9/10/2020

Lab manual
Separation process

Submitted by:

Gulshad Ahmad
Registration number:

2017-CH-413
Submitted to:

Engr. Umair Furqan

University of engineering and technology Lahore (FSD campus)
 Experiment #01
Objective:
To calculate the number of transfer units for tray dryer.

Apparatus:
➢ Tray dryer apparatus

Working Principle:
➢ In tray dryer hot air is continuously circulated. Forced convection heating takes place
to remove moister from the solids placed in trays.
➢ Simuilaneously the moist air is removed partially.
➢ Wet solid is loaded in to the trays. Trays are placed in the chamber.
➢ Fresh air is introduced through in let, which passes through the heaters and gets heated
up.

Introduction:

Drying may be defined as the vaporization and removal of water or other liquids from a
solution, suspension, or other solid-liquid mixture to form a dry solid. It is a complicated
process that involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, accompanied by physicochemical
transformations. Drying occurs as a result of the vaporization of liquid by supplying heat to
wet feedstock, granules, filter cakes and so on. Based on the mechanism of heat transfer that is
employed, drying is categorized into direct (convection), indirect or contact (conduction),
radiant (radiation) and dielectric or microwave (radio frequency) drying.

Heat transfer and mass transfer are critical aspects in drying processes. Heat is transferred to
the product to evaporate liquid, and mass is transferred as a vapor into the surrounding gas.
The drying rate is determined by the set of factors that affect heat and mass transfer. Solids
drying is generally understood to follow two distinct drying zones, known as the constant-rate
period and the falling-rate period. The two zones are demarcated by a break point called the
critical moisture content.

Diagram:

Fig # 1.1
Theory:
A tray Dryer is an enclosed insulated chamber in which trays are placed on top of each other
in trolleys. Tray Dryer are used where heating and drying are essential parts of manufacturing
process in industries such as Chemicals, Dye stuff, Pharmaceutical, Food Products, Colours
etc. The material to be dried either wet or solids are placed in the trays. Heat transfer is by
circulation of hot air by electric heaters or steam in radiator coils. Blower fans are installed
inside to ensure proper circulation and transfer of heat. A control panel to control the
temperature and other parameteres is fixed outside the dryer. These dryers are available in Mild
Steel, Stainless Steel or construction. Tray dryer is used for drying of pigments, food, bakery,
electrodes,chemical and plastic powders. The Drying ovens are normally available with choice
of heating mode, as electrically heated / steam heated & thermic fluid heated.
In electrically heated model, digital temperature controller provided with digital timer to
facilitate working day and night. In steam & thermic fluid heated model, digital temperature
indicator is provided with digital timer , but the temperature controller is not supplied with the
machine.
Drying of solids is considered in two stages, a constant rate period followed by a falling rate
period. Rate of drying correspond to the removal of water from the surface of solid. Falling
rate period corresponds to the removal of water from the interior of surface.
Rate in either case depend upon;
➢ Flow rate of air
➢ Solid characteristics
➢ Tray material
Further conditions should resemble as closely as possible those expected to prevail in the
contemplated large scale operation.

Equipment Setup / Apparatus:

Tray Drier Apparatus, Digital Weight Balance, Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer, and
Stop Watch.

Fig # 1.2

Components of Equipment:
➢ Drying chamber
➢ Air Blower
➢ Heater
➢ Orifice in air duct
➢ Tray
➢ Balance
➢ Flow meter
➢ Air valve to control air flow
 ➢ Temperature sensor

Utility required:
➢ Electric supply
➢ Wet solid
➢ Stop watch

Procedure:
➢ Take dry sand to fill the trays to a depth of about 10 mm each should be accurately
weighed before being saturated with water in a container.
➢ The sand should be removed from the container and drained of excess 'free' water
before being loaded evenly and smoothly into the drying trays, taking care to avoid any
spillage.
➢ The total weight of the wet sand should be noted before drying commences.
➢ At some arbitrary time (t=0), switch on and set the fan speed control to produce an air
velocity of about 0.5 m/s, Measure the velocity of the air flow through the drier using
the digital anemometer.
➢ Set the heater power control to a nominal setting and measure the dry and wet bulb air
temperatures upstream of the sand trays using the aspirating Psychrometer.
➢ Record the total weight of sand in the trays at regular time intervals until drying is
complete.
➢ The experiment should be repeated for other air temperatures by increasing the power
supplied to the heater up to the maximum setting.
➢ It is important to keep the air velocity constant and to use the same weight and
distribution of sand in each of the tests.
➢ Stop the experiment when weight of dried solid become constant.

