USPCAS-E Manual

Biomass Gasification Systems
Training Manual

i
US-Pakistan Center of Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E),
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST),
Islamabad, Pakistan

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BIOMASS GASIFICATION SYSTEMS
Training Manual
US-Pakistan Centre of Advanced Studies in Energy

(USPCAS-E)
National University of Sciences and Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan
2016
Foreword
(UNIDO)
Foreword
(NUST)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST) is executing a project component
“Capacity Building & Strengthening of Biomass Gasification Technology Support Systems” to
contribute for the promotion of “Biomass to energy technologies in Pakistan” through a
UNIDO-GEF project “Promoting sustainable energy production and use from biomass in
Pakistan”.
The vitality part in Pakistan is portrayed by low levels of access to present day vitality
benefits, a high reliance on customary fills and an unsustainable reliance on transported in
fossil energizes for power generation. Biomass, a natural constituent obtained from
agriculture waste predominantly includes rice husk, wheat straw, bagasse, cotton and wood
shredding’s (saw dust) and other carbonaceous waste materials including municipal waste.
UNIDO has taken an initiative to strengthen the industrial sector in Pakistan by using
biomass/crop residue as an efficient energy material through advanced Biomass
Gasification Technologies (BGTs).
As compared to biomass gasification for energy purposes, direct burning of biomass causes
severe environmental pollution and health problems among workers. Keeping in view the
advance nature and beneficial aspects of biomass gasification, capacity building is a key
element to spread awareness and establish optimized and skilled technical services to
promote training centers and research institutions, and promotion and maintenance of
installation of BGTs at industrial sector. The project will be of great help to create awareness
and set the trends towards “Biomass to Energy” among industrial networks. The venture is
required to bring critical financial and natural advantages both at neighborhood and
worldwide level.
This manual consists of seven sections, comprising numerous units and draws upon the
working operation, monitoring & maintenance of installed Biomass Gasifier. The training of
BGT broadly cover fundamentals Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and Technology
Providers from all over Pakistan. While the manual aims to provide market driven services
of biomass gasification technologies to SMEs and to establish the enhanced capacity of key
market players in the local supply chain.
We are sure that the manual will be useful for all cooperative trainers towards facilitating
BGTs and thereby ensuring the participation and understanding of all the trainees in
biomass gasification technologies (BGTs) at all levels of cooperatives.
Note: This manual is in draft form, errors and omissions are expected. Any feedback will be
highly appreciated. It can be sent on [email protected]
Dr. Ehsan Ali
Project – Principle Investigator

US-Pakistan Center for Advance Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Sector H-12, Islamabad, Pakistan
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Units used in the Manual 1
1.2 The Manual 1
2 FUELS 3
2.1 Fossil Fuels 3
2.2 Biomass Fuels 3
2.2.1 Chemical Composition 4
2.3 Categories ofbiomass materials 4
2.4 Thermal Properties of Biomass Materials 5
2.4.1 Proximate Analysis 5
2.4.2 Ultimate Analysis / Elemental Composition 7
2.4.3 Heating Value 8
2.4.4 Bulk density 9
3 PROCESSING OF BIOMASS FUELS 11
3.1 Drying of Biomass Fuels 11
3.2 Dryer Principles 11
3.2.1 Types of Dryers 11
3.2.2 Stages of Drying 11
3.3 Dryers Description 12
3.3.1 Rotary Dryers 12
3.3.2 Flash Dryers 13
3.3.3 Disk Dryers 13
3.3.4 Cascade Dryers 14
3.4 Heat Recovery 15
3.5 Drier Choices 15
3.6 Benefits and Disadvantages of Different Typesof Dryers 15
3.7 Fuel Powdering, Pelleting and Briquetting 16
3.7.1 Powdering 16
3.7.2 Pelletizing and Briquetting 17
4 BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 21

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4.1 Thermochemical conversion 21
4.1.1 Combustion 21
4.1.2 Gasification 21
4.1.3 Pyrolysis 22
4.2 Biochemical conversion 22
4.2.1 Anaerobic digestion (AD) 23
4.2.2 Fermentation 23
5 BIOMASS GASIFIERS 25
5.1 Fixed bed gasifiers 25
5.1.1 Downdraft or co-current gasifier 25
5.1.2 Updraft or counter-current gasifier 25
5.1.3 Cross-draft or cross-flow gasifier 26
5.1.4 Comparison and characteristics of fixed bed gasifiers 26
5.2 Fluidized bed gasifiers 28
5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gasifier types 30
5.4 Factors influencing gasification 30
5.4.1 Equivalence Ratio (ER) 31
5.4.2 Hearth load / Specific gasification rate(SGR) 31
5.4.3 Fuel consumption rate (FCR) and SGR relationship 32
5.4.4 Gasification efficiency 32
5.4.5 Turndown ratio (TDR) 33
5.4.6 Superficial Gas Velocity (SGV) 33
5.4.7 Operating temperature 34
5.4.8 Operating pressure 34
5.5 Gasifiers population and sizes 34
6 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 37
6.1 Producer gas impurities 37
6.1.1 Moisture Content 37
6.1.2 Particulate Content 37
6.1.3 Tar Content 37
6.1.4 Trace impurities 38
6.2 Producer gas quality 38
6.3 Cooling and cleaning of product gas 38

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6.3.1 Cooling process 38
6.3.2 Gas Cleaning Options 38
6.3.3 Tar removing options 39
6.3.4 Cooling and cleaning train 39
6.4 Cyclone separator 39
6.5 Water showering/cooling unit 40
6.6 Gas Cleaning Unit 41
7 INSTRUMENTATION, MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS 43
7.1 Gasification Instrumentation 43
7.2 Pressure Measurement 43
7.3 Temperature Measurement 44
7.4 Producer gas analyzer 45
7.5 Flue Gas Analysis 46
7.5.1 Sampling 47
7.6 Safety valve / rupture disc / explosion disc 47
8 GASIFIER SIZING GUIDELINES 49
8.1 Composition of air 49
8.2 Gases present in the producer gas 50
8.3 Difference in engine output using different fuels 52
8.4 Sizing of internal combustion engine (ICE) 52
8.5 Sizing of gasifier 53
9 APPLICATION OF GASIFICATION SYSTEMS 59
9.1 BIG/ICE and CHP system 59
9.2 BIG/CC system 61
10 GASIFICATION PLANT – OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 63
10.1 Typical Downdraft Gasifier Operational Instructions 63
10.1.1 Step1: Fuel Preparation: 63
10.1.2 Step2: Fuel Feeding: 63
10.1.3 Step 3: Filling water in hopper water seal 63
10.1.4 Step 4: Gas ignition at flare port and the gasifier 64

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10.1.5 Step 5: Gas Transfer 64
10.1.6 Step 6: Gas Feeding 64
10.2 Gasifier Efficiency Testing 65
10.3 4.11 Maintenance of Gasifier 65
10.3.1 Daily Maintenance 65
10.3.2 Alternate Day Basis Maintenance 65
10.3.3 Maintenance after 200 Hours 65
10.3.4 Cleaning and Cooling Train Maintenance 66
10.3.5 Guidelines for Continuous Operation 67
10.3.6 Guidelines for Charging during Operation 67
10.4 Safety Measures for Downdraft Gasifier Operation 68
10.5 Typical Operational instructions for a fluidized-bed biomass gasifier and power generation plant
68
10.5.1 Pre-start up preparations 70
10.5.2 Gasifier start up (ignition) 70
10.5.3 Gasifier temperature control 70
10.5.4 Gasifier Pressure control 71
10.5.5 Ash removal from the gasifier 71
10.5.6 Control of gas storage tank during operation 71
10.5.7 Operation of cleaning and cooling system 72
10.5.8 Routine Check during operation 72
10.5.9 Plant shutdown 72
10.5.10 Special instructions 73
10.5.11 Biomass gasifier maintenance 73
11 SAFETY GUIDELINES 75
Exhibits
EXHIBIT 2–1: PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENTBIOMASS RESOURCES 9
EXHIBIT 3–1: SINGLE-PASS ROTARY DRYER 12
EXHIBIT 3–2: TYPICAL FLASH DRYER CONFIGURATION 13

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EXHIBIT 3–3: SIDE VIEW OF ADISK DRYER 14
EXHIBIT 3–4: SIDE VIEW OF A CASCADE DRYER 14
EXHIBIT 3–5: SUMMARY OF THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OFEACH DRYER 16
EXHIBIT 3–6: PELLETS AND BRIQUETTES 17
EXHIBIT 3–7: FLAT DIE PELLET MIL 18
EXHIBIT 3–8: EFFECT OF PELLETIZING 18
EXHIBIT 3–9: RING DIE PELLET MILL 18
EXHIBIT 5–1: TYPICAL DOWNDRAFT OR CONCURRENT GASIFIER 25
EXHIBIT 5–2: UPDRAFT GASIFIER 26
EXHIBIT 5–3: CROSS-FLOW GASIFIER 26
EXHIBIT 5–4: COMPARISON OF FIXED BEDGASIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES 27
EXHIBIT 5–5: TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A FIXED BED GASIFIER 27
EXHIBIT 5–6: FLUIDIZED BED GASIFIER 28
EXHIBIT 5–7: TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A FLUIDIZED BED GASIFIER 29
EXHIBIT 5–8: RELATIVE ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF GASIFIER TYPES 30
EXHIBIT 5–9: POPULATION OFGASIFIERSBY DESIGN 34
EXHIBIT 5–10: SIZES OF BIOMASS GASIFIER FOR DIFFERENT DESIGNS FOR APPLICATION RANGES 35
EXHIBIT 6–1: TYPICAL CYCLONE SEPARATOR 40
EXHIBIT 6–2: CYLINDRICAL UNIT OF SCRUBBING AND COOLING 40
EXHIBIT 6–3: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SAND BED FILTER TO CLEAN PRODUCER GAS (PATHAK ET AL., 2007)
42
EXHIBIT 7–1: MANOMETER 44

EXHIBIT 7–2: DIGITAL THERMOMETER AND PROBES FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS 44
EXHIBIT 7–3: TYPICAL INFRARED THERMOMETER FOR NON-CONTACT TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 45
EXHIBIT 7–4: A PORTABLE PRODUCER GAS ANALYZER 45
EXHIBIT 7–5: ORSAT APPARATUS AND FYRITE GAS ANALYZER 46
EXHIBIT 7–6: A TYPICAL PORTABLE ELECTRONIC COMBUSTION ANALYZER 47
EXHIBIT 7–7: RUPTURE DISC 48
EXHIBIT 8–1: TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS WITH GASIFICATION 49
EXHIBIT 8–2: PROPERTIES OF GASES PRESENT IN THE PRODUCER GAS 50
EXHIBIT 8–3: COMPLETE COMBUSTION OF VARIOUS GASES WITH AIR 50
EXHIBIT 8–4: 51
EXHIBIT 8–5: AIR REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE COMBUSTION 51

EXHIBIT 8–6: NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING EFFECTIVE HEAT VALUE OF PRODUCER GAS 51
EXHIBIT 8–7: TYPES OF 54

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EXHIBIT 8–8: SKETCH OF IMBERT DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER 55
EXHIBIT 8–9: DETAILED VIEW OFTHE HEARTH 55
EXHIBIT 8–10: IMBERT DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER NOZZLE ANDHEARTH DIAMETERS 56
EXHIBIT 9–1: BIG/ICE POWER GENERATING SYSTEM 60
EXHIBIT 9–2: TYPICAL BIG/CC PLANT 62
EXHIBIT 10–1FLUIDIZED BED GASIFIER AND POWERGENERATION PLANT 69

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1 Introduction
Gasification has been reliably used on a commercial scale worldwide for more than 60 years
in the refining, fertilizer, and chemical industries, and for more than 35 years in the electric
power industry.
It is a flexible, reliable, and commercial technology that can turn a variety of low-value
feedstock into high-value products, help reduce a country's dependence on imported oil and
natural gas, and can provide a clean alternative source of base load electricity, fertilizers,
fuels, and chemicals.
To be expanded, as needed.
1.1 Units used in theManual
This manual uses the SI (Le Systeme International d’Unites) metric units of measure.
1.2 The Manual
The manual covers the basics of biomass as fuel, biomass conversion technologies,
gasification, applications of gasification, gasifiers, design guidelines, operational and
maintenance guidelines, and safety measures.
Chapter 1 is the brief introduction to this manual. Chapter 2 introduces the fossil and
biomass fuels, and characteristics of biomass fuels. Chapter 3 describes biomass conversion
technologies. Chapter 4 discusses .
The manual aims to prompt the managers, professionals, technical staff, and service
providers to adopt sustainable, viable, environment friendly, and economically feasible
technologies. However, it must be well understood that it is not a replacement of textbooks
and handbooks on the subject. It will serve as a useful guide for energy engineers, service
providers, and small and medium scale entrepreneurs.
To be updated.

