaphragm. If the
force entering the port is higher than that the force exerted by the pre-loaded set spring, the
 switch contacts will make or break the circuit. This will create an alarm in the system and alert the
user that the pressure has changed within the given environment. In a pressure switch which has
two ports, the pressure entering the switch from both ports is compared. If the pressure from one
port is different to the pressure from the second port then the pressure switch will alert the user
with this change.

5. Differential Pressure Transmitter – DPT:

Differential pressure transmitters are comprised of a robust electronic module and sensory
diaphragms that provide the electronic reading of applied forces in a containment vessel. This

equipment will sense the difference in pressure between two ports and produce an output signal with
reference to a calibrated pressure range. The majority of industrial DP transmitters are fitted with
diaphragm as the pressure sensing element. This diaphragm is a mechanical device. It is placed in
between the two pressure inlet ports. Applied pressure readings are acquired by the diaphragm, which
register pressure as surface deformation and translate that value into an electronic signal. This signal
is transferred to the differential pressure module, which compares the two values and expresses the
pressure difference as a value of pounds per square inch (psi), bar, or kilopascals (kPa). These
diaphragms are all-welded to maintain the container integrity in vacuum conditions and for wet leg
applications, such as level measurement in crude oil distilleries.
6. Differential Pressure Switch – DPS:
A differential pressure switch is a device which utilizes a differential air pressure to actuate an
electric switch at a pre-set actuation point. This may be the difference between two positive or
two negative pressures, one of each, or a positive and atmospheric or a negative and atmospheric
pressure. The electric switch may be used to start or stop motors or fans, open or close dampers
or louvers, light a warning signal, sound alarms, etc.
A particular design of a differential pressure switch is described below to illustrate the basic
principle of operation.

As shown in the diagram above, the pressure ports for high process pressure and low process pressure
are separated by an elastic diaphragm. The difference in pressure that exist between the two ports
causes axial movement (measuring travel) of the diaphragm against the measuring range spring. The
differential pressure, which is proportional to the measuring travel, is transmitted by means of a
connecting rod with little friction to the plungers of the micro-switch. The micro-switch contains the
electrical contacts of the switch. The electrical contacts of the switch will actuate depending on the
switch points or setpoints. Overpressure protection is provided by contoured metal bolsters for the
elastic diaphragm. The adjustment of the switch point or setpoint is made by setpoint screws
accessible from the front of the differential pressure switch case. The graduated scales enable a
relatively accurate adjustment of the switch points and indicate the setpoint that is momentarily
adjusted.
In conclusion, the differential pressure switch essentially works on the basis of a difference in pressure
between the high and low pressure ports. This difference in pressure is then converted into axial
movement that is used to actuate the contacts of a micro-switch depending on the setpoint(s) of the
differential pressure switch.
 TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS

Instruments measuring temperature may be divided into two general groups:

A) Thermometer - Instruments inserted in or attached to the substances or body that is to

be measured. Thermometer depend on heat conduction or convection from the body of
instrument.
Temperature in thermometers is indicated by the changes it causes in certain instruments.
 Changes in density - Liquid in Glass thermometer
 Changes in length or volume - Bimetallic element, Filled system
 Voltage generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals – Thermocouple
 Resonant Frequency of Crystals - Quartz thermometer
 Changes in Electrical Resistance - RTD

B) Pyrometer - Instrument located at a distance from the substance or body that is to be

measured. Pyrometers measure radiated heat and infer temperature from measurement.
Two Kinds of Pyrometers:
 Radiation Pyrometer - which senses the intensity of radiation emitted
 Optical Pyrometer - which senses the brightness of radiation emitted

1. Temperature Indicator (Temperature Gauge) – TI:

Temperature indicators are installation instruments which can process signals from temperature
sensors and show them on the display. The display can be an analogue dial, an analogue range or
a digital readout.