Observation and calculation:

Tray diameter = 150mm
Surface area of solids = 0.0706m2
Diameter of orifice = 0.026m
Diameter of pipe =0.052m
Area of orifice = a0= 0.0005311m2
Area of pipe = ap=0.002123m2
Surface area of solid = A = 0.0706 m2
Weight of dry solid = S = 291-150=141g
Weight of tray = 150 g
t = Time = θ
G = Mass Velocity
W = Weight of wet Solid=330-150=220 g
X = Mass of drying solid
N = Number of transfer unit
Table 1.1(Observation and calculation)
Sr.# Time (t) Delta t Weight of wet Mass of drying Delta X 𝑆𝑑𝑥
𝑁=
(min) (sec) solid(W) solid(X) 𝐴𝑑𝑡
(grams) 𝑊−𝑆
𝑋=
𝑆
1 0 180 330-150=180 0.276596 0 0
2 3 180 326-150=176 0.248227 0.028369 0.314762
3 6 180 322-150=172 0.219858 0.028369 0.314762
4 9 180 320-150=170 0.205674 0.014184 0.157381
5 12 180 316-150=166 0.177305 0.028369 0.314762
6 15 180 313-150=163 0.156028 0.021277 0.236072
7 18 180 311-150=161 0.141844 0.014184 0.157381
8 21 180 308-150=158 0.120567 0.021277 0.236072
9 24 180 305-150=155 0.099291 0.021277 0.236072
10 27 180 302-150=152 0.078014 0.021277 0.236072
11 30 180 298-150=148 0.049645 0.028369 0.314762
12 33 180 295-150=145 0.028369 0.021277 0.236072
13 36 180 292-150=142 0.007092 0.021277 0.236072
14 39 180 289-150=139 -0.01418 0.021277 0.236072
15 42 180 286-150=136 -0.03546 0.021277 0.236072
16 45 180 282-150=132 -0.06383 0.028369 0.314762
17 48 180 280-150=130 -0.07801 0.014184 0.157381
18 51 180 277-150=127 -0.09929 0.021277 0.236072
19 54 180 274-150=124 -0.12057 0.021277 0.236072
20 57 180 270-150=120 -0.14894 0.028369 0.314762
21 60 180 268-150=118 -0.16312 0.014184 0.157381
22 63 180 267-150=117 -0.17021 0.007092 0.078691
23 66 180 265-150=115 -0.1844 0.014184 0.157381
24 69 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0.021277 0.236072
25 72 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0 0
26 75 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0 0
 Method # 02:
In this method we draw graph between time(t) and mass of drying solid (X).

Graph:

X vs t
0.4
Mass of drying solid

0.2

0
(X)

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
-0.2

-0.4
Time (min)

Calculations(table 1.2):
Sr.# Time (t) Delta t Weight of wet Mass of drying 𝑌2 − 𝑌1
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
(min) (sec) solid(W) solid(X) 𝑋2 − 𝑋1
(grams) 𝑊−𝑆
𝑋=
𝑆
1 0 180 330-150=180 0.276596 0.000158
2 3 180 326-150=176 0.248227 0.000158
3 6 180 322-150=172 0.219858 7.88E-05
4 9 180 320-150=170 0.205674 0.000158
5 12 180 316-150=166 0.177305 0.000118
6 15 180 313-150=163 0.156028 7.88E-05
7 18 180 311-150=161 0.141844 0.000118
8 21 180 308-150=158 0.120567 0.000118
9 24 180 305-150=155 0.099291 0.000118
10 27 180 302-150=152 0.078014 0.000158
11 30 180 298-150=148 0.049645 0.000118
12 33 180 295-150=145 0.028369 0.000118
13 36 180 292-150=142 0.007092 0.000118
14 39 180 289-150=139 -0.01418 0.000118
15 42 180 286-150=136 -0.03546 0.000158
16 45 180 282-150=132 -0.06383 7.88E-05
17 48 180 280-150=130 -0.07801 0.000118
18 51 180 277-150=127 -0.09929 0.000118
19 54 180 274-150=124 -0.12057 0.000158
20 57 180 270-150=120 -0.14894 7.88E-05
21 60 180 268-150=118 -0.16312 3.94E-05
22 63 180 267-150=117 -0.17021 7.88E-05
23 66 180 265-150=115 -0.1844 0.000118
24 69 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0
25 72 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0
26 75 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0.000158
 Experiment #02
Objective:
To calculate the critical moisture content of solid drying.