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2 Fuels
The main function of the fuels is to provide thermal energy, which is used directly in the
form of heat or transformed into other forms of energy, i.e. mechanical or electrical energy
according to the needs. The major sources of thermal energy, at this point in time, are fossil
fuels and biomass fuels. These are briefly discussed in here.
2.1 Fossil Fuels
Fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas were formed over millions of years from organic
matter like plankton, plants and other life forms. Over time, sand, sediment and rock buried
the organic matter and it eventually formed large quantities of fuels. These underground
resources, known as fossil fuels, are still the primary fuel source for electricity, heating and
powering vehicles around the globe.
There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas.
Coal is a combustible black or brown sedimentary rock made mostly of organic carbon. It is
typically found as layers (coal beds) or veins (coal seams).
There are two main types of coal: ‘thermal’ coal is mostly used for power generation, and
‘metallurgical’ coal is mostly used for steel production. Thermal coal is more abundant, has
lower carbon content and is higher in moisture than metallurgical coal.
Natural gas is a combustible mix of hydrocarbon gases. It is colorless and consists mainly of
methane (CH4). ‘Conventional gas’ is easily extracted; ‘unconventional gas’ requires more
sophisticated extraction technologies.
Conventional natural gas is found in permeable sandstone reservoirs and is easy to get out
of the ground through traditional well drilling techniques.
Unconventional gas is just standard natural gas, but found in places other than permeable
sandstone reservoirs. There are two main types of ‘unconventional gas’: (1) coal seam gas
(CSG), found in coal deposits, usually 200 to 1,000 meters below the ground; and (2) shale
gas, found in shale rock deposits. The wells for extracting this gas are generally a lot deeper
than those for CSG.
Oil is liquid fuel made of hydrocarbons. It is mostly known as crude oil or condensate, but
includes all liquid hydrocarbon fossil fuels and other liquid organic compounds. Petroleum
and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are the most common types of fuel obtained from oil
extraction and refining. LPG is heavier than natural gas. The term petroleum refers to both
naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products made of refined crude
oil.
2.2 Biomass Fuels
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. In the
context of biomass for energy this is often used to mean plant based material, but biomass
can equally apply to both animal and vegetable derived materials.
It is any organic matter-wood, crops, forestry residues, seaweed, animal wastes – that can be
used as an energy source. Biomass is probably our oldest source of energy after the sun. For
thousands of years, people have burned wood to heat their homes and cook their food.
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Biomass is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not limited. People can
always grow trees and agriculture crops and waste will always exist.
A generally accepted definition is difficult to find. However, the one used by the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2005) is relevant here:
(Biomass is a) non-fossilized and biodegradable organic material originating from plants,
animals and microorganisms. This shall also include products, by-products, residues and waste
from agriculture, forestry and related industries as well as the non-fossilized and
biodegradable organic fractions of industrial and municipal wastes.
2.2.1 Chemical Composition
Biomass is carbon based and is composed of a mixture of organic molecules containing

hydrogen, usually including atoms of oxygen, often nitrogen and small quantities of other
elements, including alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metals. These metals are often found in
functional molecules such as the porphyrins, which include chlorophyll, which contains
magnesium.
The carbon used in the formation of biomass is absorbed from the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide (CO2) by plant life, using energy from the sun. Plants may subsequently be eaten by
animals and thus converted into animal biomass. However the primary absorption is
performed by plants. If plant material is not eaten it is generally either broken down by
microorganisms or burned:
 If brokendownit releases the carbonback to the atmosphere, mainlyas either
carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4), depending upon the conditions and
processesinvolved.
 If burnedthecarbonis returnedto theatmosphereas CO2.
These processes have happened for as long as there have been plants on earth and is part of
what is known as the carbon cycle. A continuous program of replanting with the new growth
will take up CO2 from the atmosphere at the same time as it is released by combustion of the
previous harvest. This maintains a closed carbon cycle with no net increase in atmospheric
CO2 levels. However, biomass also includes plant or animal matter used for production of
fibers or chemicals.
The vital difference between biomass and fossil fuels is one of time scale.
2.3 Categories of biomassmaterials
There are five basic categories of material:

 Virginwood: fromforestry, fromwoodprocessing
 Energycrops: highyieldcropsgrownspecificallyforenergyapplications
 Agricultureresidues: residues fromagricultureharvestingandprocessing
 Food waste: from food and drink manufacture, preparation and processing, post-
consumerwaste, animalwasteand muncipalsolidwaste(MSW)
 Industrialwasteand co-products frommanufacturingandindustrialprocesses.

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2.4 Thermal Properties of BiomassMaterials
Each type of biomass has specific properties that determine its performance as a fuel in
combustion or gasification devices or both. The most important properties relating to the
thermal conversion of biomass are as follows:
 Moisturecontent
 Ashcontent
 Volatile matter content
 Elemental composition
 Heating value
 Bulkdensity
2.4.1 Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis of biomass or any solid fuel measures its four parameters, i.e. moisture
content (MC), ash (A), volatile matter (VM) and fixed carbon (FC), all expressed as %age.
Moisture Content (MC)
The moisture content of biomass is the quantity of water in the material, expressed as a
percentage of the material’s weight. This weight can be referred to as the following:
 Wetbasis,
 Drybasis,and
 Dry andash-freebasis
The terminology used is:
Wmc = Weight of moisturecontent

Wwet = Weight of wet mass
Wdry = Weight of dry mass (oven-dried)
Wash = Weight of ash
MCwet = Moisture content on Wet basis

MCdry = Moisture content of Dry Basis
MCdafb = Moisture content on dry and ash-free basis

Wdaf = Weight of dry and ash-free mass
Moisture is calculated as the difference between the weight of the sample as received and
the oven-dried sample at a temperature equal to 105 ± 2 °C till the variation on weight is
negligible. The useful relationships are as the following:
Wmc = Wwet - Wdry

Wwet = Wdry + Wmc
Wdry = Wdaf + Wash
Wdaf = Wdry - Wash
Moisture content on Wet basis as fraction and %age:

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Wmc
MCwet =
Wwet
Wmc
MCwet %= × 100
Wwet
Moisture content on Dry basis
Wmc
MCdry =
Wdry
Wmc
MCdry % = × 100
Wdry
Relationships between MCdry and MCwet are:

MCwet
MCdry =
1 - MC
wet
MCwet
× 100
MCdry % =
1 - MC wet
MCdry
MCwet =
1 + MC
dry
MCdry
MCwet % = × 100
1 + MC dry
Finally, the moisture content can be expressed as percentage for the “dry-and-ash-free”
matter content basis, as the following:
Wmc
MCdafb % = × 100
Wwet - Wmc - Wash
Wmc
MCdafb % = × 100
Wdaf
Since, the moisture content affects the quality of biomass as a fuel, the basis on which the
moisture content is measured must always be mentioned. This is of particular importance
because biomass materials exhibit a wide range of moisture content (on a wet basis),
ranging from less than 10 percent for cereal grain straw up to 50-70 percent for forest
residues.
Ash (A)
It is the residual mass obtained after combustion in the air, under controlled conditions of
time and temperature.
The inorganic component (ash content) can be expressed in the same way as the moisture
content on a wet, dry and dry-and-ash-free basis. In general, the ash content is expressed on
a dry basis as shown below.
Wash
Adry =
Wdry
Wash
Adry % = × 100
Wdry

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Wash and Wdry are the weight of ash and dry mass respectively.
The inherent ash value, an integral part of the plant structure, which consists of a wide
range of elements; represent less than 0.5 percent in wood, 5 to 10 percent in diverse
agricultural crop materials and up to 30 to 40 percent in rice husk.
The total ash content in the biomass and the chemical composition of the ash are both
important. The composition of the ash affects its behavior under the high temperatures of
combustion and gasification.
Volatile Matter (VM)
Volatile matter refers to the part of the biomass that is released when the biomass is heated
(up to 400 to 500ᵒC) in the absence of oxygen and in strictly controlled conditions. It is
calculated using the following equation:
W1- W2
VM % = × 100
W1
Where:
W1 = Weight of oven-dried sample before heating

W2 = Weight of sample after heating
During this heating process, the biomass decomposes into volatile gases and solid char.
Biomass typically has a high volatile matter content (up to 80 percent on oven-dried basis),
whereas coal has a low volatile matter content (less than 20 percent) or in the case of
anthracite coal, a negligible one.
Volatile matter as well can be expressed on wet basis, dry basis, and dry and ash-free basis.
Fixed Carbon (FC)
It is determined by the difference, i.e.
FC % = 100 – (MC % +A % + VM %)
All quantities in percentage are taken on wet basis.
Further, the % content of Moisture, Ash (A), Volatile Matter (VM), Fixed Carbon (FC) – also
Sulfur (S) and Calorific Value (CV) – can be expressed on any of the above basis.
2.4.2 Ultimate Analysis / Elemental Composition
The composition of the ash-free organic component of biomass is relatively uniform. The
major components are carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Most biomass also contains a small
proportion of nitrogen, sulfur and other inorganic constituents. Following table presents the
average range of percentages.
Elementary composition of typical biomass as derived from Ultimate Analyses:
Element Symbol Weight percent (dry-and-ash-free basis)

Carbon C 44-51
Hydrogen H 5.5-6.7
Oxygen O 41-50

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Nitrogen N 0.12-0.60
Sulfur S 0.0-0.2
Ultimate analysis is lengthy, laborious and costly, while proximate analysis is easy and cost
effective. In most cases, the proximate analysis suffices and serves the purpose for
understanding the properties of the feedstock (raw material) specific to its use as a source
of thermal energy.
2.4.3 Heating Value
The heating value of a fuel is an indication of the energy chemically bound in the fuel with
reference to a standardized environment. The standardization involves the temperature,
state of water (vapor or liquid) and the combustion products (CO2, H2O etc.). The energy
chemically bound in the fuel is given by the heating value of the fuel in energy (Joules) per
unit amount of matter (kg). This energy cannot be measured directly but only with respect
to a reference state. Reference states may differ, so a number of different heating values
exist. The best knowns are the higher heating value (HHV) and lower heating value(LHV).
HHV
For the HHV, the reference state of water is liquid. It is the amount of heat released by the
unit mass or volume of fuel at “reference state” (say initially at 25°C) when it is combusted,
and the products of combustion are returned to the “reference state” (initial temperature of
25°C in this case). In fact, it includes the latent heat of vaporization of water.
LHV
For the LHV, the reference state of water is steam (vapor state). In practice, the products of
combustion are rarely cooled to the initial temperature of the fuel, which is generally below
the condensation temperature of steam. So the water vapor in the flue gas does not
condense, and therefore the latent heat of vaporization of water is not recovered. The
effective heat available for use, therefore, is a lower amount. Simply, it is defined as the
amount of heat released by fully combusting a unit quantity of fuel less the heat of
vaporization of the water in exhaust flue gases.
The glaring example is that the temperature of exhaust flue gas of a boiler is normally
maintained in the range of 120 - 180°C.
The relationship between HHV and LHV is given by (Basu, )
9H % MC %
LHV = HHV – 540 × ( + )
100 100
Where LHV, HHV, H, and M are lower heating value, higher heating value, hydrogen
percentage, and moisture percentage, respectively, on as-received basis. Here, the units of
LHV and HHV in kcal/kg. The value 540 is the heat of evaporation of water in kcal/kg.
Other commonly used substitutes for LHV and HHV are:
LHV = Net heating value (NHV), net calorific value (NCV), low calorific value (LCV)
HHV = Gross heating value (GHV), gross calorific value (GCV), high calorific value (HCV)
Biomass always contains some water, which is released as vapor upon heating. This implies
that some of the heat liberated during the chemical reactions is absorbed by the evaporation
process. For this reaction, the net heating value (LHV) decreases as the moisture content of

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the biomass increases (even apart from the fact that a higher moisture content of
combustible matter, which on a wet basis also decreases the net heating value per kilogram
of biomass). The only effect of moisture content on HHV is the lower content of combustible
matter per kilogram of biomass fuel. The heat of evaporation is recovered completely by
condensation of the water vapor when the flue gases are brought into the reference state
belonging to HHV.
2.4.4 Bulk density
Bulk density refers to the weight of material per unit of volume. For biomass, this is
commonly expressed on an oven-dry-weight (moisture content= 0 percent) or an as-is basis,
with a corresponding indication of moisture content (MCwet). Similar to biomass moisture
contents, biomass bulk densities show extreme variation from lows of 150-200 kg/m3 to
600-900 kg/m3. Together, heating value and bulk density determine the energy density, i.e.
the potential energy available per unit volume of the biomass. In general, biomass energy
densities are approximately one-tenth that of fossil fuels, e.g. petroleum or high quality coal.
Bulk density of biomass is expressed as:
kg Weight Weight of Biomass, kg
Bulk Density, 3 = =
m Volume Volume of Biomass, m3
Exhibit 2–1 lists the properties of common biomass resources.

Exhibit 2–1: Properties of Different Biomass Resources
Biomass Moisture Volatile Ash Contents Fixed Gross Calorific

Resource Contents (%) Matter (%) (%) Carbon (%) Value (kcal/kg)
Rice Husk 8.76 64.25 18.26 14.29 3826.96
Cotton Stalk 20.86 60.66 6.28 12.2 3296
Wheat Straw 6.34 61.73 17.64 11.27 3712.37
Bagasse 25.25 48.98 13.45 12.32 3673.6
Source:
Note: List may be expanded, in line with the relevance to the requirements of the Manual.

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3 Processing of BiomassFuels
Prior to its use, the biomass fuel needs to be conditioned according to its application, and
optimum utilization. The conditioning of the biomass fuel involves the processes such as:
 Drying,
 Powdering,
 Pelleting, and
 Briquetting
These processes are discussed in the following sections.
3.1 Drying of Biomass Fuels
There are several established methods, plus some promising technology, for drying biomass
fuels for use in combustion boilers and gasifiers. Drying biomass fuel provides significant
benefits to boiler operation, but they must be balanced against increased capital and
operating costs. Using dry fuel in a direct combustion boiler results in improved efficiency,
increased steam production, reduced ancillary power requirements, reduced fuel use, lower
emissions, and improved boiler operation. (NREL, 1998)
3.2 Dryer Principles
There are three requirements for drying:

1. A source of heat,
2. A method of removing the water evaporated, and
3. Some form of agitation to expose new material fordrying.
3.2.1 Types of Dryers
Dryers can be broadly divided into two categories based on how heat is provided for drying.
In direct dryers, the material gets heat from direct contact with a fluid providing the heat--
either hot air or hot steam. With indirect drying, the material being dried is separated from
the heat source by a heat exchange surface. One important consequence of indirect drying is
that it is possible to recover the latent heat of evaporated water because the water vapor is
not diluted by air.
3.2.2 Stages of Drying
There are several steps to drying. First, the material must be heated from the temperature at
which it entered the dryer, up to the wet bulb temperature, to produce a driving force for
water to leave the wet material (see Glossary for the description of dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures). Next, any surface moisture on the material is evaporated--this occurs fairly
quickly. Once all the surface moisture is removed, the material must be heated to drive
water from the inside of the biomass to the surface so it can evaporate. This occurs during
the "falling rate period" when the rate of drying drops as the material becomes drier. During