2. Temperature Transmitter – TT:

A temperature transmitter is a device that connects to a temperature
sensor to transmit the signal elsewhere for monitoring and control
purposes. Typically, the temperature sensor is either an RTD, Thermistor
or Thermocouple type sensor and will interface with a PLC, DCS, data
logger or display hardware. Its role is to isolate the temperature signal,
 filter any EMC noise, amplify and convert the temperature sensor's signal to a 4-20mA or 0-10V
DC range for further use.
3. Temperature Indicator Transmitter – TIT:
Same working principle as temperature transmitter but it has a digital display
to display process signals from temperature sensors.

4. Temperature Switch – TS:

A temperature switch works just like a typical electrical switch for on /off application. In this case,
the temperature switch operates to switch on or off at discrete process temperatures. A
temperature switch consists of two basic parts:
(a) A sensing part immersed in the process whose temperature is required to be controlled.
The sensing part can either be a sensing bulb filled with a fluid -liquid, gas or a bimetallic strip
that uses the differential expansion of two dissimilar metals.
(b) Snap-action contacts that act to switch on electrical power to the device controlling
process temperature.

LEVEL INSTRUMENTS

Level instruments are a class of instruments designed to display and/or transmit a signal that
corresponds to the level of the material that is being measured within a containing vessel. Integral to
process control in many industries, there are three primary applications for level instruments:
transmitting, switching, and indicating/controlling.
1. Level Indicators (Level Gauge) - LI:
Level indicators utilize a mechanical device, such as a float, or a sensor with output signal to
indicate the level within a tank. Types:

Slight Guage Reflex Guage Bi-color Guage Magnetic Guage

2. Level Transmitter – LT:

Level Transmitters provide continuous level measurements over the range of the system rather
than at a single point and produce an output signal that directly correlates to the level in the
vessel. The output signal generated can be used to display the depth or to actuate control
functions.
Types of level transmitters:
 Radar Fill Level Transmitters  Magnetic Level Transmitters
 Ultrasonic Level Transmitter  Capacitance Level Transmitters
 Guided Microwave Level Transmitters  Hydrostatic Level Transmitters

3. Level Indicator Transmitter – LIT:

Same working principle as level transmitter but it has a digital
display to continuously monitor level and calibrate remotely as
required.

4. Level Switch – LS:

A level switch is a sensor that detects the presence of liquids, powder, or granulated materials at
a specific location. For example, when a tank is supplied with liquid, it overflow. In order to prevent
overflows, a level switch is installed near the top of the tank.
When the liquid touches the level switch, it outputs a signal
to keep the liquid from overflowing the tank, referred to as
full detection, or upper limit detection. On the other hand,
 when the liquid level drops as the liquid is discharged, a level switch is used to prevent completely
draining the tank. This is referred to as an empty detection or lower limit detection.

FLOW METERS

1. Orifice Type:
An orifice meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of liquid or gas,
especially steam, using the differential pressure measurement principle. As the name implies, it
consists of an orifice plate which is the basic element of the instrument. It is basically a thin metal
plate (1.5 to 6mm in thickness) with a hole bored in the centre which is installed in the pipe
between two flanges. The ratio of the orifice bore diameter (d) to the pipe inside diameter (D) is
called the Beta Ratio (β).
𝛽 = 𝑑/𝐷

When this orifice plate is placed in a line, a differential pressure is developed across the plate.
Pressure taps on either side of the plate are used to detect difference.

2. Ultrasonic Type:
Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to determine the velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe. At
no flow conditions, the frequencies of an ultrasonic wave transmitted into a pipe and its
reflections from the fluid are the same. Under flowing conditions, the transmitter’s signal reflects
back off the bubbles or particles moving
through the pipe, with a slightly changed
frequency due to the Doppler Effect. The
transmitter reads those changes and calculates
flow.
 This reflected frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of the particles/bubbles, and we
assume that the flow velocity matches the particle velocity.
(N.B.: An ultrasonic flow meter using Doppler method is a volumetric flow meter which requires particulates
or bubbles in the flow. Ultrasonic meters are ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is
conductive or water based. Doppler flow meters will generally not work with distilled water or drinking
water. Aerations would be required in the clean liquid applications. Besides, we ignore the fact that many
particles or bubbles may have differing velocities and that a signal reflected by a particle may hit another
particle or bubble before returning.)