Apparatus:
➢ Tray dryer apparatus

Working Principle:
➢ In tray dryer hot air is continuously circulated. Forced convection heating takes place
to remove moister from the solids placed in trays.
➢ Simuilaneously the moist air is removed partially.
➢ Wet solid is loaded in to the trays. Trays are placed in the chamber.
➢ Fresh air is introduced through in let, which passes through the heaters and gets heated
up.
Theory:

In some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear reduction of
the average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a limited time,
often known as a "constant drying rate period". Usually, in this period, it is surface moisture
outside individual particles that is being removed. The drying rate during this period is mostly
dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. Therefore, the maximum
achievable drying rate is considered to be heat-transfer limited. If drying is continued, the slope
of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep (falling rate period) and eventually tends to
become nearly horizontal at very long times. The product moisture content is then constant at
the "equilibrium moisture content", where it is, in practice, in equilibrium with the dehydrating
medium. In the falling-rate period, water migration from the product interior to the surface is
mostly by molecular diffusion, i,e. the water flux is proportional to the moisture content
gradient. This means that water moves from zones with higher moisture content to zones with
lower values, a phenomenon explained by the second law of thermodynamics. If water removal
is considerable, the products usually undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a well-
designed freeze-drying process. The drying rate in the falling-rate period is controlled by the
rate of removal of moisture or solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is referred
to as being "mass-transfer limited". This is widely noticed in hygroscopic products such as
fruits and vegetables, where drying occurs in the falling rate period with the constant drying
rate period said to be negligible.

Fig # 2.1
Equipment Setup / Apparatus:
Tray Drier Apparatus, Digital Weight Balance, Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer, and
Stop Watch.

Fig # 2.2

Components of Equipment:
➢ Drying chamber
➢ Air Blower
➢ Heater
➢ Orifice in air duct
➢ Tray
➢ Balance
➢ Flow meter
➢ Air valve to control air flow
➢ Temperature sensor

Utility required:
➢ Electric supply
➢ Wet solid
➢ Stop watch

Procedure:
➢ Take dry sand to fill the trays to a depth of about 10 mm each should be accurately
weighed before being saturated with water in a container.
➢ The sand should be removed from the container and drained of excess 'free' water
before being loaded evenly and smoothly into the drying trays, taking care to avoid any
spillage.
➢ The total weight of the wet sand should be noted before drying commences.
➢ At some arbitrary time (t=0), switch on and set the fan speed control to produce an air
velocity of about 0.5 m/s, Measure the velocity of the air flow through the drier using
the digital anemometer.
➢ Set the heater power control to a nominal setting and measure the dry and wet bulb air
temperatures upstream of the sand trays using the aspirating Psychrometer.
➢ Record the total weight of sand in the trays at regular time intervals until drying is
complete.
➢ The experiment should be repeated for other air temperatures by increasing the power
supplied to the heater up to the maximum setting.
 ➢ It is important to keep the air velocity constant and to use the same weight and
distribution of sand in each of the tests.
➢ Stop the experiment when weight of dried solid become constant.

Observation and calculation:

Tray diameter = 150mm
Surface area of solids = 0.0706m2
Diameter of orifice = 0.026m
Diameter of pipe =0.052m
Area of orifice = a0= 0.0005311m2
Area of pipe = ap=0.002123m2
Surface area of solid = A = 0.0706 m2
Weight of dry solid = S = 291-150=141g
Weight of tray = 150 g
t = Time = θ
G = Mass Velocity
W = Weight of wet Solid=330-150=220 g
X = Mass of drying solid
N = Number of transfer unit
Table 2.1 (calculation and observation)
Sr.# Time (t) Delta t Weight of wet Mass of drying Delta X 𝑆𝑑𝑥
𝑁=
(min) (sec) solid(W) solid(X) 𝐴𝑑𝑡
(grams) 𝑊−𝑆
𝑋=
𝑆
1 0 180 330-150=180 0.276596 0 0
2 3 180 326-150=176 0.248227 0.028369 0.314762
3 6 180 322-150=172 0.219858 0.028369 0.314762
4 9 180 320-150=170 0.205674 0.014184 0.157381
5 12 180 316-150=166 0.177305 0.028369 0.314762
6 15 180 313-150=163 0.156028 0.021277 0.236072
7 18 180 311-150=161 0.141844 0.014184 0.157381
8 21 180 308-150=158 0.120567 0.021277 0.236072
9 24 180 305-150=155 0.099291 0.021277 0.236072
10 27 180 302-150=152 0.078014 0.021277 0.236072
11 30 180 298-150=148 0.049645 0.028369 0.314762
12 33 180 295-150=145 0.028369 0.021277 0.236072
13 36 180 292-150=142 0.007092 0.021277 0.236072
14 39 180 289-150=139 -0.01418 0.021277 0.236072
15 42 180 286-150=136 -0.03546 0.021277 0.236072
16 45 180 282-150=132 -0.06383 0.028369 0.314762
17 48 180 280-150=130 -0.07801 0.014184 0.157381
18 51 180 277-150=127 -0.09929 0.021277 0.236072
19 54 180 274-150=124 -0.12057 0.021277 0.236072
20 57 180 270-150=120 -0.14894 0.028369 0.314762
21 60 180 268-150=118 -0.16312 0.014184 0.157381
22 63 180 267-150=117 -0.17021 0.007092 0.078691
23 66 180 265-150=115 -0.1844 0.014184 0.157381
24 69 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0.021277 0.236072
25 72 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0 0
26 75 180 262-150=112 -0.20567 0 0