11
the falling rate period, the surface temperature of the material remains close to the wet bulb
temperature. Once the material is completely dry, it begins to heat up to the surrounding
temperature, because water is no longer present to keep its temperature low.
Description of simple type of driers is provided in the following sections.
3.3 Dryers Description
3.3.1 Rotary Dryers
Rotary dryers are the most common type used for biomass drying. There are several
variations of rotary dryers, but the most widely used is the directly heated single-pass
rotary dryer. In this dryer, hot gases come into contact with biomass material inside a
rotating drum. Rotation of the drum, with the aid of flights, lifts the solids in the dryer so
they tumble through the hot gas, promoting better heat and mass transfer. If contamination
is not a concern, hot flue gas can be fed directly into the dryer. Other options include using a
burner or a steam heater to raise the temperature of incoming air.
The biomass and hot air normally flow co-currently through the dryer so the hottest gases
come in contact with the wettest material, but for materials where temperature is not a
concern, the flue gas and solids flow in opposite directions, so the driest solids are exposed
to the hottest gases with the lowest humidity. This latter configuration produces the lowest
moisture leaving the dryer, but for biomass this exposes essentially dry material to a high
flue gas temperature, which would increase the fire risk.
Exhibit 3–1: Single-Pass Rotary Dryer
Source: (NREL, 1998)
The exhaust gases leaving the dryer may pass through a cyclone, multicyclone, baghouse
filter, scrubber or electrostatic precipitator (ESP) to remove any fine material entrained in
the air. An ID (induced draft) fan may or may not be required depending on the dryer
configuration. If one is needed, it is usually placed after the emissions control equipment to
reduce erosion of the fan, but may also be placed before the first cyclone to provide the
pressure drop through downstream equipment.
Single-pass dryers can take larger material. The basic single-pass rotary dryer design can be
modified to allow three passes of the air and material through the dryer.
Indirectly heated rotary dryers use a heat source--steam or hot air--passing through the
outer wall of the dryer or through an inner central shaft to heat the dryer by conduction.
This is more common with materials that would be contaminated by direct contact with flue
gases or with materials that react with air.
12
The inlet gas temperature to rotary biomass dryers can vary from (5O - 80°C). Outlet
temperatures from rotary dryers vary from (25° - 30°C), with most of the dryers having
outlet temperatures higher than 30°C to prevent condensation of acids and resins. Retention
times in the dryer can be less than a minute for small particles and 2-3 minutes for larger.
3.3.2 Flash Dryers
In a flash or pneumatic dryer, the solids are mixed with a high-velocity hot air stream. The
intimate contact of the solids with the air results in very rapid drying. The solids and air are
separated using a cyclone, and the gases continue through a scrubber to remove any
entrained particulate material. Exhibit 3–2 shows a simple flash dryer (without a scrubber).
Because of the short drying time in a flash dryer, the equipment is more compact than for a
rotary dryer. However, the electricity consumption is higher because of the faster air flows
through the unit, and because biomass must pass through a shredder or grinder to reduce
its size so it can be suspended in the air stream. For wet or sticky materials, such as sludge,
some of the dry material can be recycled back and mixed with the incoming wet material to
improve material handling.
Exhibit 3–2: Typical Flash Dryer Configuration

Flash dryers have been used successfully for drying most biomass materials, including
wood, sludge, and bagasse.
Gas temperatures are slightly lower for flash dryers than for rotary dryers, but they still
operate at temperatures above the combustion point. The solids retention time in a flash
dryer is typically less than 30 seconds, minimizing the fire hazard.
3.3.3 Disk Dryers
For smaller flows of material, a disk dryer or "porcupine" dryer (Exhibit 3–3) is an option. In
a disk dryer, solids are heated by condensing steam inside of a central shaft with many
hollow disks that increase the area for heat transfer. Fingers or "breaker bars" mix the
material and act to keep the heat transfer surfaces free of buildup. The disk dryer can be
operated under a vacuum or under pressure, and the condensate from inside the heating
shaft can be recovered and returned to the boiler.

13
Exhibit 3–3: Side View of a Disk Dryer
3.3.4 Cascade Dryers
Cascade or spouted dryers (Exhibit 3–4) are commonly used for drying grain, but they can
also be used for other types of biomass. Material is introduced to a flowing stream of hot air
as it enters an enclosed chamber. The material is thrown into the air, then falls, or cascades,
back to the bottom to be lifted again. Some of the material is drawn out through openings in
the side of the chamber that control the residence time and amount of drying. The typical
residence time for a cascade dryer is a couple of minutes.
Exhibit 3–4: Side View of a Cascade Dryer
Source:

14
3.4 Heat Recovery
Drying tends to be energy intensive because, in addition to the heat of vaporization of the
water removed, energy goes into heating the biomass solids and into heating the air or
steam used for drying. Recovery of some of this heat improves the overall efficiency of the
drying process and boiler, but usually requires a significant capital investment.
3.5 Drier Choices
The choice of dryers will depend on the characteristics of the material being dried, the
source of heat for the dryer, and integration options available.
An important consideration is the size of the material to be dried. For flash dryers and most
SSDs, a small particle size is needed to suspend the material in a moving air or steam stream.
Triple-pass rotary dryers will accept larger material, but may experience plugging with very
large material. Cascade dryers need a very uniform particle size. For large or variable
material, a single-pass rotary dryer might be best. For some materials, reducing the size of
the material may be an option, but often this is an energy-intensive operation.
The heat source and temperature for drying are important considerations. Flue gas is an
efficient source of heat, but the temperature may be too low to provide enough heat for
complete drying. Using a process stream for heating may be energy efficient, but will require
the capital investment in a heat exchanger and the interactions between the dryer and
process must be considered. SSDs typically require a high-temperature heat source. If
saturated steam is available, the disk dryer or modified SSD dryer would be an option. The
goal should be to determine what excess heat is available in the system, then design the
drying system to take advantage of it. If all else fails, a burner can be installed with an
auxiliary fuel source to provide the heat for drying.
High-pressure operation can improve material handling in many cases when dealing with
gasifiers. In those cases, the basic or modified superheated dryer would be favored. Again,
SSDs have advantages when used for combined heat and power plants or combined cycle
plants.
3.6 Benefits and Disadvantages of Different Types of Dryers
As mentioned earlier, the choice of dryers depends on many factors. A brief summary of the
benefits and disadvantages of each type of dryer follows. The particular type of dryer, its
configuration, and operating conditions should be determined case-by-case.
Rotary Dryers
Rotary dryers are less sensitive to particle size and can accept the hottest flue gases of any
type of dryer. They have low maintenance costs and the greatest capacity of any type of
dryer. However, material moisture is hard to control in rotary dryers because of the long lag
time for material in the dryer. Rotary dryers also present the greatest fire hazard and
require the most space. Compared to single-pass dryers, triple-pass dryers have higher
capital costs, higher maintenance costs, higher blower costs and pose more of a fire hazard.
Flash Dryers
Flash dryers are much more compact than rotary dryers, but have higher installation costs.
They can be used on most types of biomass, but have high blower power costs in addition to

15
the heat requirements for drying. The particles being dried must be small to be suspended
in the air stream. With the short retention time in the dryer, the hydrocarbon emissions may
be slightly lower than for a rotary dryer. Like the rotary dryer, heat recovery can be difficult
because of the air mixed with the water vapor. Flash dryers, because of their shorter
retention time and lower operating temperature, have a lower fire risk than rotary dryers.
Disk Dryers
The main advantage of disk dryers is that saturated steam can be used for heating. Because
they are indirectly heated, condensing the vapor from the dryer is possible to recover some
of the latent heat of vaporization. Operation is fairly straightforward and maintenance costs
are reasonable. The main disadvantage is the limited capacity because of the relatively low
operating temperature compared to other dryers.
Cascade Dryers
Cascade dryers are similar to flash dryers, except they can handle slightly larger particles.
However, for a good cascading effect in the dryer, the particle size must be fairly uniform.
Like other air-heated dryers, heat recovery is difficult and expensive.
Exhibit 3–5 summarizes the main considerations in choosing among the dryer types.
Exhibit 3–5: Summary of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Dryer
Dryer Type Requires Small Requires Ease of Heat Fire Steam Use
Material? Uniform Size? Recovery Hazard
Rotary Dryer No No Easy Low Can use steam
Flash Dryer Yes No Difficult Medium None
Disk Dryer No No Easy Low Saturated

steam
Cascade Dryer No Yes Difficult Medium None
3.7 Fuel Powdering, Pelleting andBriquetting
Depending on the combustion technology used fuel products must fulfill different
requirements. The demand to get the fuel product either powdered or as fluff, in pelletized
form, or as briquettes or chips of defined size is not uncommon.
3.7.1 Powdering
Fuel material of small particle size (e.g. sawdust) is being generated by many production
processes. With the appropriate utilization technology in place, such fuels can be directly
utilized. The storage of fuel products with a small particle size can be done in flat bunkers
and in silos. However, special provisions are also made with respect to fire protection and
prevention of explosions during the storage of these materials.
However, in case the size of available material needs to be reduced, it can be done by using
suitable equipment.

16
3.7.2 Pelletizing and Briquetting
Pellets are a solid biomass fuel with consistent quality – low moisture content, high energy
density and homogeneous size and shape. The problems of conventional biomass fuels as an
alternative to coal, oil or gas, which are attributed mainly to their low energy density, high
moisture content and heterogeneity, can be lessened or even prevented altogether by the
use of pellets. Consistent fuel quality makes pellets a suitable fuel type for all areas of
application, from stoves and central heating systems to large-scale plants, and with
practically complete automation in all these capacity ranges.
Advantages of solid biomass fuels are:
 Reduced storage volume through an increased bulk density of the losefuelmaterial,
 Better flow properties and dosage,
 Avoidance of bridges and clumping in silos and conveyoraggregates
 Enhancement of the energy density and calorific content by pressure andheat.
Aside from compression pressure and grain size, also water content plays an essential role
in the process. Adding binding agents can help to improve the physical and chemical quality
and enhance the burnout.
The shape and particle size of a fuel usually determine the correct choice of feeding and
furnace technologies as they influence the conveying and combustion behavior of the fuel.
The bigger the fuel particles are, the more robust feeding appliances have to be and the
longer becomes the required time for complete combustion.
Biomass pellets are usually 6-8mm diameter cylindrical high density sticks, while briquettes
can be 22-70mm diameter cylindrical blocks, or cuboid and hexagon shape with a hole in the
middle.
Exhibit 3–6: Pellets and Briquettes
Pellets Briquettes
Different types of pellets mills include:

Flat Die Pellet Mill
The image to the right depicts the basic design and process of the flat die pellet mill. A solid
metal plate sits below a series of compression rollers. Material enters from above and falls

17
between the rollers, which is then compressed through the die. The finished pellets then
emerge from the base of the die and leave the pellet mill.
Exhibit 3–7: Flat Die Pellet Mil
Exhibit 3–8: Effect of pelletizing
Average Ash Average Moisture

Material Calorific value
diameter content density content
Rice husk 2-3mm 15-16% 500kg/m3 About 12% 10-13 MJ/kg
Rice husk pellet 8-10mm 6-7% 1120kg/m3 10-12% 15-16 MJ/kg
Ring Die Pellet Mill
The image to the right depicts the basic design and operation of the ring die pellet mill.
Unlike the flat die pellet mill design the ring die is positioned vertically instead of
horizontally. The raw material enters the center of the die and is compressed through the
die with a series of compression rollers. Most ring die pellet mills have two compression
rollers, however some ring die pellet mills have three maybe four compression rollers. The
most common design of ring die pellet mill is where the die is powered and rotating, and the
rollers move due to the friction and movement of the die.
Exhibit 3–9: Ring Die Pellet Mill

18
Briquetting
Briquetting presses operate as piston compressors with a fly wheel, slider crank, crosshead
and plunger or with a hydraulic drive. After initial compression in a screw conveyor the
material passes under pressure batch wise through the compression tools, cone for pre-
compression and the press nipper. Within the press nipper a heating or cooling can be done.
The briquette is wedged from the pneumatic press nipper in a pressure variable way
Piston rod presses are being used for the compression of sawdust, splinter, straw, paper
fibers and similar materials.
Through the production of briquettes in various shapes, an optimal burning (burnout,
burning duration) of the fuel material can be achieved.

19
4 Biomass conversion technologies
The conversion of biomass to energy (also called bioenergy) encompasses a wide range of
different types and sources of biomass, conversion options, end-use applications and
infrastructure requirements.
Biomass conversion technologies are broadly divided into the following prime categories:
 Thermochemical conversion
 Biochemical conversion
These technologies are briefly described in the following sections.
4.1 Thermochemical conversion
There are three major options under thermochemical conversion, namely:

• Combustion
• Gasification
• Pyrolysis
4.1.1 Combustion
Combustion is basically an oxidation process, in which the flammable materials burn in the
presence of air or oxygen, and as a result produce heat. Reactions producing heat are termed
as exothermic.
In the combustion process, the oxidation carbon (C) and hydrogen (H2) predominantly
present in the biomass takes place, and they are converted to dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Biomass also contains traces of other elements. Some of these are also oxidized, and
released as gas in the flue gasses, or as solid as ash or slag.
The biomass is burnt in stoves, furnaces, and boilers. The temperature of hot gases
produced is around 800 1000°C. The heat generated, as a result of combustion of biomass, is
utilized over a side range of applications, such as, cooking, heating of materials, and
producing steam. Steam produced is then utilized for heating purposes in industrial and
commercial facilities, for producing mechanical or electrical power by operating steam
turbines and turbo-generators.
It is possible to burn any type of biomass but in practice combustion is feasible only for
biomass with moisture content <50%. Therefore, in case of very high moisture content, the
biomass is pre-dried.
4.1.2 Gasification
Gasification is a partial oxidation process whereby a carbon source such as coal, natural gas
or biomass, is broken down into carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H 2), plus carbon
dioxide (CO2) and possibly hydrocarbon molecules such as methane (CH4).
This mixture of gases is known as ‘producer gas’ or product gas (or wood gas or coal gas,
depending on the feedstock), and the precise characteristics of the gas will depend on the
21
gasification parameters, such as temperature, and also the gasification agent used, such as
air or steam or oxygen or a mixture of these.
When using air as the gasification medium, the resulting high nitrogen (N2) content doubles
the volume of the product gad and increase the size of the downstream gas cleaning
equipment.
Low temperature gasification
If the gasification takes place at a relatively low temperature, such as 700°C to 1000°C, the
product gas will have a relatively high level of hydrocarbons compared to high temperature
gasification (see below). As a result it may be used directly, to be burned for heat or
electricity generation via a steam turbine or, with suitable gas clean up, to run an internal
combustion engine for electricity generation.
High temperature gasification
Higher temperature gasification (1200°C to 1600°C) leads to few hydrocarbons in the

product gas, and a higher proportion of CO and H2.
This is commonly known as synthesis gas as it can be used to synthesize longer chain
hydrocarbons using special conversion techniques.
Gasification technology can be used for:
 Heating water in central heating, district heating or process heating applications
 Steam generation
 Electricity generation or motive force
 As part of systems producing electricity or motive force

Gasification process is actually composed of four distinct processes, namely, combustion,
drying, pyrolysis and reduction. Since, the gasification is the subject of this manual, these
will be discussed in detail throughout this manual.
4.1.3 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis consists of thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen at

temperatures in the vicinity of 500°C. The products of pyrolysis include gas, liquid and a
sold char, with the proportions of each depending upon the parameters of theprocess.
It can lower or higher temperature pyrolysis.
Lower temperatures (around 400°C) tend to produce more solid char (slow pyrolysis),
whereas somewhat higher temperatures (around 500°C) produce a much higher proportion
of volatile matters.
4.2 Biochemical conversion
The prominent biochemical technologies are:
 Anaerobic digestion
 Fermentation

22
4.2.1 Anaerobic digestion (AD)
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the process whereby bacteria break down organic material
(biomass) in the absence of air into methane, carbon dioxide, and solid residue. In this
process, the bacteria utilize oxygen from biomass itself instead of from the ambient air. Its
product gas is called biogas.
There are three basic AD processes, which take place over different temperature ranges.
Psychrophilic digestion
It takes place below 25°C, and rate is slower. It takes 70 to 80 days.