3. Vortex Type:
Vortex flow meters measure fluid velocity using a principle of operation referred to as the von
Kármán effect, which states that when flow passes by a bluff body, a repeating pattern of swirling
vortices is generated.

In a Vortex flow meter, an obstruction in the flow path, often referred to as a shedder bar, serves
as the bluff body. The shedder bar causes process fluid to separate and form areas of alternating
differential pressure known as vortices around the back side of the shedder bar. Vortex meters
measure the frequency of these vortices. The frequency of vortex shedding is a direct linear
function of fluid velocity and frequency depends upon the shape and face width of bluff body.
Since the width of obstruction and inner diameter of the pipe will be more or less constant, the
frequency is given by the expression-
𝑆𝑡 𝑥 𝑉
𝑓=
𝑐𝑥𝐷
(where f= vortex frequency, Hz; St= Strouhal’s number (dimensionless); V=Fluid velocity at the
sheddar bar, m/s; D=Inner diameter of the pipe, m; c=constant (ratio d/D); d= Face width of
sheddar bar, m)
(N.B.: Not suitable for very low flow rates)
4. Clamp-on Type:
Clamp-on ultrasonic flow meter utilizes the differential
transit time method to measure the velocity of relatively
clean liquids in full pipes. By measuring the difference
between transit times of ultrasonic sound waves travelling
between two transducers, the flow velocity and direction are
accurately determined.

HART PROTOCOL AND FOUNDATION FIELDBUS

1. HART COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL:

HART stands for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. This hybrid open protocol uses a mix
of analog and digital signals to communicate using analog wiring between smart devices and
control systems. The HART Protocol is based on the Bell 202 Standard to superimpose digital
information on the conventional 4-20 mA analog signal. This enables two-way field
communication to take place and makes it possible for additional information beyond just the
normal process variable to be communicated to/from a smart field instrument.
The HART digital signal is made up of two frequencies – 1200 Hz and 2200 Hz representing bits 1
and 0 respectively as shown below:

Sine waves of two frequencies are superimposed on the direct current (dc) analog signal to
provide simultaneous analog and digital communications. As the average value of the FSK signal
is always zero, the 4-20mA signal is not affected.
2. FOUNDATION FIELDBUS:
Foundation Fieldbus is a bidirectional communication protocol that provides real-time, closed-
loop control between intelligent field instruments and host systems. A host can be any software
application: from a technician's handheld device or laptop, to a plant's process control, asset
management, or safety system. Being a peer-to-peer system, communication can occur directly
between two fieldbus-enabled field devices or between field devices and a control or asset
management system. Given the all-digital nature of fieldbus, following industry guidelines on
proper wiring and termination practices ensures reliable communication.

Foundation fieldbus comes in High-Speed Ethernet (HSE) and H1. In the HSE version, you have ten
megabits per second to integrate high-speed controllers, subsystems, servers, and workstations.
The H1 link has 31.25 kilobits per second to connect field devices as sensors, actuators, and I/O
devices.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HART AND FOUNDATION FIELDBUS:
HART is good for configuration, calibration, diagnostics, and viewing internal variables – what is
usually referred to as intelligent device management (IDM). However, foundation fieldbus (FF) is
used for both IDM and also for real-time closed loop control which HART does not do. The main
difference between HART and FF is that the measurement signal for HART is still analog. With FF,
everything after the physical sensor is digital. As such, signal transfer in HART is good food for
noises, whereas in fieldbus we don't have any noise altering the measuring signal.