For critical moisture content we need to draw graph between number of transfer units (N) and
mass or drying solid (X).
Graph:

N VS Delta X
Number of transfer unit(N) 0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.028368794
0.014184397
0.028368794
0.021276596
0.014184397
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.028368794
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.028368794
0.014184397
0.021276596
0.021276596
0.028368794
0.014184397
0.007092199
0.014184397
0.021276596
Mass of draying solid(Delta X)

Applications:
➢ Tray dryer are used in pharmaceutical industries.

➢ Used where moisture content is low.

Precautions:

➢ Do not open the door of the chamber during experiment.

➢ Do not disturb the balance during experiment.

➢ Never switch on heater before blower.

line tracing of try dryer:

a
Temp. Sensor 1
n
Temp. Sensor 2 o
o
e

Sample

Section

Blower
 Experiment 03
OBJECTIVES
1. Reverse osmosis can be used to either purify water
2. To concentrate and recover dissolved solids in the feed water (known as
"dewatering")
APPARATUS
• Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment System
• Feed water

THEORY:
WHAT IS REVERSE OSMOSIS?
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a special type of filtration that uses a semi-permeable, thin
membrane with pores small enough to pass pure water by pressure through while rejecting
larger molecules such as dissolved salts (ions) and other impurities such as bacteria.

A few impurities found in tap water that can be removed with Reverse Osmosis filtration
technology:
• Fluoride
• Lead
• Chlorine & Chlormamine
• Pesticides
• Detergents & more
• Nitrates & Sulfates
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS/FACTORS FFECTING RO
Operating conditions affect the performance of an RO system. These conditions include:
 • Total dissolved solids
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Feed water flow
• Concentrate flow
• Recovery
• PH

MEMBRANE:
“Membrane is thin interphase that restricts the passage of different components in a specific
mode and over a wide range of particle sizes and molecular weights, from ions to
macromolecules.”
The efficiency of a membrane is determined by two parameters:
1. Permeability (the rate at which a given component is transported through the
membrane)
2. Selectivity (the ability to separate in specific way a given component from others)
Reverse osmosis membranes are characterized by a high degree of semi-permeability, high
water flux, mechanical strength, chemical stability and economically acceptable cost.

MEMBRANE CLASSIFICATIONS:
A reverse osmosis system is built around its individual membranes. Each membrane is a
spiral wound sheet of semi-permeable material. Membranes are available in 2-inch, 4-inch,
and 8-inch diameter with the 4- and 8-inch diameter sizes most commonly used in industry.
The industry has accepted a 40-inch length as a standard size so that membranes from
different manufacturers are interchangeable in equipment systems.
MODULES
Membrane can have two different configurations:
1. Tubular
2. Flat sheet
GENERALLY USED MEMBRANES
1. CELLULOSE ACETATE MEMBRANES
• Lower Cost than Thin Film Membranes.
• Typical salt rejection of 96%.
• Typical operating pressures of 400 PSI.
• Optimum pH operating range of 4.8to 6.5.
• Good Chlorine Tolerance.
2. THIN FILM COMPOSITE MEMBRANES
• More expensive than cellulose acetate membranes
• Typical salt rejection of 97 to 99%
• Typical operating pressures of 200 PSI
• Wide pH operating range of 2 -10
• Very Low Chlorine Tolerance
• Less susceptible to compaction due to lower PSI

REVERSE OSMOSIS WORKING:

In an RO system, pressure (usually from a pump) is used to overcome natural osmotic
pressure, forcing feed water with its load of dissolved salts and other impurities through a
highly sophisticated semipermeable membrane that removes a high percentage of the
impurities. The product of this process is highly purified water.