Mesophilic digestion
It takes place between 20°C and 40°C and can take 30 to 40 days to complete.
Thermophilic digestion
It takes place from 50-65°C and is faster, but the bacteria are more sensitive. This process
takes 15 to 20 days to complete.
Parameters affecting the anaerobic digestion are temperature, pH (acidity/alkalinity) of the
digestate, and concentration of ammonia. High concentration of ammonia inhibits the
digestion process.
The methane can be burned for heat or electricity generation.
The solid residue of the AD process can be used as a soil conditioner. In fact, it is an excellent
fertilizer
The digesters are simple, cheap, robust, easy to operate and maintain, and can be
constructed with local produced materials. Usually, there are no control instruments and no
process heating (psychrophilic or mesophilic operation temperatures).
4.2.2 Fermentation
In this process, biomass is converted into sugar using acid or enzyme. Sugar is then
converted into ethanol or other chemicals with the help of yeast.
More information on fermentation to be included.

23
5 Biomass gasifiers
Two principal types of gasifiers have emerged: fixed bed and fluidized bed. Fixed bed gasifiers
are typically simpler, easy to operate and less expensive. They produce a higher heat content
producer gas. Fluidized bed gasifiers are more complicated and more expensive. However, they
produce a product gas with a higher heating value.
5.1 Fixed bed gasifiers
Fixed bed gasifiers typically have a fixed grate inside a refractory-lined shaft. The fresh
biomass fuel is typically placed on top of the pile of fuel, char, and ash inside the gasifier.
Fixed bed gasifiers typically offer 5 - 15 % pressure drops based on feed size and gasifier
type. A further distinction is based on the direction of flow of the gasifying agent (air or
oxygen).
Schematics of the primary section of the fixed bed gasifier types are described and shown in
the following sections.
5.1.1 Downdraft or co-current gasifier
In the downdraft gasifier (Exhibit 5–1), the air flows down through the bed and leaves as
producer gas under the grate, while the feedstock is charged from the top.
Exhibit 5–1: Typical Downdraft or concurrent gasifier
Source: Kaupp
5.1.2 Updraft or counter-current gasifier
In this type of gasifier (Exhibit 5–2), the air enters into the gasifier below the grate, flows up
through the grate, and producer gas is collected above the bed.

25
5.1.3 Cross-draft or cross-flow gasifier
In the cross-draft gasifier (Exhibit 5–3), the air flows across the bed, exiting as product gas,
i.e. gasifying agent enters from one side of the gasifier and leaves from the other side.
Exhibit5–2: Updraftgasifier
Source: Kaupp
Exhibit 5–3: Cross-flow gasifier
Source: Kaupp
5.1.4 Comparison and characteristics of fixed bed gasifiers

Fixed bed gasifiers are usually used for high capacity, typically used for generation systems that
are able to produce greater than 50 MW. Developers have identified a good match between fixed
bed gasifiers and large-scale distributed power generation equipment. However, the variable
economics of biomass collection and feeding, coupled with the gasifier’s high efficiency, make
26
the economic viability of the technology particularly site-specific.
Exhibit 5–4 compares fixed bed gasifier types, while Exhibit 5–5 provides typical physical
characteristics of a fixed bed gasifier.
Exhibit 5–4: Comparison of fixed bed gasification technologies
Type of gasifier
Downdraft Updraft Crossflow
Biomass is introduced
Biomass is introduced
Biomass is introduced from from the top and moves
from the top and moves
the top and moves downward.Syngas is
downward. Some
downward. Syngas is extracted opposite the
drying occurs. Syngas is
Operation extracted at the bottom at air nozzle at the
extracted at the top.
grate level. grate.
Can handle higher-

Tars and particulate in the moisture biomass. Simplest of designs.
syngas are lower, allowing Higher temperatures Stronger circulation in
direct use in some engines can destroy some toxins the hot zone. Lower
Advantages
without cleanup. The grate and slag minerals and temperatures allow the
is not exposed to high metal. Higher tar use of less expensive
temperatures. content adds to heating construction materials.
value.
Biomass must be very dry
(<20 percent moisture Higher tar content can
content). The syngas is hot foul engines or More complicated to
and must be cooled if compressors. The grate operate. Reported
Disadvantages compression or extensive is exposed to high issues with slagging.
cleanup is required. About temperatures and must High levels of carbon
4 to 7 percent of the carbon be cooled or otherwise (33%) in the ash.
is unconverted andremains protected.
in the ash.
Source: EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership Biomass CHP Catalog
Exhibit 5–5: Typical Characteristics of a Fixed Bed Gasifier
Parameter Fixed Bed, Downdraft

Fuel size (mm) 1 – 10
Fuel ash content (% weight) <20
Operating temperature (°C) 700 – 800
Control Simple
Turn-down ratio 4:01
Construction material Mild steel + refractory
Capacity, MW thermal > 50

27
Biomass, tonnes /day) > 30
Start-up time Minutes

Operator attention Low
Tar content (kg/GJ product gas) < 0.005
Heating value (MJ/Nm3) HHV 4.8

Source: GasNet, n.d.; EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership Biomass CHP Catalog
5.2 Fluidized bed gasifiers
Fluidized bed gasifiers utilize the same gasification processes and offer higher performance
than fixed bed systems, but with greater complexity and cost. Similar to fluidized bed
boilers, the primary gasification process takes place in a bed of hot inert materials
suspended by an upward motion of oxygen-deprived gas (Exhibit 5–6). As the amount of gas
is augmented to achieve greater throughput, the bed will begin to levitate and become
“fluidized.” Sand or alumina is often used to further improve the heat transfer. Fluidized bed
gasifiers have the certain disadvantage of higher pressure drops usually ranging from 20 -
25 %. Notable benefits of fluidized bed devices are their high productivity (per area of bed)
and flexibility. Fluidized bed gasifiers can also handle a wider range of biomass feedstock
with moisture contents up to 30 percent on average.
Exhibit 5–6: Fluidized Bed Gasifier
Source: Andritz AG

28
There are three stages of fluidization that can occur on the gasifier depending on the design:
 Bubbling,
 Recirculating, and
 Entrained flow.
At the lower end of fluidization, the bed expands and begins to act as a fluid. As the velocity
is increased, the bed will begin to “bubble.” With a further increase in airflow, the bed
material begins to lift off the bed. This material is typically separated in a cyclone and “re-
circulated” to the bed. With still higher velocities, the bed material is entrained (i.e., picked
up and carried off in the airflow).
Fluidized bed gasifiers can be designed to use a portion of the pyrolysis gases to generate
the heat to drive the process, or they can be externally fired. Operating the gasifier at higher
pressures increases the throughput; however, this also increases the gasifier’s complexity
and cost. In these units, the biomass is fully converted after going through the pyrolysis and
char conversion processes.
By reducing the quantity of air and process temperature, it is possible to operate fluidized
bed boilers as gasifiers. In this operating mode, the gasifiers produce a gas with a heating
value of slightly more than 100 Btu/ft3. This gas is burned above the bed as additional air
supply is injected upstream of the boiler tube section.
Exhibit 5–7 lists typical physical characteristics of a fluidized bed gasifier. A number of
advanced-concept fluidized bed gasifiers aiming to produce a syngas with a heating value
between 250 and 400 Btu/ft3 are under development. This type of syngas would be more
appropriate for use in gas turbines, fuel cells, and reciprocating internal combustion
engines; however, these advanced concept gasifiers have not reached the point where they
are proven in commercial operation.
Exhibit 5–7: Typical Characteristics of a Fluidized Bed Gasifier
Parameter Fluidized Bed
Fuel size (mm) 0 – 20
Fuel ash content (% weight) 20-25
Operating temperature (°C) 700 - 950
Control Average
Turn-down ratio 3
Construction material Heat-resistant steel
Capacity, MW thermal >5
Biomass, tonnes/day > 30
Start-up time Hours
Operator attention Average
Tar content (kg/GJ product gas) < 0.86

29
Heating value (MJ/Nm3) HHV 5.6
Source: GasNet, n.d.; EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership Biomass CHP Catalog
5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gasifiertypes
Fixed bed and fluidized bed gasifiers have specific operating advantages and disadvantages
with biomass fuels depending on the biomass characteristics and site requirements. Exhibit
5–8 provides a qualitative comparison of gasifier characteristics and operating issues for
fixed bed and fluidized bed systems.
Exhibit 5–8: Relative advantages/disadvantages of gasifier types
Gasifier Advantages Disadvantages

Mature for heat Small-scale Feed size limits High tar
applications Can handle yields Scale limitations Low
Updraft fixed bed
high moisture No carbon in heating value Slagging
ash potential
Large-scale applications Feed size limits Scale

Downdraft fixed bed
Low particulates Low tar Moisture-sensitive
Large-scale applications
Feed characteristics
Medium tar yield Higher
Bubbling fluid bed Direct/indirect heating Can
particle loading
produce higher heating
value gas
Large-scale applications
Feed characteristics Can Medium tar yield Higher
Circulating fluid bed
produce higher heating particle loading
value gas
Can be scaled Potential for
Large amount of carrier gas
low tar Potential for low
Entrained flow fluid bed Higher particle loading
methane Can produce
Particle size limits
higher heating value gas
5.4 Factors influencing gasification
The performance of a well-controlled gasification process aims to minimize the production

of tar and char and optimize the formation of product gas of high heating value. It depends
on many factors and operational parameters, such as:
 Properties of the Biomass – composition, heating value, moisture content, bulk

density, particle size
 Gasifier design

30
 Gasification agent
 Equivalence ratio
 Hearth load
 Turndown ratio
 Superficial gasvelocity
 Operating temperature
 Operating pressure
 Catalyst (if used)
These factors are discussed in the following sections and other chapters as appropriate.
5.4.1 Equivalence Ratio (ER)
ER is defined as the ratio of oxygen supplied per kg wood to the stoichiometric requirement.
ER fixes the amount of air supplied for gasification. The equation for calculating ER is
(Kaupp, 1984):
(𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡)
⁄ (𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙) (𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐸𝑅) =
(𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡)⁄
(𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙) (𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
As the ER value approaches 1.0, combustion reaction is predominant, and as it tends to zero,
pyrolysis is the major process.
The ER for gasification processes as they take place in practice lies between those two
extremes and within a range of 0.2 to o.4 for steady state operation. This range refers to the
partial combustion zone of the gasification process. A value of 0.3 ER is the theoretical
optimum (Jenkins, B.M. 1980) [FAO; 19].
All the gasifier designs are based on the above-mentioned optimum. For a given biomass
consumption rate, the volumetric rate of air can be calculated from ER value (Kaupp, A. and
Goss, J.R. 1981) [FAO; 20].
For example, normally, the value of ER for wood is 0.255.
5.4.2 Hearth load / Specific gasification rate(SGR)
It is defined as the amount of producer gas to be obtained in a unit time per unit cross-
sectional area of the gasifier throat, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gasifier.
It is also referred as specific gasification rate (SGR).
It is expressed as: Nm3/cm2-h (normal cubic meters of producer gas produced per cm2
minimum cross-sectional area of the gasifier (throat) in one (1) hour. Mathematically,
𝑁𝑚3
𝑆𝐺𝑅 =
𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
The hearth load varies between an upper limit, SGRmax, above which the gas quality is poor
because of charcoal dusting in the combustion zone and a lower limit, SGRmin below which
due to too low temperature in the hearth, the gas will contain unacceptably large quantities
31
of tar. For the satisfactory and continuous operation of specifically Imbert gasifiers, and
other similar reactors, the limits for SGRmax and SGRmin are:
0.9 𝑁𝑚3 0.3 ~ 0.35 𝑁𝑚 3
𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
5.4.3 Fuel consumption rate (FCR) and SGRrelationship
Fuel consumption rate (FCR) is defined as the amount of fuel consumed in a unit time per
unit cross-sectional area of the gasifier throat, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in
the gasifier.
It is expressed as: kg/cm2-h (kg of fuel consumed in the gasifier per cm2 minimum cross-
sectional area of the gasifier (throat) in one (1) hour. Mathematically,
𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝐶𝑅 =
𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
Depending on properties of fuel used, one (1) kg of biomass fuel consumed in a gasifier,
under normal operating conditions, generated producer gas in the range of 2 -2.5 Nm3 of
producer gas. Accordingly, the relationship between SGR and FCR is expressed as:
𝑆𝐺𝑅 = 2.5 × 𝐹𝐶𝑅

(When 2.5 Nm3 of producer gas is generated per kg of fuel, especially for wood.)