ELECTRICAL DESIGN
1. Voltage Drop:
Wires carrying current always have inherent resistance, or impedance, to current flow. Voltage
drop is defined as the amount of voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a circuit due to
impedance. The National Electrical Code (NEC) recommends limiting the voltage drop from the
breaker box to the farthest outlet for power, heating, or lighting to 3 percent of the circuit voltage.
This is done by selecting the right size of wire.
 Four basic causes of voltage drop:
 Conductor Material  Length of the wire
 Size (diameter) of the wire  Ampacity (Current carrying capacity)

2. Cable Sizing:
Cable (or conductor) sizing is the process of selecting appropriate sizes for electrical power cable
conductors. Cable sizes are typically described in terms of cross-sectional area, American Wire
Gauge (AWG) or kcmil, depending on geographic region.
The proper sizing of cables is important to ensure that the cable can:
 Operate continuously under full load without being damaged.
 Provide the load with a suitable voltage (and avoid excessive voltage drops).
 Withstand the worst short circuits currents flowing through the cable.

Cable sizing methods do differ across international standards (e.g. IEC, NEC, BS, etc) and some
standards emphasise certain things over others. However the general principles that underpin all
cable sizing calculation do not change. When sizing a cable, the following general process is
typically followed:

 Gather data about the cable, its installation conditions, the load that it will carry, etc.
 Determine the minimum cable size based on ampacity ( 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑥 𝑘𝑑 )
 Determine the minimum cable size based on voltage drop considerations.
√3𝐼(𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)𝐿
𝑉3∅ =
1000
2𝐼(𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)𝐿
𝑉2∅ =
1000

 Determine the minimum cable size based on short circuit temperature rise.

√𝑖 2 𝑡
𝐴=
𝑘
𝑓 𝑖𝜃 −𝜃
For copper cables: 𝑘 = 226√ln(1 + 234.5+𝜃 )
𝑖

𝑓 𝑖 𝜃 −𝜃
For aluminium cables: 𝑘 = 148√ln(1 + 228+𝜃 )
𝑖

 Select the cable based on the highest of the sizes calculated in the steps above.
3. Breaker Sizing:
Circuit breakers (CB) are designed to carry 100% of their rated current while the NEC dictates an
80% application. Figure below shows a typical curve for a thermal-magnetic CB. The curved
 portion at the top represents the time it takes for the CB to trip on overload. An overload condition
will cause heat build-up around the current path, within the CB as well as along the power
conductors. This heat, which is generated by the current flow, is actually what causes the CB to
trip in this region not simply the magnitude of the current flow. This portion of the curve is said to
have an inverse time characteristic, which means that the CB will trip in less time at higher levels
of current flow.
Since the current path (including both the CB and the conductor) reacts to heat, the overall
operating temperature of the equipment becomes a factor in sizing a CB in an enclosure. Other
factors that may affect this equipment operating temperature include:
 Size and location of the enclosure;
 More than one current carrying device housed in the same enclosure;
 Level of current each device is carrying; and
 Environmental conditions in the area of the equipment.
Consequently, simply designing a CB to hold 100% of its rated current only addresses a portion of
the concern. The equipment must be able to safely sustain the heat generated by all sources
without exceeding the temperature limits in the product test standard. These factors are
accounted for by the sizing rules imposed by the NEC.
Overcurrent protective devices (OCPD) size = 100% of non-continuous load + 125% of continuous
load.
4. Electrical Containments:
Cable Containment is an important part of installing a network's infrastructure. The purpose of
containment can be to support the cables en route, to make subsequent management of cables
easier, to provide isolation of power and data cabling and also to make the installation
aesthetically pleasing. Typically, products such as cable trays, cable ladders, and cable baskets are
used to support a cable throughout the cabling route and trunking is used in the final presentation.
 Cable Tray Cable Ladder

Cable Basket Conduits

Trunking

TRANSFORMERS
A. Principle of Operation:
It is important to remember that transformers do not generate electrical power; they transfer
electrical power from one AC circuit to another using magnetic coupling. When an input voltage
is applied to the primary winding, alternating current starts to flow in the primary winding. The
core of the transformer is used to provide a controlled path for the magnetic flux generated in the
transformer by the current flowing through the windings, which are also known as coils. As the
current flows, a changing magnetic field is set up in the transformer core. As this magnetic field
cuts across the secondary winding, alternating voltage is produced in the secondary winding. The
ratio between the numbers of actual turns of wire in each coil is the key in determining the type
of transformer and what the output voltage will be. The ratio between output voltage and input
voltage is the same as the ratio of the number of turns between the two windings.
B. Types of Transformers:
1. Based on voltage level:

Step Down Step Up Isolation

2. Based on core material:

Iron Core Ferrite Core

Toroidal Core Air Core

3. Based on usage:

Power Transformer Measurement Transformer Distribution Transformer

UNINTERUPPTED POWER SUPPLY

To prevent undervoltage--brownouts--and overvoltage--power surges--some on-line UPS products

can correct utility power ranging from 85V into the mid-140Vs. They also keep you safe from spikes--
those brief moments when lightning sends mega-voltage flowing through the line--and line noise.
The UPS's Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) filter prevents line-noise interference that might come
from other electrical products in the office (fans, microwave ovens, fluorescent lights, etc.).
There are three types of UPS:

A. Standby, or "off-line"UPS: This provides utility power during normal operation. When voltage or
frequency changes become severe, the standby UPS starts an inverter that takes DC power from
the battery and turns it into AC power to run your system. The standby UPS does not regulate
incoming power and is not recommended for networking systems.
B. On-line UPS: These are ideally suited to networks running mission-critical applications. On-line
UPSs take in all types of voltages and frequencies and continuously create clean, regulated AC
power. Some on-line UPSs can compensate for under-voltage and overvoltage without using the
battery, saving battery time for use only in complete blackouts.
C. Line-interactive UPS: These provide a measure of voltage regulation by "boosting" utility voltage
up or "bucking" it down before passing it to your system. The line-interactive model uses the
battery for this type of voltage regulation, so its battery life is shorter than that of on-line models.

GROUNDING

According to NEC, bonding is the “permanent joining of metallic parts to form an electrically
conductive path that ensures electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any current
likely to be imposed” whereas, a ground is a “conducting connection, whether intentional or
accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth or to some conducting body
that serves in place of the earth.”
 ENCLOSURE PROTECTION

1. IP Type:
The IP Code (or International Protection Rating, sometimes also interpreted as Ingress Protection
Rating*) consists of the letters IP followed by two digits and an optional letter. As defined in
international standard IEC 60529, it classifies the degrees of protection provided against the
intrusion of solid objects (including body parts like hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact,
and water in electrical enclosures.
 First Digit – Solids

The first digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against access to
hazardous parts (electrical conductors, moving parts etc) and the ingress of solid foreign
objects.

 Second Digit – Liquids

The second digit defines the protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against various
forms of moisture (drips, sprays, submersion etc).