An RO system uses cross-filtration, where the solution crosses the filter with two outlets: the
filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water goes another way. To avoid build-up
of contaminants, cross-flow filtration allows water to sweep away contaminant build up and
enough turbulence to keep the membrane surface clean.
The complete RO system comprises of the following:
1. Feed Pump
A feed pump consists of M.S to maintain pressure at least 50 Psi.
 2. 5 MICRON FILTER
Consists of one – 10inch slim housing with polypropylene cartridge. It will remove the
residual and suspended particles finally down to 5 micron. After passing through water gives
sprinkling look.
3. Water softener
A vessel of size, 54-inch length with 10-inch diameter and one brine tank. The water softener
is used remove hardness (temporary and permanent) from water replacing these with sodium
ions.
4. Regeneration:
When the ion-exchange medium has been saturated with calcium salt it must be regenerated.
For this NaCl solution must passed through the ion-exchange media (Lewatit S 80)
5. Ion exchange polisher
Two vessels one is cation exchange removes all cations from water and anion exchanger
removes all anions. So this is the main advantage of demineralization at the end no solid
contamination remains in treated water.
6. Product water storage tank
A PP tank for capacity 150 litre for product water storage.
7. Piping
Complete piping for RO system using high pressure PVC food-grade

A complete RO system will also include a pre-treatment cartridge filtration, a pressuring

pump, and a controls system. In a small RO system, the controls may be as simple as valves
and rotameters. A larger system will contain flow, temperature, and pressure transmitters, as
well as control valves operated from a HMI (human machine interface) or PLC
(programmable logic controller). Larger systems also incorporate VFD (variable frequency
drives) for the pressurizing pump and sometimes energy recovery devices.
PROCEDURE:
1) Collect the sample of different types of water like distilled water, tap water and
filtered water in different sample bottles.
2) Switch on the reverse osmosis plant to collect the sample of reverse osmosis water.
3) Insert pH meter, conductivity meter and TDS meter to determine pH, conductivity and
TDS in different samples of water.
4) Keep on running the RO plant and also keep on taking different samples after a
specific interval of time and check its properties.
5) Collect out product water from tank storage and find out its properties.
6) Note down all the readings in the table and compare what is the difference.
7) Also note what the effect of time on RO water properties
DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Room temperature = 25 ᵒC

Comparison of Properties of Various Types of Water

Properties Tap Water Product Water

PH 6.3 4.54
Conductivity (mg) 3.63 0.13
TDS (g/l) 0.675 0.54
Density (g/cm3) 1.0224 0.996
Density of water 0.998 0.998
Specific gravity 1.024 0.9987

RESULTS:

Tap water fed to the RO apparatus resulted in the decrease in the values of its prescribed
parameters as expected from the RO system suggest that the conductivity of the water
decreases along with the TDS removal through RO membrane since it is a function of TDS.
Moreover, the pH value of the RO water has been lowered from the feed PH. The reason is
the increase acidic nature of the permeate water due to the presence of CO2.

ADVANTAGES:
• Improves Taste
RO filtration improves taste, odour and appearance of water by removing contaminants that
cause taste and odour problems.
• Saves Money
With an RO system, you can cancel your water delivery service and stop purchasing cases of
bottled water. Reverse Osmosis filtration provides “better-than-bottled water” quality water
for just pennies per gallon.
• Simple Maintenance
RO systems have very few moving or replaceable parts make RO systems easy to clean and
service.
• Removes Impurities
RO systems remove pollutants from water including nitrates, pesticides, sulfates, fluoride,
bacteria, pharmaceuticals, arsenic and much more. An RO systems’ carbon filter will also
remove chlorine and chloramines.
 Advantages of Using RO Benefits of Industrial RO Systems

• Simple to operate • Modular design for ease of installation

• Does not require hazardous chemicals• Reduces water and sewer use costs

• Energy efficient, especially when used • Can be integrated with an existing membrane
instead of distillation to produce high filtration system or ion exchange system to achieve
purity water up to 80% rinse water recycle

RO APPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRY

RO is used to produce highly purified water for drinking water systems, industrial boilers,
food and beverage processing, cosmetics, pharmaceutical production, seawater desalination,
and many other applications

• Desalination of seawater and brackish water for potable use.

• Generation of ultrapure water for the microelectronics industry.
• Generation of high-purity water for pharmaceuticals.
• Generation of process water for beverages (fruit juices, beer, bottle water).
• Processing of dairy products.
• Concentration of corn sweeteners.
• Waste treatment for the recovery of process materials such as metals for the metal
finishing industries, and dyes used in the manufacture of textiles.
• To purify water for use as boiler makeup to low- to medium-pressure boilers, as the
product quality from an RO can directly meet the boiler make-up requirements for
these pressures.
RO plant line tracing:

Pump Filter Water Softener

Complete RO System Deionizer System Storage Tank

 Cooling tower

Introduction to cooling tower:

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The type of heat rejection in a cooling
tower is termed "evaporative" in that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to
evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water
stream. The heat from the water stream transferred to the air stream raises the air's temperature
and its relative humidity to 100%, and this air is discharged to the atmosphere. Evaporative
heat rejection devices such as cooling towers are commonly used to provide significantly lower
water temperatures than achievable with "air cooled" or "dry" heat rejection devices, like the
radiator in a car, thereby achieving more cost-effective and energy efficient operation of
systems in need of cooling. Think of the times you've seen something hot be rapidly cooled by
putting water on it, which evaporates, cooling rapidly, such as an overheated car radiator. The
cooling potential of a wet surface is much better than a dry one.