(When 2.0 Nm3 of producer gas is generated per kg of fuel, especially for rice husk.)
The relationship is the function of amount of gas generated per kg of fuel consumed.
When 2.5 Nm3 gas produced per kg of fuel, and SGRmax is 0.9, rearranging the equation:
𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.4 × 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.4 × 0.9 = 0.36
𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
For the other extreme case, when 2.0 Nm3 gas produced per kg of fuel, and SGRmax is 0.9,
rearranging the equation:
𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5 × 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝐶𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5 × 0.9 = 0.45
𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ
5.4.4 Gasification efficiency
The maximum dilution of gas takes place because of presence of nitrogen. Almost 50-60%
of gas is composed of non-combustible nitrogen.It may be beneficial to use oxygen instead of
air for gasification but the cost effectiveness of the process comes under scrutiny.
However the cost and availability of oxygen may be a limiting factor in this regard.
Nevertheless where the end product is methanol – a high-energy quality item, then the cost
and use of oxygen can be justified.
On an average 1 kg of biomass produces about 2.5 m3 of producer gas at normal conditions
In this process it consumes about 1.5 m3 of air for combustion. For complete combustion of
32
wood about 4.5 m3 of air is required. Thus biomass gasification consumes about 33% of
theoretical stoichiometric ratio for wood burning.
The average energy conversion efficiency of biomass gasifiers (especially wood based
gasifiers) is about 60-70% and is defined as:
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝜂𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
5.4.5 Turndown ratio (TDR)
It is the ratio between SGRmax and SGRmin. Its range under these conditions can be
calculated as the following for SGRmax = 0.9 and SGRmin = 0.3 – 0.35:
𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝐷𝑅 =
𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.9 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝐷𝑅 = =3
0.3 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.9 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝐷𝑅 = = 2.57 (𝑠𝑎𝑦 2.5)
0.35 𝑆𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
So, in this case, the TDR ranges between 2.5 and 3.0.
5.4.6 Superficial Gas Velocity (SGV)
It is expressed in m/s. SGR is the velocity of gas at the throat of the gasifier in the
gasification zone considering the throat to be empty. The relationship between hearth load
(SGR) and SGV is:
𝑆𝑉𝐺 = 0.36 𝑆𝐺𝑅
The superficial velocity corresponding to a hearth load (SGR) of 0.9 Nm3/cm2-h is 2.5 m/s,
calculated as:
0.9 𝑁𝑚3 10,000 𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ 𝑚
𝑆𝐺𝑉 = 𝑐𝑚2 × ℎ × 𝑚2 × 3,600 𝑠
= 2.5
𝑠
The actual gas velocity at the throat of the gasifier is much more compared to this value due
to presence of char/biomass particles and high temperature in the oxidation zone of the
gasifier.
It is an important parameter influencing the performance and behavior of the gasifier. It

controls the following aspects of the gasification process:
 Fuelconsumptionrate
 Gas productionrate
 Charproduction
 Tarproduction
 Product gasheatingvalue

33
5.4.7 Operating temperature
Temperature control of the gasification is an essential variable. It corresponds to the ER,

TDR and biomass consumption rate.
Increase in temperature increases the formation of combustible gases, decreases the yield of
char and tar and leads to more complete conversion of the fuel into product gas.
Hydrocarbon gases (especially methane and ethylene) increase with temperature while the
yields of higher hydrocarbons decrease at temperatures above 650°C. The energy content of
the product gas increases steadily up to 720°C then decreases at higher temperatures.
Hence, the optimum temperature generally ranges from 650°C to 720°C. In fact, while
depending upon other variables, it is very much biomass specific to fuel properties.
5.4.8 Operating pressure
Operating pressure of the gasifier is another important variable.

The rate of char gasification and yields of methane increase with increasing pressure, and
the impacts are most significant at high temperatures (900°C to 950°C).
Small scale gasifiers are normally operated at slightly negative pressure (Vacuum), while
large scale gasifier integrated with gas turbines operate at high pressures, since the gas
turbines operate at elevated pressures.
5.5 Gasifiers population andsizes
Downdraft gasifiers are most common (Exhibit 5–9). The population of various types of
gasifiers is:
Exhibit 5–9: Population of gasifiers by design
Downdraft 75%
Fluidized bed 20%
Updraft 2.5%
Other designs 2.5%
Source: Knoef, 2000 (Basu)
Preferred gasification technologies at different sizes is illustrated in Exhibit 5–10

34
Exhibit 5–10: Sizes of biomass gasifier for different designs for application ranges
Source: TPS, Inc., Nykoping, Sweden

35
6 Auxiliary equipment
Gasifiers are very fuel specific and they are tailored according to the fuel. There is no such
thing as a universal gasifier. Further, fuel used, gasifier design and operating conditions
influence the quality and quantity of product gas. For a specific fuel, a well-designed and
properly operated gasifier will tend to produce good quality product gas with fewer
impurities. Impurities usually present in the product gas are discussed below.
6.1 Producer gas impurities
The product gas leaving the gasifier is hot and may contain a number of impurities,
including:
 Moisture
 Particulates
 Tar
 Traceimpurities
6.1.1 Moisture Content
It is desirable to use fuel with low moisture content because heat loss due to its evaporation
before gasification is considerable and the heat balance of the gasification reaction is
disturbed. High moisture content also puts extra load on cooling and filtering equipment by
increasing the pressure drop across these units because of condensing of moisture vapors.
Thus, as the situation demands, the fuel should be pre-dried / treated to reduce / limit its
moisture content. Generally, moisture content for fuel should be less than 20%, preferably
15%.
6.1.2 Particulate Content
All gasifier fuels produce dust particulates in varying quantity. It is a nuisance since it can
clog the end-use equipment, where the product gas is used. Hence, it must be removed to
the permissible limits specified for end-use of the product gas. Through gasifier design and
control of operating parameters, it should be ensured that the gasifier does not produce
more than 2-6 g/m3 of dust. Higher dust levels pose additional load on cleaning systems,
therefore, necessitating their large size and frequent maintenance.
6.1.3 Tar Content
Tar is another most unpleasant constituent of the gasification process. On cooling of product
gas, it condenses, and tends to deposit and clog the system, e.g. the carburetor and intake
valves of internal combustion engine causing sticking and troublesome operations. The
physical property of tar depends upon temperature and heat rate of the gasifier and the
appearance ranges from brown and watery (60% water) to black and highly viscous (7%
water).

37
6.1.4 Trace impurities
Trace impurities present in the product gas depend on the composition of biomass fuel used.
They are mostly, nitrogen compounds, sulfur compounds, and alkali compounds, besides
oxides of other heavy metal present in the biomass gasified. Nitrogen compounds are
present mainly as ammonia. Alkali components consist of particularly Na and K compounds.
Oxides of sulfur and hydrochloric acid are other impurities. These impurities cause many
problems including corrosion.
6.2 Producer gasquality
Gasification systems are employed in integrated configuration. The product gas may be used
for heating purposes in a furnace or steam generation, driving an internal combustion
engine, and in a gas turbine. Depending on the application of the producer gas, a certain
level of gas conditioning (cleaning and cooling) is required.
When a gasifier system is used in conjunction with an internal combustion engine or cold
gas transfer is used, it is important that the engine is supplied with a gas that is sufficient
free from dust, tars and acids. The tolerable amounts of these substances will vary
depending on the types and outfit of the engine. Average tolerable values of impurities for
currently available engines are as the following (Tiedema et al., 1983):
Dust: Lower than 50 mg/m³ gas preferably 5 mg/m³ gas

Tars: Lower than 500 mg/m³ gas
Acids: Lower than 50 mg/m³ gas (measured as acetic acid).
(The acid value is measured as acetic acid, which can be tested by a testing laboratories.)
Gas turbines also require high quality product gas. However, gas turbines are less sensitive
to tar as compared to internal combustion engines, because the gas entering the gas turbine
is usually at high temperature and therefore the tar is in vapor state.
Meanwhile, higher limits of impurities are tolerable for the heating applications.
6.3 Cooling and cleaning of productgas
The two processes are described in the following sections.
6.3.1 Cooling process
It is invariably done in water scrubbers, where partial cleaning takes place simultaneously
along with cooling of gas.
6.3.2 Gas Cleaning Options
As discussed earlier, the end-use of the gas determines the degree of cleanup required and
can be achieved by either of the following two options:
Hot gas cleaning
The benefit of hot-gas cleaning is that more energy is gained from the gas but the process
poses significant technical challenges.
38
Cold gas cleaning
The cold-gas cleaning is technically simpler but produces a wastewater contaminated with
tar, which is likely to pose a disposal problem. It is discussed in the following section.
6.3.3 Tar removing options
There are two options of the removal of tar present in the product gas.
Tar cracking
Tar can be cracked into lower molecular weight compounds using either catalytic or thermal
processes.
Catalytic cracking takes place at 800-900°C and thermal cracking at 900-1100°C. As
gasification is usually in the range 800-900°C, thermal cracking requires additional energy
to heat the gas, which is usually achieved by introducing a small volume of air to enable
combustion of part of the gas to raise the temperature. While an effective method, thermal
cracking reduces the overall efficiency of conversion of biomass-to-energy gasification
process. Catalytic cracking is therefore preferred, using catalysts such as dolomite, olivine
and nickel compounds. A uniform and high temperature has been found to be the ideal
combination to achieve the total cracking of tar.
Removal of tar by cleaning unit
Production of a very low tar content gas is best achieved by cooling the gas to 60-80°C with
water and using electrostatic precipitators to capture any aerosols. However this approach
also collects water condensed from the gas phase during cooling, resulting in a wastewater
heavily contaminated with dissolved organic substances, which require appropriate
treatment and/or disposal.
6.3.4 Cooling and cleaning train
Depending on the size of gasification system and quality of product gas needed, the cooling
and cleaning train may consist of the following units:
 Cyclone separator (one or two units)
 Water scrubbers (one or two units)
 Filtration units (one or two)
6.4 Cyclone separator
As system requires, the gas just leaving the gasifier is sent to the cyclone separator to
separate dust particulates, before the gas enters the water based cooling and scrubbing unit.

39
Exhibit 6–1: Typical cyclone separator
6.5 Water showering/coolingunit
Temperature of the product gas leaving the gasifier is normally in the range of 350°C to
450°C. When the gas cools to 150°C, the tar condenses, solidifies and settles.
Cooling and scrubbing unit is cylindrical vessel as shown in Exhibit 6–2. Raw hot gas enters
the unit from bottom and cool scrubbed gas leaves from the top. Gas. While, from the top,
pressurized water is sprayed through nozzles in the form of mist (fine water droplets).
Contaminated hot water flows downward and is collected from the bottom. The flow of
water and gas is countercurrent.
Exhibit 6–2: Cylindrical unit of scrubbing and cooling

40
Pebbles may be used as the filling medium in the cooling vessel. It will need flushing of the
system / pebbles at appropriate regular intervals.
6.6 Gas Cleaning Unit
For small sized gasification systems, the gas cleaning filter units are simple, cost effective
and can be easily operated. A reliable filter medium should meet the following criteria:
1. Neutralandnon-reactive
2. Easilyavailablein differentgrainsizegrades
3. Inexpensive andeasilyavailable
4. Canwithstandhighgas temperature
5. Easy tocleanand recyclei.e. regenerativematerial
The filter consists of following five compartments (Pathak et al., 2007) as shown in Exhibit
6–3:
1. First compartment: Rawgascollection
2. Second compartment: 1stfiltrationmaterial
3. Third compartment: 2ndfiltrationmaterial
4. Fourth compartment: 3rdfiltrationmaterial
5. Fifthcompartment: Cleanproducergascollection
The second, third and fourth compartment are filled with, wood sheaves, small pieces of
charcoal and sawdust respectively.
The area of gas cleaning filter is designed for superficial velocity of 0.1 m/s and for
maximum designed gas flow rate of the gasifier in m3/h. Area of the filter, in m2, can be
easily calculated for the two known quantities. (Pathak et al., 2007)
The sand/biomass bed filter can be designed and fabricated in rectangular shape from 3 mm
thick mild steel or stainless steel sheet. Wire meshes fabricated from stainless steel may be
used to separate filter bed. Most of the gas contaminants (particulates and tar) are deposited
in the initial 20 to 30 mm layers of bed height (Pathak et al., 2007). Therefore, to be on safe
side, the height of each bed in the filter should be increased 2 to 3 times the actual size.

41
Exhibit 6–3: Schematic Diagram of sand bed filter to clean producer gas (Pathak et al., 2007)
In the three respective stages of the filter: (1) sun dried wood shave is used to remove the
moisture from the producer gas, (2) coal is used to remove coarse particulates and tar, and
(3) wood saw dust or fine sand is used to remove fine particulates and tar. Wire meshes
having size equivalent to that of respective material size is used to separate the beds. The
three beds of wood shaves, charcoal and fine wood saw dust should be easily removed and
replaced by fresh material by opening the door provided at the upper side of the filter. As
shown in the exhibit, the entrance and exit of the producer gas is on oppositesides.
Pressure drop across the filtration units will indicate their status. It can be measured by
using a suitable manometer. Excessive pressure drop calls for the maintenance.
Special note
For continuous operation, the cooling / scrubbing units and filtering units should have
standby units (placed in parallel). The arrangement will facilitate, the flushing, maintenance
and replacement of the cooling and filtering mediums and regular intervals.

42
7 Instrumentation, measurement and controls
Instruments and controls are essential for a gasification system to assume safe, efficient and
reliable operation. The subject of instruments and controls is extremely broad, and this
section limits itself to some brief concepts and underlying fundamentals.
Controls range from simple manual systems to completely automatic computer-assisted
systems, and hence the type of control system used in a gasification system would depend
upon the requirements of the total operation and the cost involved. The following sections
cover many of the typical instruments and controls.
7.1 Gasification Instrumentation
Important control parameters in a gasification plant are: :

 Pressure
 Temperature

Other desirable measurements include producer gas analysis, exhaust flue gas analysis,
, and . The completeness and sophistication of the instrumentation
used is usually proportional to the size and complexity of the unit.
7.2 Pressure Measurement
Normally pressure gauges are used to measure pressure at different points. Pressure gauge
is a device to indicate the pressure of a fluid. Commonly Bourdon-Tube gauges are for
pressure measurements. It indicates the amount of deflection under internal pressure of an
oval tube bent in an arc of circle and closed at one end.
Other modes of pressure measurements are:
 Manometermethod
 Elastic ElementMethod
 Bellows Elements
 Diaphragm Elements
 Electrical / ElectronicMethods
Fixed bed gasifiers mostly operate under vacuum (negative pressure), close to atmospheric pressure. Under
these conditions, the use of manometers is proper and useful. Other alternative is the use of sensetive
vacuum gauge.

43
Exhibit 7–1: Manometer
7.3 Temperature Measurement
Temperatures are measured by:

 Thermocouples
 Resistance Thermometers
 Filled-system Thermometers
 Bi-metallicThermometers
 Liquid-in-glass Thermometers
 Pyrometers
For measurement of high temperatures, thermocouples or resistance thermometers are

used. For lower temperature range, filled system or liquid-in-glass thermometers are
appropriate. See Exhibit 7–2.
Exhibit 7–2: Digital Thermometer and Probes for Different Applications
Where access to hot surface or pipe-work is not easy, it is often possible to achieve good
results using a non-contact temperature measuring instruments such as an infrared
thermometer, illustrated in Exhibit 7–3.

44
Exhibit 7–3: Typical Infrared Thermometer for Non-contact Temperature Measurement
7.4 Producer gasanalyzer
Analysis of the producer gases is a very useful mean to optimize and control the gasifier
operation. For this purpose, digital based and very handy analyzers can be used. A typical
portable producer gas analyzer is shown in Exhibit 7–4.
Exhibit 7–4: A portable producer gas analyzer
Measuring range of these analyzers is:

CO: 0-100%, CO2: 0-50%, CH4 : 0-10%, CnHm : 0-10%, O2: 0-25%, H2: 0-50%
Gas fed to the analyzers must be free from dust, water vapor and tar. Otherwise, they are
reliable, accurate and have quick response time.