First Intrusion Protection Second Moisture Protection

Digit Digit
0 No protection. 0 No protection.
1 Protected against solid objects 1 Protected against vertically falling
over 50mm, e.g. accidental drops of water, e.g. condensation.
touch by hands.
2 Protected against solid objects 2 Protected against direct sprays of
over 12mm, e.g. fingers. water up to 150 from the vertical.
3 Protected against solid objects 3 Protected against direct sprays of
over 2.5mm, e.g. tools & wires. water up to 600 from the vertical.
4 Protected against solid objects 4 Protected against water splashed from
over 1mm, e.g. wires & nails. all directions, limited ingress
permitted.
5 Protected against dust limited 5 Protected against low pressure jets of
ingress, no harmful deposits. water from all directions, limited
ingress permitted.
6 Totally protected against dust. 6 Protected against strong jets of water,
e.g. on ships deck, limited ingress
permitted.
7 Immersion up
to 1m
8 Immersion
beyond 1m
9 Protected from steam-jet cleaning
2. NEMA Type:
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines standards used in North
America for various grades of electrical enclosures typically used in industrial applications. Each is
rated to protect against personal access to hazardous parts, and additional type-dependent
designated environmental conditions.
NEMA IP
NEMA Definition
Rating Equivalent
Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against incidental contact with
1 IP10
the enclosed equipment and to provide a degree of
protection against falling dirt
Enclosures constructed for indoor used to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against incidental contact with
2 the enclosed equipment, to provide a degree of protection IP11
against falling dirt, and to provide a degree of protection
against dripping and light splashing of liquids
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor used to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to prove a
3 IP54
degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, snow,
and windblown dust; and that will undamaged by external
formation of ice on the enclosure
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor used to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
3R IP14
a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, and
snow; and that will be undamaged by external formation of
ice on the enclosure
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
3S IP54
a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, snow,
and windblown dust; and in which the external
mechanism(s) remain operable when ice laden.
 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
4 a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, snow, IP66
windblown dust, splashing water, and hose-directed water;
and that will be undamaged by the external formation of
ice on the enclosure
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
4X a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet, snow, IP66
windblown dust, splashing water, hose-directed water, and
corrosion; and that will be undamaged by thee external
formation of ice on the enclosure
Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against incidental contact with
the enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection
5 IP52
against falling dirt; against settling airborne dust, lint,
fibres, and flyings; and to provide a degree of protection
against dripping and light splashing of liquids.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
a degree of protection against falling dirt; against hose-
6 IP67
directed water and the entry of water during occasional
temporary submersion at a limited depth; and that will be
undamaged by the external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection to the personnel against
6P incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide IP67
a degree of protection against falling dirt; against hose-
directed water and the entry of water during prolonged
 submersion at a limited depth; and that will be undamaged
by the external formation of ice on the enclosure
Enclosures constructed (without knockouts) for indoor use
to provide a degree of protection to personnel against
12
incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to provide
and IP52
a degree of protection against falling dirt; against
12K
circulating dust, lint, fibres, and flying; and against dripping
and light splashing of liquids
Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against incidental contact with
the enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection
13 IP54
against falling dirt; against circulating dust, lint, fibres, and
flyings; and against the spraying, splashing, and seepage of
water, oil, and noncorrosive coolants.

3. Safety Integrity Level (SIL):

SIL is an acronym for “Safety Integrity Level” that comes from two voluntary standards used by
plant owners/operators to quantify safety performance requirements for hazardous operations:
 IEC 61508: Functional Safety of Electrical/Electronic/Programmable Electronic Safety-
Related Systems
 IEC 61511: Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry Sector

As defined in the IEC standards, there are four SIL Levels (1-4). A higher SIL Level means a
greater process hazard and a higher level of protection required from the Safety Instrumented
Systems (SIS). The role of the SIS is to reduce risk by implementing Safety Instrumented
Functions (SIF). Two example SIFs include:

 Hazard: Tank overfill. SIF: The SIS stops the fill pumps at a predetermined safe level
 Hazard: High temperature. SIF: The SIS opens a relay to cut power to a heater circuit at
a predetermined safe temperature

In any case, an SIF is a safety function implemented by the SIS to achieve or maintain a safe state.
The SIL Level of each hazard is determined by calculating the required target Risk Reduction
Factor (RRF) of each SIF. Some hazards in your process plant will have higher SIL levels than others
because,
 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝐼𝑆
𝑅𝑅𝐹 =
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

To achieve an acceptable level of risk, the SIS must be designed such that each SIF has a
Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD) corresponding to the required target SIL level. Once the
PFD of the SIF is known, then its RRF is simply the inverse of PFD (RRF = 1/PFD). If the SIF’s RRF is
greater than the minimum RRF, then the SIF is sufficient to reduce the overall hazard level below
the acceptable level. The relationship between SIL level, RRF, and PFD is demonstrated in figure
below:

To generalize how SIL Level is determined, see figure below. SIL Level is a function of hazard
frequency and hazard severity. Hazards that can occur more frequently or that have more severe
consequences will have higher SIL Levels.
 LEAK DETECTION SYSTEM

Leak detection is a control method used to identify, monitor, and measure the unintentional entry or
escape of fluids and gases, usually from pressurized systems or into empty enclosures. Leaks can move
from the inside of a component or machine into the outside, or penetrate from the outside in, due to
differences in pressure between two regions. The principle behind electronic leak detection is that all
leaks produce sounds. An electronic leak detection system operates on that principle known as
acoustics or the principles of sounds. The electronic machine that is attached to a building's security
system registers the sound made by leaks since it picks up sound waves and transmits their originating
site using the safety system installed.