Working principle:
Dry cooling towers operate by heat the transfer through a surface that separate the working
fluid from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanges utilizing convective heat
transfer. They do not use evaporation
Wet cooling towers operate on the principle o evaporation cooling.
Working of cooling tower:
Evaporative cooling is a natural process that provides cooling evaporating water into air. A
good example of this is the sudden sensation of getting cold when we step out of a hot shower,
or misting fans used to help keep football players cool on the sidelines. While we are in the
shower, our skin is wet and not readily exposed to air, but when we step out into the air, the
water on our skin begins to evaporate and pulls heat out of our bodies and we feel the cooling
effect. Cooling towers use this same principle of evaporative cooling to cool a continuous flow
of water.
Cooling towers are essentially large boxes designed to maximize evaporation of water. To do
this, they contain material, typically PVC plastic sheets, that create large surface areas for water
evaporation to occur. This material is what fills the inside of the cooling tower and is called
"Cooling Tower Fill". Large cooling towers, like those at nuclear power plants, rely on a natural
draft or flow of air through the cooling tower; however, this is only effective on certain very
large cooling towers. Most cooling towers use an electrical fan motor to create an air draft or
airflow through the cooling tower. This type of cooling tower is called an "Induced or Force
Draft" cooling tower.

Types of cooling tower:

Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in several types:

1. ATMOSPHERIC
2. MECHANICAL DRAFT

a. FORCED DRAFT
b. INDUCED DRAFT

3. HYBRID DRAFT
4. TYPED BY AIR FLOW

a. COUNTERFLOW
b. CROSSFLOW
a.1 DOUBLE-FLOW
a.2 SINGLE-FLOW
c. SPRAY-FILLED

5. TYPED BY CONSTRUCTION

a. FIELD-ERECTED
b. FACTORY-ASSEMBLED

6. TYPED BY SHAPE

a. RECTILINEAR
b. ROUND MECHANICAL DRAFT (RMD)

7. TYPED BY METHOD OF HEAT TRANSFER

a. EVAPORATIVE
b. DRY TOWER
c. PLUME ABATEMENT
d. WATER CONSERVATION

Counter-Flow vs. Crossflow Cooling Towers

There are two basic types of Induced Draft cooling tower. In a "Counter-Flow" cooling tower,
the air and water flow are counter to each other. In a "Cross-Flow" cooling tower, the air and
water flow cross. Counter-flow cooling towers tend to have a smaller footprint and operating
weight than cross-flow cooling towers; however, they tend to have a higher water pressure drop
due to the pressurized spray system, whereas most cross-flow towers use a gravity-fed water
distribution pan.

Application of cooling tower:

The prime use of the cooling tower is to block out the heat absorbed in the moving cooling
water system. The application of cooling tower is as follows,

• Natural gas processing plants

• Power plants
• Food processing plants
• Petrochemical plants
• Semiconductor plants
• Petroleum refineries
Line tracing of cooling tower:

Container
for Water
desiccant storage
with
heater

Pump

Water
Temp. Out
Blower
 Experiment 04
Objective:
➢ Calculate the range, approach and effectiveness of the cooling tower.
Apparatus required:
➢ Cooling Tower
➢ Stopwatch
➢ IL measuring cylinders

Procedure:
➢ Make-up tank of cooling tower is filled with water using 1L measuring cylinder.
➢ Water flow rate and blower speed are adjusted to 7.0 liters per minute and scale of 3/13
respectively.
➢ After 5 minutes, T1 ,T2 ,T3 ,T4 ,T5 ,T6 ,T7, T8 and T9 are recorded in a table.
➢ At the same condition, another 2 sets of result are recorded at an interval of 3 minutes which
is at the 8th and 11th minutes.
➢ The speed of blower is then adjusted to the scale of 6/13 and 9/13 at the same water flow
rate.
➢ Steps 1 to 5 are repeated at the water flow rate of 7.5 and 8.0 liters per minute.
➢ Results are recorded and tabulated in tables.

Calculation and observation:

➢ Air Calculations:
Inlet Outlet:
T=22 ºC T=43 ºC
➢ Water Calculations:
Inlet Outlet:
T=45 ºC T=41 ºC
➢ Temperature Range:
T1-T2= 45-41 = 4 ºC
Dry Bulb Temperature = 16 ºC
Temperature Approach = 41-16 = 25 ºC
➢ Effectiveness:

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 = ⁄(𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 + 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ)

4
= 4+25 x 100

= 13.7%
 Experiment 05
Objective:
➢ Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of the cooling tower.