45
7.5 Flue Gas Analysis
For flue gas analysis, there are a number of methods available. The traditional method is the
"Orsat" apparatus (Exhibit 7–5a), which uses chemical solutions to absorb carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide and oxygen from a flue gas sample. Changes in volume of the sample indicate
the gas composition. A simplified version of the Orsat is shown in Exhibit 7–5b. This
particular model is the "Fyrite" analyzer (other proprietary names are used by other
manufacturers). Each Fyrite kit contains two plastic containers, each with an appropriate
chemical fluid, one for oxygen analysis and one for carbon dioxide analysis. A gas sample is
introduced into the container through a non-return valve and thoroughly mixed with the
absorbing solution. A change in volume indicates directly the volume percentage of the
particular component in the flue gas.
While the wet chemical test methods are quite inexpensive to use there are many new
instruments available for oxygen measurement based on sensors which give an electronic
signal proportional to the oxygen content of the gas. Examples of a typical electronic
instrument are shown in Exhibit 7–6. These particular models use a sensor based on an
electrolytic cell (similar to a battery): the sensor is inexpensive and robust, and relatively
insensitive to contaminants in the flue gas such as sulfur dioxide. The life of a sensor is
typically nine months to one year. Similar sensors are available for carbon monoxide (and
also other gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and nitrogen oxides).
Exhibit 7–5: Orsat Apparatus and Fyrite Gas Analyzer
a) Orsat Apparatus b) Fyrite Gas Analyzer

46
Exhibit 7–6: A Typical Portable Electronic Combustion Analyzer
Other instruments for oxygen measurement are based on zirconium oxide (zirconia), which
conducts oxygen ions at temperatures above 650ᵒC. The sensor is maintained at a high
temperature, ideally about 800ᵒC, and consists of a heated cell with two electrodes: one
electrode is surrounded by a reference gas (usually air) and the other electrode has the
sample gas passed over it. Any difference in oxygen content at the electrodes is translated
into a potential difference and hence an electronic signal
Because a zirconia cell must have a heater and controls to ensure operation at affixed high
temperature, instruments based on zirconia tend to be bulky and heavy. Portable analyzers
are available, but the zirconia system is normally restricted to fixed gas analyzers mounted
in the stack of medium to large boilers and furnaces, and more recently, package boilers. The
life of a zirconia probe in a typical boiler stack should be five years or more.
In addition to ease of operation, the main advantage of the electronic analyzers is the ability
to obtain continuous instant feedback on excess air and boiler efficiency while the sensor is
in the stack. This greatly facilitates the boiler tuning process.
7.5.1 Sampling
Regardless of what stack measurement is being made, whether it is CO, CO2, excess O2,
smoke, temperature, etc., it is imperative that the measurement be made on a representative
sample of the bulk of the gas flow. The location of the site at which the sample of flue gas and
the stack temperature are obtained is as important as the measurement itself
7.6 Safety valve / rupture disc / explosion disc
Safety devices should be installed wherever the maximum allowable working pressure
(MAWP) of a system or pressure-containing vessel is likely to be exceeded.
In case of small gasifiers, the use of rupture disc, also called as burst disc is suitable and
must be used.

47
Exhibit 7–7: Rupture disc

48
8 Gasifier sizing guidelines
Since, the population of downdraft gasifiers is approximately 75%, and they are employed in
the small sized applications. They are simple, cost effective and easy to operate. However,
they are less efficient. With the passage of time specially designed gasifiers for large
applications have been successfully developed, installed and being operated. However, they
are expensive, costly, specialized, and fully automatic with electronic control. In fact, they
are efficient. Exhibit 8–1 illustrates the gasifier sizes and theirapplication.
Exhibit 8–1: Technology options with gasification
Source: TPS, Inc., Nykoping, Sweden
Therefore, the guidelines for the sizing of downdraft biomass gasifier are discussed in the
following sections. However, it is imperative to have some fundamental information.
8.1 Composition of air
If one ignores the components, which are present in the range of parts per million (ppm),
the air mainly consists of about 0.9% by volume argon, 78.1% nitrogen and 20.9% oxygen
(ignoring water vapor). Carbon dioxide is present at0.038%.
For the purposes of combustion calculations the composition of air is approximated as a
simple mixture of oxygen and nitrogen:
Oxygen 21%
Nitrogen 79%
The ratio of oxygen and nitrogen in the air is 1:3.76 (79 divided by 21); while the ratio
between oxygen and air is 1:4.76 (100 divided by 21)
For example, the stoichiometric relationship for complete combustion is:
CH4 + 2O2 + 7.52N2 → CO2 + 2H2O +7.52N2

As the volume of nitrogen is: 2 × 3.76 = 7.52, while the volume of air required for complete
combustion is: 2 × 4.76 = 9.52.

49
8.2 Gases present in theproducer gas
Exhibit 8–2 contains information on the properties of gases commonly present in the
product gas. The last two columns provide the information on air requirement for complete
combustion of respective gasses in volumetric ratio and the heating value in kcal per normal
cubic meter. Heating value of the combustion mixture is obtained by dividing the heating
value of gas by the sum of the amount of gas and the air required, i.e., 1 + the amount of air
required.
Exhibit 8–2: Properties of gases present in the producer gas
Source: Generator gas, the Swedish experience from 1939 to 1945, SERI, US Department of Energy
The equations for the complete combustion of various gases with air are:
Exhibit 8–3: Complete combustion of various gases with air
The values from Exhibit 8–3 can be used in Exhibit 8–4 for the producer gas of known
composition to obtain heating value and density of the air gas mixture.
Exhibit 8–5 contains information on theoretical air required for complete combustion of
given producer gas.
So, the air required is 0.984 Nm3 per Nm3 of dry producer gas. For general calculations, the
stoichiometric air -fuel-ratio (AFR) for complete combustion can be assumed as 1:1.

50
Exhibit 8–4:
a CnHm denotes so-called heavy hydrocarbons present in the producer gas. In calculations,
the values for ethylene may be used.
Exhibit 8–5: Air required for complete combustion
Exhibit 8–6 is the nomograph for determining the effective heat value for the produced gas.
It shows the use of the nomograph for above example.
Exhibit 8–6: Nomograph for determining effective heat value of producer gas

51
8.3 Difference in engine output using different fuels
Heating values of producer gas and air mixtures are around 2500 kJ/m3, while the heating
value of a stoichiometric mixture of gasoline (petrol) and air, which is about 3800 kJ/m3.
When these values are compared with each other, the difference in power output between a
given engine fuelled by gasoline and by producer gas becomes obvious. Therefore, a power
reduction of about 35% can be expected as a result of the lower heating value of a producer
gas and air mixture. (FAO, 1986)
8.4 Sizing of internal combustion engine(ICE)
The following example demonstrates the electrical power output of the given ICE running on
producer gas for small-scale applications.
3,000 cc internal combustion engine (SI) 3 liter
Revolutions per minute 1,200 RPM
Revolutions for one suction 2
Volume Displacement 1,800 liters/minute
Volume Displacement 30 liters/s
Volume Displacement 0.03 M3/s
Intake volume (Gas + Air) 0.03 M3/s
Intake Efficiency 80.00%
Actual volume intake (Gas + Air) 0.024 M3/s
Air to fuel ratio 1.1:1 AFR
Air ratio based AFR 1.10
Gas ratio based on 1.00
Total Air + Gas intake based on AFR 2.10 1.1
Actual volume intake (Air) 0.0126 M3/s
Actual volume intake (Air + Gas) 0.0114 M3/s
Actual volume intake (Gas) 0.0240
Producer gas HHV 5,000 kJ/m3
Thermal power of gas supplied to engine 57.14 kWth (kJ/s)
Efficiency of the engine 25.00%
Mechanical power output of engine 14.29 kWmech
Generator efficiency 90.00%
Power generated 12.86 kWelec
Power consumed by Auxiliary equipment 10.00%
Actual power available 11.57 kWelec

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Note: Efficiency and its values at various stages of the overall process; and overall efficiency
will be explained properly. Similarly, the assumption in the calculations; and explanation of
calculation will be included in the final version of the manual.
8.5 Sizing of gasifier
The calculations for the gasifier for producing 11.57 kWelec are illustrated, where the kWth
(thermal) in terms of 57.14 kJ/s have been calculated in the above sheet.
Thermal power of gas supplied to engine 57.14 kWth (kJ/s)
Gasifier efficiency 70.00%
Thermal power input to gasifier by fuel 81.63 kWfuel (kJ/s)
HHV of biomass fuel 14,500 kJ/kg
Biomass fuel consumed 0.0056 kg/s
Biomass fuel consumed 20.27 kg/h
Actual power available 11.57 kWelec
Biomass fuel consumed/h for 1 kWelec 1.75 kg/kWh
Biomass fuel consumed 20.27 kg/h
Hence, the downdraft gasifier is to be sized based on 20.27 kg/h of biomass fuel gasified.
Note: Calculations for hearth diameter and other parameters are to be included in the
manual. For this purpose the following exhibits are to be used on the basis of biomass
consumption (20.27 kg/h).

53
Exhibit 8–7: Types of

54
Exhibit 8–8: Sketch of Imbert downdraft gasifier
Exhibit 8–9: Detailed view of the hearth
Variable not given in the exhibit are defined as:

dm = the inner diameter of the tuyere
Am = sum of cross-sectional areas of the air jet opening in thetuyeres

Ah = cross-sectional area of the throat
A = number of tuyeres

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Exhibit 8–10: Imbert downdraft gasifier nozzle and hearth diameters

56
57
9 Application of gasificationsystems
Due to its convenience in use like other gaseous or liquid fuels, producer gas finds many
applications, particularly where the process specifically demands the use of gaseous of
liquid types of fuels. It is being successfully used in a variety of thermal processes, and
mechanical / electrical power generation systems.
The producer gas can be conveniently applied in various applications, such as:
 Decentralized power generation
 Water pumping, and other irrigation / agricultural applications
 Captive power generation, e.g., by rice mills, sugar mills, etc.
 Drying in industrial processes, where soot-free environment is essential
 Utilization where smokeless and soot-free environment is a must
 Utilization in kilns, such as, for firing of tiles, potteries and refractories requiring hot
environment in temperature range of 800–950°C.
 Industrial thermal applications requiring high flame temperatures, such as, heating
medium in steel re-rolling mills, non-ferrous metallurgical foundry industries, and
high temperatures furnace / heating operations
 Co-firing applications
 Utilization in steam boilers replacing solid conventional fuels
 Used in dual fuel mode in dieselengines
 Used as replacement fuel in natural gas and gasoline engines with some necessary
modifications
 Chilling/cold storage applications, wherein, both thermal energy (for

washing/absorption refrigeration) as well as power could be produced and utilized
in requisite proportions
Power generation applications where the producer gas is being utilized efficiently and
environment friendly atmosphere are presented below. There are some challenges in
applying producer gas in the power generation systems.
As with all engine fuels, there are specific limits to different components present in the input
fuel gas. Gas contaminants in producer gas, most notably dust, tar and humidity, are a key
technical challenge to its utilization in power generation applications. The contaminant
limitations for turbines are even narrower as compare to internal combustion engines (ICE).
9.1 BIG/ICE and CHPsystem
Biomass integrated internal combustion engine (BIG/ICE) system is a comparatively simple

technology applied for captive power generation and combined heat and power (CHP)
system.
CHP an internal combustion engine (ICE) or simple-cycle gas turbine (GT) with a heat
recovery/heat exchanger system that recovers the heat from the ICE or GT exhaust (as the

59
case may be) and converts it to useful thermal energy, usually in the form of steam or hot
water.
A typical BIG/ICE power generating system includes three basic elements: a gasifier, gas
cooling/cleaning, and the engine/generator. For CHP arrangement, heat recovery system is
added to BIG/ICE power generating system.
It is schematically presented in Exhibit 9–1. For achieve better performance and efficiency of
such systems, it is desirable that the load on the gasifier should be nearly constant.
Exhibit 9–1: BIG/ICE power generating system
Varying compositions, as well as calorific values and the combustion behavior of the gases
present in the producer gas, put greater demands on engine design. Special features of the
engines, operated on producer gas, may include flame arrestors for the prevention of
backfiring, special gas mixers to improve gas mixing and to be more robust to dirt. In
general, the stable composition of producer gas makes it advantageous as an engine fuel.
The high hydrogen content of a producer gas however, means the combustion process is
very fast, which increases the danger of engine pre-ignition, knocking or engine backfiring.
To avoid this risk, an engine control system is needed that is able to fuel the engine with a
very lean mixture and, at the same time, react very quickly to variations in the engine load.
Producer gas can be used to create hot water, steam and electricity. The hot water and
exhaust gases from the engines are fed into boilers. The resulting steam can be used within
other localized industrial processes. Producer gas electrical efficiencies in the range of 25 %
to 37% can be achieved.
Advantages of fuelling gas engines with producer gas include:
 Independent power supply
 Reduced energy costs, and greater predictability and stability
 Efficient and economic combined heat and electricity supply
 High electrical efficiency compared to other power generation technology (i.e. steam
or gas turbines)
 Low gas pressure required

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 Alternative disposal of a problem gas while simultaneously harnessing it as an
energy source
 Substitute to conventional fuels
 Environmental benefits by greenhouse gas reduction
CHP is the sequential or simultaneous generation of multiple forms of useful energy (usually
mechanical and thermal) in a single, integrated system. CHP systems consist of a number of
individual components—prime mover (heat engine), generator, heat recovery, and electrical
interconnection— configured into an integrated whole. The type of equipment that drives
the overall system (i.e., the prime mover) typically identifies the CHP system. Prime movers
for CHP systems include steam turbines, gas turbines (also called combustion turbines),
spark ignition engines, diesel engines, microturbines, and fuel cells. These prime movers are
capable of burning a variety of fuels, including biomass/biogas, natural gas, or coal to
produce shaft power or mechanical energy. Additional technologies are also used in
configuring a complete CHP system, including boilers, absorption chillers, desiccants,
engine-driven chillers, and gasifiers. Boilers and gasifiers are discussed in Chapter 5 of this
document.
Although mechanical energy from the prime mover is most often used to drive a generator
to produce electricity, it can also be used to drive rotating equipment such as compressors,
pumps, and fans. Thermal energy from the system can be used in direct process applications
or indirectly to produce steam, hot water, hot air for drying, or chilled water for process
cooling.
The industrial sector currently produces both thermal output and electricity from biomass
in CHP facilities in the paper, chemical, wood products, and food processing industries.
These industries are major users of biomass fuels—utilizing the heat and steam in their
processes can improve energy efficiencies by more than 35 percent. In these applications,
the typical CHP system configuration consists of a biomass-fired boiler whose steam is used
to propel a steam turbine in addition to the extraction of steam or heat for processuse.
9.2 BIG/CC system
Exhibit 9–2 shows a typical biomass integrated gasification and combined cycle (BIG/CC)
system.