An electronic leak detector is equipped with a transducer that is sensitive to sounds coming from a
system of pipes. If a sound registers on the machine, it is transmitted to the security system at a higher
frequency. The amplified leak is then detected and can be attended to immediately following
detection. An electronic leak detection machine finds leaks in water systems, toilets, drains, industrial
pipes, steam pipes, oil pipes and other pipes transporting liquids.

CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM

Cathodic Protection (CP) is one of the most effective methods for preventing most types of corrosion
on a metal surface. In some cases, CP can even stop corrosion damage from occurring. Metals,
especially ferrous metals, corrode in the presence of oxygen, water, and other impurities such as
sulphur. Without CP, metals act as the anode and easily lose their electrons and thus, the metal
becomes oxidized and corroded. CP simply supplies the metal with electrons from an external source,
making it a cathode.

(N.B.: Cathodic protection is routinely used to protect equipment operating in aggressive environments. The two
most common applications of CP are for buried pipeline systems and vessels as well as offshore platforms. CP is
not used to protect equipment in atmospheric conditions or protect components internally.)

Types of Cathodic Protection:

1. Galvanic Cathodic Protection:

Galvanic cathodic protection involves protecting a metal surface of a piece of equipment using
another metal that is more reactive. The latter metal, usually called the galvanic or sacrificial
anode, has a less negative electrochemical potential compared to the metal component being
 protected. Therefore, the sacrificial anode undergoes
oxidation rather than the operating equipment. This
technique is illustrated in figure for an offshore platform
with a steel pipe submerged into seawater. The sacrificial
anode is an aluminium anode in this example.

Sometimes, steels are galvanized rather than connected to

galvanic anodes. Galvanized steels are steels that are coated
with a protective zinc layer. The zinc layer acts to
cathodically protect steel against corrosion in most
underground and marine environments.

2. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP):

ICCP is a more economical method of CP when
underground pipelines are long or offshore equipment
is too large to protect via one or few galvanic anodes.
In ICCP, electrons are supplied to the cathodic
structure using an external DC power source (also
called a rectifier). The steel component is connected to
the negative terminal of the power source and the
impressed current anodes are connected to the
positive terminal of the power source. For simplicity,
Figure 2 shows one cathode and one anode connected by a rectifier. In application, multiple
anodes are connected to the positive terminal of the power source.

CALIBRATION

1. Dead Weight Tester:

A dead weight tester is an instrument that calibrates pressure by determining the weight of
force divided by the area the force is applied.
 (N.B.: Dead weight testers are the basic primary standard for accurate measurement of pressure but the
accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the friction between the piston and cylinder, and due
to the uncertainty of the value of gravitational constant ‘g’.)
2. HART Communicator:
HART communicators provide the tool for communicating with process
instruments. It is a secondary master device that allows the technician in
the field to monitor the process value and take controllable action if
needed. Relying on an open communications protocol, HART
communicators interface with HART-enabled “master” and “field”
devices making it much easier to configure and calibrate instruments as
well as diagnose issues before they become serious.
3. Multifunction Calibrator:
These field and bench calibrators source, simulate, and
measure pressure, temperature, and electrical signals with
exceptional precision. They can automate calibration
procedures, store data, and even calibrate and troubleshoot
HART-compatible devices. Some multifunction calibrator can
even be used to calibrate our field calibrators.
4. Precision Calibrator:
Precision Process Calibrator offers the best balance of
economy and accuracy for benchtop calibration of
temperature and pressure process instrumentation. Easily
calibrate RTD and thermocouple readouts, pressure gauges,
temperature transmitters, digital process simulators, data
loggers, multi-meters and more. It can even store
measurement data for later analysis.