Calculation for mass transfer in cooling tower:

Air inlet temperature=22oC

Air outlet Temperature=43oC

Water inlet Temperature=45oC

Water outlet temperature=42oC

Manometer reading=0.073

% of humidity at inlet=56

% of humidity at outlet=77

Hot water flow rate=7.67 LPM

Humidity of air at inlet=H1=0.0096Kg of water/Kg of dry air

Humidity of air at outlet=H2=0.0414Kg of water/Kg of air

Volume of air inlet to tower= ((2.8+4.56)*10-3)22*5.27

Volume of air inlet to tower=VH1=0.847m3/Kg of dry Air

Mass flow rate of air=Q*(VH1/H1)1/2

G=0.0137(0.847/0.0096) 1/2

G=0.127Kg of dry air/sec.

Enthalpy of air at inlet

Hy1= (1.005+1.88H1) T1+2501H1

Hy1= (1.005+1.88*o.oo95)22+2501*0.0095

Hy1=46.26KJ/Kg of dry air.

At outlet

Hy2= (1.005+1.88H2) T2+2501H2

 Hy2=156KJ/Kg of dry

Heat transfer

Q=G*(Hy2- Hy1)

Q=0.127(156-42.26)

Q=0.0139KJ/sec

Humidity of air at saturation

At inlet

H1, =0.0165 kg of water/kg of air

Enthalpy of air at saturation

At inlet

Hy1,= (1.005+1.88H1,) T1+2501H1,

Hy1,= (1.005+1.88*0.0165) 22+2501.4*0.0165

Hy1,=62.81Kj/kg of dry air

At outlet

Hy2, = (1.005+1.88H2,) T2+2501H2,

Hy2, =187KJ/kg of dry air

Temperature(oC) Enthalpy at saturation (KJ/Kg)

20 57.5

22 62.81

25 76

30 100

35 129

40 167

43 187

45 214

47 259
 H1=130KJ/kg

H2=56 KJ/kg

Hm=95 KJ/kg

f=0.95

Number of transfer units=NOG= H2- H1/(fHm)

NOG=1.23

Z=0.772m

HOG=z/ NOG

HOG=0.624m
𝐺
KGA=𝑚×𝑃×HOG

0.127
KGA=28.84×101325×0.624

KGA=6.90×10-8 Kgmol /m2sec.pa

 Distillation column

Introduction of distillation column:

Distillation is one of the most common liquid-liquid separation processes and can be carried
out in a continuous or batch system. Distillation works by the application and removal of heat
to exploit differences in relative volatility. The heat causes components with lower boiling
points and higher volatility to be vaporized, leaving less volatile components as liquids.
Mixtures with high relative volatilities are easier to separate. This makes separations of close-
boiling and azeotropic feeds difficult, so special distillation techniques have to be used to
separate these mixtures. Distillation can be used to separate binary or multi-component
mixtures. Many variables, such as column pressure, temperature, size, and diameter are
determined by the properties of the feed and the desired products. Some specialized columns
perform other functions, such as reactive distillation columns, which combine reaction and
separation of products into a single unit.
Working of distillation column:

Distillation is a process used to separate a mixture of two (or more) components into its virgin
state by heating the mixture to a temperature between their respective boiling points.
For example, at atmospheric pressure, water boils at 212ºF and ethanol boils at about 176ºF. If
the mixture of water and ethanol is heated to about 195ºF, the ethanol will boil and change into
vapor which is then collected and condensed. The water will separate and remain as a liquid.
A fractionating distillation column is used to make this process more efficient. See the picture
below to better understand how columns work.

Design of distillation column:

The distillation column is made up of a series of stacked plates. A liquid feed containing the
mixture of two or more liquids enters the column at one or more points. The liquid flows over
the plates, and vapor bubbles up through the liquid via holes in the plates. As liquid travels
down the column, the vapor comes in contact with it several times due to the multiple plates –
a critical process in distillation columns. The liquid and vapor phases are brought into contact
because as one molecule of higher boiling material converts from vapor to liquid phase by
energy release, another molecule of the low boiling material utilizes the free energy to convert
from liquid to vapor phase.
The base of the distillation column contains a large volume of liquid consisting mostly of the
liquid with higher boiling point (in our example, this would be water). Out of the base flows
some of this liquid, some of which is heated in the re boiler and returned to the column. This
is called the boil up.
Types of distillation column:
Binary distillation column:

A binary tower separates a feed into two products. For this reason, you may also hear a binary
tower referred to as a two-product tower. Some binary column separate one light component
from a range of heavier components. But they are consider to be a binary column because only
two products leave the tower.
Multi-draw distillation column:

Multi draw column separates a feed into more than two products. A product that leaves a multi-
draw tower is refer to as a draw or a stream multi-draw column. Also, refer to as a side draw
column because some of the products or drawers are taken from the side of the tower. For
example, one type of multi-draw tower has three drawers one at the top one at the bottom and
one near the middle. Multi draw column can also have more than three drawers to separate
several products from a feed. This one is an atmospheric tower in a crude oil distillation unit
an atmospheric tower.