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Exhibit 9–2: Typical BIG/CC plant
Source: en.wikipedia.org
The plant is called integrated because:
 The product gas produced in the biomass gasification section is used as fuel for the
gas turbine in the combined cycle, and
 Steam produced by the syngas coolers in the gasification section is used by the
steam turbine in the combined cycle.
In this example the product gas produced is used as fuel in a gas turbine, which produces
electrical power. In a normal combined cycle, so-called "waste heat" from the gas turbine
exhaust is used in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to make steam for the steam
turbine cycle. BIG/CC plant improves the overall process efficiency by adding the higher-
temperature steam produced by the gasification process to the steam turbine cycle. This
steam is then used in steam turbines to produce additional electrical power.

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10 Gasification plant – operation and
maintenance
10.1 Typical Downdraft Gasifier OperationalInstructions
The gasifiers operate at negative pressure, which result from the suction of either the engine
or a blower. The stepwise guide to the operation of a gasifier is as follows:
10.1.1 Step1: Fuel Preparation:
 The first thing in the gasifiers operation is the fuelpreparation.
 Gasifier’s efficiency is as best as the fuel is well prepared.
 A best-prepared fuel is that which contains moisture contents within 14 % to 20 %

on dry weight basis.
 For better results fuels having moisture content more high should be dried before
feeding.
 To accelerate the drying process it is advantageous to spread the fuel in open air.
 Using wood fuel a fresh cut wood has a moisture content of 40-42 % and it dries in
sixty days to moisture content about 20 % it means for safety at least wood fuel
should be stored for roughly three months consumption in the site.
10.1.2 Step2: Fuel Feeding:
 The fuel was fed into the gasifier from the top and it descended through the gasifier
by gravity.
 At start-up, some charcoal was loaded in and below the hearth zone for quick gas
production. It was recommended to put charcoal in the gasifier from the bottom
grate to 10 cm above the nozzle plane, with wood or other biomass on top.
 It was better and advantageous to fill the gasifier up to full capacity. In this way the
oxygen present in the empty place of fuel hopper was removed and the risk of
blasting was decreased.
 For lightening first the blower was started, it run for some time for that the excess
air in the gasifier was removed, then the air regulating inlet valves were opened and
a cloth soaked with kerosene oil is lighted with a simple match and it was brought
near the air inlets.
 Due to negative pressure in the reactor it sucked the air inward and the burning of
the fuel was fully started in about 4-5 minutes.
 The full gas supply started after about 15-20 minutes.
10.1.3 Step 3: Filling water in hopper waterseal
 Fill the water in the water channel provided on the top of thegasifier

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 Water filling acts as the preventive measure for the gas leakage from thetop
 Water filling must be done to the position so that it may not tip down from the
gasifier top
 Water level has to be monitored for every 4 hours
 At the start of the gasifier and also before shutting down the gasifier, check the
water level to avoid any kind of gas leakage
10.1.4 Step 4: Gas ignition at flare port and the gasifier
 First, the gasifier was filled with the fuel to its full capacity.
 Fasten the airtight covers (top cover and ash removal cover) with the help of screws.
 All the sealing was checked carefully for air leakage.
 Closing of valve which was on the gas delivery pipe to engine and opening of valve of
blower suction pipe. The both valves were manually operated.
 An induced blower with speed regulator was provided for start up the gasifier.
 Started the blower by switching the fan button control.
 Waited about 2 to 3 minutes so that all the accumulated gases in the gasifier should
release.
 After ignition of the biomass in the gasifier fire chamber, place the torch at the flare
port
 Open the one side valve and brought the torch near it, as there will be negative
pressure in the gasifier so it sucks the fire inside the gasifier and the fuel will be
started to burn.
 The flame sustains for about 10-15 minutes in the flare port otherwise the high
impurity gas may enter in the gasifier chamber.
 Producer gas was escaped through the blower exhaust with whitish appearance.
 The fire was burn very bright because of the plenty of the suction. The suction rate
was also controlled by the flow regulating valves.
10.1.5 Step 5: Gas Transfer
 Transfer the gas towards cleaning and cooling train
 Open the valve of cleaning and cooling train when a refined quality starts coming in
the flare port
 Close the valve of flare port
 Allow the gas to pass through the train for cooling process
10.1.6 Step 6: Gas Feeding
 Open the gas line valves gradually and close the airline valve simultaneously to
maintain the frequency in between 48-52 Hz.
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Step 7: Grate Shaking
 Shake the grate at every 15-20minutes
 Handle the grate shaker smoothly without pulling or pushing it
 3-4 number of terms are necessary for grateshaking
 Grate shaking can also reduce the accumulation of ash, this is how thegas
production rate can be made efficient
10.2 Gasifier Efficiency Testing
The following parameters will
 Moisture Content (MC %)
 Bulk Density
 Biomass Consumption Rate
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Auxiliary Consumption
 Plant Load Factor
10.3 4.11 Maintenance of Gasifier
Regular system maintenance is also required to keep the gasifier working for long and
continuous operation. Maintenance can be categorized as follows:
10.3.1 Daily Maintenance
 Clean ash pit of the gasifier
 Clean the heat exchanger by removing the dust penetrated in it by opening the end
plug from the bottom of the heat exchanger
 Clean the centrifugal part (cyclone separator) of the gasifier chamber by removing
the dust
10.3.2 Alternate Day Basis Maintenance
 Clean the sawdust filter, gravel bed filter and venturi scrubber ash pit
 Before refilling and fitting the filter media which is composed of gravel, sawdust
should be taken out
 Clean the water thoroughly in the ash pit of the venturiscrubber
10.3.3 Maintenance after 200 Hours
 Remove the biomass present in the gasifier before cleaning the grate of agasifier

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 Remove all the dust and ash from the gas carrying ducts
 Installed cleaning and cooling systems must be cleaned thoroughly and fit those
back
 Before the re-installment of the air filter clean it
10.3.4 Cleaning and Cooling TrainMaintenance
Cleaning of Heat Exchanger (HE)
 The HE can be cleaned if the pressure dropped across it is raised up to certain limits
 By opening the end plug at the bottom of the HE, the inlet ad outlet gas ducts should
be cleaned at regular intervals
Cleaning of Cyclone Separator
 The end plug of cyclone can be opened with spanner and can be refitted after
cleaning
 Cleaning of cyclone separator is preferred to be done on daily basis
Cleaning of Venturi Scrubber
 The venturi scrubber removes the tar through condensation that gets collected in
the water pit
 The cleaning of venturi scrubber doesn’t require much attention, but the mesh fitted
in the pit to segregate the dust particles etc.
 Venturi scrubber should be cleaned after every four days to prevent any blockage
Maintenance of Gravel Bed
 The bed of gravels does not create much pressure drop in the gas line, but needs to
be cleaned after every 100 hours
 The cleaning can be done after opening the top flange of the filter with one and half
inched spanner, taking out the gravels on the mesh
 Before refitting the gravels in the filter casing, sun drying of gravel isobligatory
Maintenance of Packed Bed Filter
 The required maintenance for this type of filter should be done after 100 hours in
case the pressure drop across the filter increases
Engine Maintenance
 Check for leaks and observe the air cleaner restriction indicator
Gas Pipeline Maintenance
 Check for leaks and correct it
 Check gas pressure in inlet

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Maintenance of Lubrication System
 Check engine oil level and governor oil level
Maintenance of Cooling System
 Check coolant level and top up with pre mixed coolant if required
Maintenance of Ignition System
 Make sure that wiring connections are proper
Miscellaneous Checks
 Check governor and mixture valves and gas valves linkages are free
 Guidelines of a Gasifier Operation
10.3.5 Guidelines for Continuous Operation
 Charge the biomass feedstock every four hours or as per requirement
 Keep the water level up to the mark in ash pit, water seals and venturiscrubber
 Add water as per requirement
 Shake the grate at 15-20 minutes or as perrequirement
 Remove ash from the ash pit at regular intervals
 Regulate the water temperature in the venturescrubber
 When the temperature limit reaches 450C, drain off the water and simultaneously
fill the fresh water in venture by opening the waterpump
10.3.6 Guidelines for Charging during Operation
 While charging the gasifier make sure that the main blower is switched off and only
suction blower is working
 Open the lid of the hopper
 Charge the dried biomass/ pallets of appropriate size in gasifier hopper
 Ensure that the biomass is dries
 Charge the required of quantity of biomass as per ease of operation
 Charge the gasifier at regular intervals of four hours
 Close the gasifier lid and place it so that it sits in the annular groove or water seal
provided on top of the gasifier
 Switch on the main blower

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10.4 Safety Measures for Downdraft Gasifier Operation
The gasifier installation must provide with the following features, which helped to minimize
the usual hazards of gasifier operation:
 Pressure relief valve must be provided at the top of the gasifier to reduce the
excessive internal pressure because in most cases pressure builds up in the bunker
section.
 The gasifier should house and operated in an open shed so that concentration of the
carbon monoxide cannot develop.
 Gas produced and takes out from the gasifier by suction of the blower/engine, as
they created the negative pressure in the gasifier, so there is no risk of blasting.
 The gasifier must be sited at a sufficient distance from the exploding material.
 Care must be taken to avoid inhaling smoke and fumes of the system.
 The gasifier should be started after being filled completely up to the top.
 Gasifier should be sealed completely by using the silicon in such a way that the air
cannot entered in to the system except through regulated valves.
 The hot gasifier should always be refilled by keeping the blower running.
 The black color is used on the gasifier for checking heat losses into the surrounding
atmosphere.
Cold system should always be carefully ventilated by running the blower for 2 to 3 minutes
before igniting the fuel.
10.5Typical Operational instructions for a fluidized-bed

biomass gasifier and power generation plant
Source for the operational guidelines for a fluidized-bed biomass gasifier and power
generation plant is Chongqing Fengyu Electric Equipment Co., Ltd., China.
Generic operational procedure for the fluidized bed gasification plant shown in Exhibit -------
are described below:

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Exhibit 10–1Fluidized bed gasifier and power generation plant
Source: Chongqing Fengyu Electric Equipment Co., Ltd., China
The plant comprises of the following components:

6. Biomassfuelhopper
7. Screw-typebiomassfeeder
8. Fluidized bedbiomassgasifier
9. First dry-typecycloneseparator
10. Second dry-typecycloneseparator
11. First wet-typesprayscrubber
12. Second wet-typesprayscrubber
13. Firstventuriscrubber
14. Second venturiscrubber
15. Fillingwashingtower
16. Alkali water washerG/Wseparator
17. Tar anddustfilter
18. Sprayscrubber
19. Tar anddustfilter
20. Wet-typepressureadjustablegasstoragetankwith safetywatersealforover-pressure
21. SurplusgasBurner
22. Ash conveyerSystem
23. Over GroundSedimentPond
24. Forced-draftfan
25. Inducing RootsBlower
26. Feed waterPump
27. Circulation ReturnWaterPump
28. Gasificationcontrolpanel

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10.5.1 Pre-start up preparations
Operators should be imparted training and they should fully understand the operation.
Preparation for the gasifier start is listed as follows:
1. Turn on gasification control unit and check whether all instruments and functioning
properly.
2. Startwatersupplypumpandcheck if theflow rateis normal.
3. Start water return pump and regulate its flow rate through the ;water return valve to keep
theflow to waterbalancedacrosstheplant.
4. Check thewaterlevel of flocculating tankand supplementit in timeon regularbasis.
5. Check whether there is sufficient feedstock in the feeding hopper. (Delay in supply delay
andfuelshortagearenotallowedduring therunning);
6. Ashunloadershouldbeputout of the ashremovegroove;
7. Start ashremovefan;
8. Checkwaterlevel of gas tankandgivesupplement timely;
9. Checkwater level of safetywatersealfor over-pressureand alkali waterwasher G/W
(gas/water) separator, andkeepthem normal;
10. Checkwater level of safetywaterseal , observewhethertherearedepositedat the
bottom;
11. Release condensate water deposited in lower level of gas pipes, shut off water discharge
valve.
10.5.2 Gasifier start up (ignition)
1. Open the gasifier door, add appropriate woodchip and oilpaper to gasifier, and then begin
ignition.
2. Afterthewoodchipstart toburn , closethegasifierdoorand keepitsealed
3. StartRootsfan, keepthelowestrotationspeedat 100rpm
4. Startforcefanandspeed upit gradually.
5. Start screw feeder until the temperature at the bottom of gasifier reach 500C, to add fuel
properly, and regulate air flux at the same time so that the temperature in dense phase
sectioncanberangedfrom 680C to800C
6. Thepressureat thetopshouldbekeptnormal( 200pa ~ 600pa) by aboveoperation
7. If there is glow ash at the bottom before ignition, the blower can be started directly,
meanwhile feed properly. The step1 and step 2 are unnecessary, just follow othersteps.
8. When the temperature in the bottom of gasifier reaches at 550C, operators must start
screwashconveyerandrotaryvalveto removeash
10.5.3 Gasifier temperature control
The temperature in gasifier is influenced by air flux and fuel quantity, the temperature in
tense phase sector is claimed from 680C to 800C strictly. It is easy to form clinker at the
bottom above 800C, while the tar will take more proportion in gas below 680C. In normal
running, the tense phase sector should range from 680C to 800C. Increase gas capacity at
the time of load rise, air flux increase will cause temperature rise, so at the same time more
fuel should be added for controlling temperature. It will cause temperature rise if the
feeding is reduced due to load decline, consequently, air flux should be reduced at the same
time.