Advantages:

➢ Most cost-efficient distillation column when the diameter of the column is less than
0.6m.
➢ Because packing can be made from inert materials, packed beds are able to handle
corrosive materials.
➢ Lower pressure drops than in plate columns preventing column flooding.
➢ Good for thermally sensitive liquids.
➢ Suitable for low pressure operations.

Disadvantages:

➢ Packing can break during installation, or due to thermal expansion.

➢ Not cost efficient for high liquid flow rates.
➢ Contact efficiencies are decreased when the liquid flow rate is too low.
Industrial application:

➢ Turpentine, naptha, phenols, toluene and phytosterols are obtained using Distillation
column.
➢ Argon can be obtained in distillation plant via employing air separation technology.
➢ Pyridine can also be obtained using distillation column, Pyridine is an essential
component used in industries as a solvent and water proofing agent.

Line tracing in distillation column:

 Experiment 06
Objective:
a) The specific gravity of the ethanol sample recovered from the distillation column is 1.1.
Compare the value of specific gravity of pure ethanol and calculate the percentage
composition of ethanol recovered. Perform the mass balance on the column and
calculate the mass fraction on top and bottom of the column when the feed is 50% water
and 50% ethanol.
b) Calculate the number of stages and composition on each plate by using MaCabe Thiele
method and Lewis Sorel method.
c) Calculate the plate efficiency of the column.

Calculation and observation:

a) Specific gravity
Specific Gravity = 1.1
Literature Value of 98%Ethanol at 25ᵒC = 0.79117
1.1−0.79117
Relative Error = ∗ 100
1.1

= 28.07%
Xf = 0.5
1.1−0.79
Now composition of water in top product = × 100 = 39.24%
0.79

So ethanol in top product = 100-39.24 = 60.75%

➢ This gives;
Xd = 0.61
Xw = 0.39

Mass balance:
For 100 kmol of feed, an overall mass balance gives
100 = D + W
➢ Balance on Ethanol gives;
100 x 0.5 = 0.61 D +0.39 W
50 = 0.61 (100 – W) + 0.39 W
50 = 61 – 0.61 W + 0.39 W
11 = 0.22 W
→W = 50
 100 = D + 50
→D = 50
As by reference to example 11.7
Ln = 3D = 3 x 50 = 150
Vn = Ln + D = 150 + 50 = 200
Thus the top operating line from the equation 11.35

yn = 0.75 xn+1 + 0.1525

Since the feed is all liquid at boiling point, this will run down as increased flux to the plate
below.
Lm = Ln + F =150 +100 = 250
Vm = Lm – W =250 – 50 = 200
Using 11.37 equation for bottom plate

ym = 1.25 xm+1 – 0.0975

b) Number of stages and composition on plate:

➢ Lewis Sorel method
• Equilibrium Data:

Mole fraction of alcohol in liquid Mole fraction of alcohol in vapor

0.1 0.43
0.2 0.526
0.3 0.577
0.4 0.615
0.5 0.655
0.6 0.70
0.7 0.754
0.8 0.82
0.89 0.89
 Equlibrium Curve
1

Mole Fraction of Alcohol in Vapor

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.89
Mole Fraction of Alcohol in liquid

➢ From graph;
Yn = 0.61 so xn = 0.39
ym = 1.25 xm+1 – 0.0975
yn- 1= 1.25 x 0.386 – 0.0975 = 0.385
xn-1 = 0.085
This shows that there is a single theoretical plate by Lewis Sorel Method.
➢ MaCabe Thiele method
The number of plate by McCabe Thiele Method is also one as shown below:
 c) Plate Efficiency of the Column
The efficiency is given by
NOG
ϵ=
NOL
➢ Where NOG and NOL are given by;
ye-yn
NOG = ln ( )
ye- yn-1
xn+1-xe
NOL = ln ( )
xn- xe
Where ye and xe are calculated by
ye = mxn and xe = myn
ye = 0.2067 and xe = 0.3233
So putting values in their respective formulas,
0.2067 − 0.89
NOG = ln ( )=0.10
0.2067 − 0.82
0.89 − 0.3233
NOL = ln ( )=0.17
0.8 − 0.3233
0.10
ϵ= = 0.5882 × 100 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟖𝟐%
0.17