70
The general demands can not only meet the load change, but also keep temperature of
gasifier normal. To start gasifier in cold condition, gas is not allowed to enter gas storage
tank until outlet temperature is above 400C.
10.5.4 Gasifier Pressure control
Pressure change in gasifier caused by many factors such as draft air flux, burnt products,
fuel pyrolysis and gasification speed, and so on.
For normal running, atmospheric pressure in gasifier is required, and at the bottom of
gasifier has slight positive pressure, the pressure at the top is not allowed to exceed slight
negative pressure of -1200pa, the exceeded one will cause accident like dry-type cyclone
doesn’t work and numerous small ash involve in water, as well as increase wear and tear of
ash conveyer and the load of cooling system.
Generally at the bottom the positive pressure should be kept comparative high so that it do
good to the fluidized burning, it is allowed ranging from +100Pa to +3000Pa.
Pay more attention: air flux should be decreased for safety in the process of dredging
gasifier. The pressure should be adjusted ranging from -600Pa to +200Pa in the gasifier.
10.5.5 Ash removal from the gasifier
It is necessary to remove ash during the running.

1. Ash remove can be started after 6~8min after starting gasifier, the rotary speed of ash
conveyor screw should match the load of gasifier, more load causes more ash. Generally
the rotary speed should match speed of feeder motor to keep burning balanceable and
remain air sealed. Once there is clinker formed at over high temperature, this need to
poke ash plug through removing pipes. Take care that the high negative pressure will
influenceashremove.
2. Afterashremovingworkswell, putash unloaderintoconveygroove
3. The electric star-shape rotary valve under cyclone ash falling pipe should be coincident
with the running of ashconveyorscrew, knock on ashfallingpipeif thereis block
4. Removedepositedashat sealpoint of scrubberand cooling tower so that thereis enough
pressurereleasearea to easepressureof deflagration
5. Start and stop intake blower: before starting gasifier the intake blower should be started
andlasts 5~6minforavoiding blockat theelbow of ashconveypipes.
10.5.6 Control of gas storage tank during operation
1. Propergas tank pressureis below 2000Pa, if it exceeds, poiseweightcan be added to

balanceit.
2. Todischargetarregularlyeveryshift to avoidblock.
3. When gas tank rises to top, surplus gas is discharged through air drain pipe, it means
capacity exceeding, this will cause fuel waste and environment pollution, so regulation
should betaken
4. When gas tank is down, capacity should be increased properly or decrease load. It is
absolutely NOT allowed to decrease to the lowest, this may make water enter combustion
engine and causeseriousconsequence.
5. The running of safety water seal facility: drain waste every two shifts, meanwhile add
water to regulate water level, keep the gas tank from the top, gas isn’t discharged through
drainpipe. Thehighestworkpressureof gastankdepends onwaterlevel

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6. Checkwaterlevel of gas tankeverydayand makesupplytimely
10.5.7 Operation of cleaning and coolingsystem
1. Inthissystem, sundriesis notallowedin orderto avoidblock

2. To make sure that the electric current of water supply pump motor is not below normal
value, or else, it indicates there is block in some of nozzles, then dredge it after stopping
gasifier. (the filter of pump’s intake should be kept from block and be cleanedregularly)
3. The temperature of water supply pump’s intake should not exceed 35C, add water if
necessary.
4. Regulateflux of waterreturnpumpfor keeping balancebetweensupplyandreturn
5. In the process of running, according to circulation flux, polymerized Aluminum silicate
reagent utilized as flocculating need to be added into system meanwhile keep its
concentration at 0.2g/L. It conducts cooling & cleaning water by flocculation so that the
suspended matter can be separated. Remove deposite from deposite tank, when float oil
reachsomelevelabovewater, drainit throughoverflow.
10.5.8 Routine Check during operation
1. Check feeding situation: guard feeding delay, once feeding delay meanwhile air flux does
not decrease in time, it will cause sharp temperature rise even forming clinker, and the
worseis the comparativehighnegativepressurein gasifierwilllead to deflagration.
2. Check electric current of feeder, if exceeded, maybe some sundries are involved in or
moisture content of fuel is so high that causes high resistance, operators must clean timely
andpreventsundries andrainfromfeeder
3. Check electric current of Ash conveyor screw, if exceeded which indicates overload, take
actionimmediately.
4. Check electric current of Roots fan, if exceeded, it indicates there is one or more block in
thecleaning & coolingequipment, clearworkshould betakentimely
5. Check the electric current of blower, water supply pump and water return pump to make
sure theyareproper.
6. Check gas pressure difference of U-shape pipe between entrance and exit of Venturi
scrubber, if there is big difference, it indicates there is block at larynx of the Venturi,
operators shoulddredgeitafterfurnacestop.
10.5.9 Plant shutdown
Furnace shutdown
1. Decrease gas capacityat the time of load falling, stop feeder and shut off hopper
flashboardtokeepfurnacefrom hopper.
2. In the process of above operation, intake and drain air flux should be decreased relatively
to decrease temperature to about 600C, after stopping intake blower, the rotary speed of
Rootfan willbedecreased to150rpm.
3. After the above operation are finished, stop feeder(after furnace stopped and flashboard
closed, the low load running should last 1~2 minutes, make the small hopper half full,
keep fuelfromhopper).
4. Closeintakevalve of gastankanddischargeallgas.
5. StopRootfan after6~8 minutes of stoppingfeeding

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6. Remove all ash in gasifier, close electric rotary valve of screw ash conveyer and ash falling
pipe ofcyclone
7. Close intake valveofblower
8. Close drug filling valve, clean and wash cooling & cleaning scrubber to remove deposited
ash, stopwater supplyandreturnpump, andstopash removing fan5 minuteslater.
Accident Tripping (interrupt of electricity for equipment) Solution.

1. Closeintakevalveof gas storagetank toavoid rootfanreverseand gas overflow at the
bottom of gasifierandentranceof intakeblowerconsequently.
2. Closeentrancevalve ofintakeblower.
3. Dischargeallwaterinsafetywaterseal
Operation of recovering
1. After supplying power of equipment, firstly to start water supply and return pump, then
start Rootsfanat the speedof 150 rpm in order to dischargeallgas of air drainsystem
2. To add water to safety waterseal.
3. Others follow the ignition section.
10.5.10 Special instructions
1. Forbid opening furnace door and clinker drain door until stopping intake blower
completely.
2. Keep caution leave back way for operators at the moment of opening furnace door, it is
not allowed to face furnace door at the time of opening in case fire is out. Operator must
remindworker around furnace for prevent hurt by positive pressure anddeflagration
3. During dredging ash, pressure should be regulated as slight negative pressure for safety
reason.
4. Afterstopping furnace, allgasshould bedischargedfrom gastank
5. Forbid firearoundfurnace
6. Forbid to lap ground electrode of welder through electric facilities or mechanical
equipment.
7. If workers don’t know whether there is surplus gas left or not, they are forbidden to lap
ground electrode through gasification system equipment as well as using gas cutting and
electricweldingandfireonit.
8. Do notusehigh moisturecontentfeedstock(themax. moisturecontentis 15%).
10.5.11 Biomass gasifier maintenance
Routine maintenance
Periodically check all nuts on the gasifier unit, the fuel hopper, the filter unit, and the carburetor for
snugness; check all penetrations and fittings for airtightness. In addition, perform the following
maintenance activities as scheduled:
Daily maintenance
Open the ash cleanout port of the gasifier housing drum and remove the ashes after shaking the grate
for at least thirty seconds. Replace the cover of the port after coating the threads with high-temperature
silicone to ensure airtightness. Open the drain tube at the bottom of the filter container and allow any
liquid condensate to drain out; remember to close the drain tube when finished.

73
Weekly maintenance (or every 15 hours of operation)
Clean out the gasifier housing drum, the fuel hopper, and the filter. Rinse out the piping and
connections to and from the filter. Replace the wood chips inside the filter, (The used wood chips fiom
the filter can be dumped into the fuel hopper and burned to produce wood gas.) Use high-temperature
silicone on all pipe connections and on the filter lid to ensure airtightness.
Biweekly maintenance (or every 30 hours of operation)
Make sure that all pipe connections are secure and airtight. Check and tighten all mounting
connections to the vehicle chassis. Check for rust on the outside of the gas generator housing
drum, especially on the lower region. Coat with high-temperature protective paint as
necessary.
Source: femagasifier.com

74
11 Safety guidelines
Intro to safety guidelines

75
1. Fire
Location of Potential
Origin of Hazard Measure Recommended counter measures Possible reduction
Hazard consequences What
When? No. measures
Where? happens?
Installation of fire detection/suppression equipment like:

Portable systems: fire extinguishers
1.1
Fixed systems: foam towers, large flow pumps, foam
extinguishers, automatic or manual operated fire
protection systems
Ignition source for
explosion Make sure the gasification facilities comply with
international standards for the prevention and control of
1.2 fire and explosion hazards, including provisions for safe
distances between tanks in the facility and between the
The whole facility and adjacent buildings
plant
1.3 Install anti-back firing system
Damage or destruction
Locate fire systems in safe areas of the facility. Protect
of the gasifier plant
them from fire by distance or by fire walls
and/or building
Preparation of a formal fire response plan supported by

Fire caused by 1.4
the necessary resources and training, including training in
either an
Physical injury to the use of fire suppression equipment and evacuation.
explosion, self-
human being Procedures may include coordination with local
ignition, glowing
authorities or neighboring facilities and training in the use
particles, welding,
of fire suppression equipment and evacuation
etc.
The fuel should be stored in a closed container or in a
separate room or building. A fire resistant separation
1.5 (with a specified resistance time) between the fuel storage
Fuel and the gasifier may be required according to local fire
Undesired fuel
storage protection regulations
combustion
building
a humidification system at the ash removal in order to
1.6 prevent fire hazard from glowing particles or nitrogen
inserting on ash removal screws
the ventilation air intakes should prevent smoke from

1.7
entering accommodation areas
ample ventilations, preferably natural ventilation with an

Gasification 1.8
Release of toxic fumes air change of more than 6 h-1
facilities
Implement safety procedures for operation and
1.9 maintenance, including use of fail-safe control valves and
emergency shutdown equipment
2. Explosive Atmosphere
Location of Potential
Origin of Hazard Measure Recommended counter measures Possible reduction
Hazard consequences What
When? No. measures
Where? happens?
Technical or
operational
Implement measures to avoid explosions including: -
problemleading
The whole Flooding with inert gas - Avoid ignition source - Removal
to: 1. Under Air ingress Gas escape 2.1
plant of dust deposits - Avoid dust clouds - Maintain clean
pressure, 2.
working floor - Grounding of the plant sections
Overpressure, 3.
Dust clouds
Explosion, which can Gasification facilities should be designed, constructed,

lead to more and operated according to international standards for the
explosions (i.e. dust 2.2 prevention and control of fire and explosion hazards,
explosions), plant including provisions for safe distances between tanks in
destruction, fire, etc. the facility and between the facility andadjacent buildings

76
When a mixture of Implementing safety procedures for operation and
combustible gases maintenance, including use of fail-safe control valves and
Minor explosion 2.3
and oxygen meets emergency shutdown and detection equipment
an ignition source
Define the maximum value of oxygen at sampling points

Damage or destruction Temperature sensors and pressure sensors should be
of the gasifier plant 2.4 installed before and after the main components Install
and/or building oxygen sensors in the gas piping and monitor oxygen
concentration, CO monitors around the plant

77
2. Explosive Atmosphere (cont.)
Location Potential Measure
Origin of Measu Recommended counter measures Possible
of Hazard consequences implement
Hazard When? re No. reduction measures
Where? What happens? ed (yes/no)
Spillage of
Explosion can Using a water seal acting as a flame arrestor Leak
flammable 2.5
initiate fire detection (gas sensors)
liquids
Plant
sections
where fine
dust and Organizational precautions to comply cleanliness,
particles avoid dust depositions and contamination, avoid
Fine dust and
are handled Explosion, fire 2.6 dust clouds and maintain clean working flours
particles
(fuel Good housekeeping is the key to avoid dust
storage, ash explosions Ban smoking, no smoking signs
or dust
removal
systems)
Application of hazardous area zoning for

electrical equipment in design. Ex- zoning will
2.7
determine which type or category of equipment is
allowed
Gas Unburnt gases should be flared The ventilation

transportati Poor gas quality 2.8 must be ample, preferably natural ventilation with
on sections an air change of more than 6 times per hour
3. Substance Hazards
Location Potential Measure
of Hazard consequences implement
Gas escape leading

to gas intoxication,
CO poisoning
Overpressure
some PAH are
The whole Leakages During operation and maintenance, operators
carcinogenic 3.1
plant Operation and should wear portable CO monitors
danger of
Maintenance
suffocation (CO,
PAH,…) irritation
to eyes, inhalation
Construct the system to be gas tight Control

3.2
rooms should have positive pressure ventilation
CO leakage
outside the plant
3.3 Installation of CO monitors in the plant
and environmental
pollution
Fire ignition,
The whole Explosion, which Operators should be instructed not to stay
plant, at can lead to more unnecessarily close to system components
Flammable
start-ups explosions (i.e. 3.4 (gasifier, cyclone bins, filters, etc.) with
materials
and shut- dust explosions), flammable materials during start-up, normal
downs plant destruction, operation and shut-down
fire, etc.
Gas escape leading

Storage
to gas intoxication,
buildings, Install fixed online CO detectors in fuel storage
CO poisoning
gasifier Overpressure 3.5 buildings, gasifier building, and gas engine room
Some PAH are
building, giving an indication and alarm at 25/50 ppm
carcinogenic
and gas
danger of
engine
suffocation (CO,

78
room PAH,) irritation to
eyes, inhalation
During operation, ample ventilation of

3.6 gasification building with efficient air change of
more than 6 times per hour
Gas tight construction (apply good practices for

Water seals 3.7
COMAH (Seveso II) sites.
Fire ignition
Explosion, which
Glowing carbon
Ash can lead to more Install a humidification system at the ash removal
particles and
removal explosions (i.e. 3.8 in order to prevent fire hazards from glowing
high
section dust explosions), particles
temperatures
plant destruction,
fire, etc.
3. Substance Hazards (continued)

Locatio
Potential Measure
n of Origin of Hazard Measu Recommended counter measures Possible
consequences implement
What happens? ed (yes/no)
Where?
3.9 Water spraying at ash discharge
Fire ignition
Explosion, which
Install either: a water seal or a cyclone combined
Gas Glowing particles can lead to more
with a settling chamber in order to prevent
cleaning Leakages Storage explosions (i.e. 3.10
glowing particles from entering the gas cleaning
section or holding tanks dust explosions),
section.
plant destruction,
fire, etc.
Wet
Scrubbi
ng
Material toxicity +
systems Environmental Installation of a bin/tank to collect andtreat the
carcinogenicity
and pollution by 3.11 toxic liquids (treatment by a certified company,
resulting from tar
Particle scrubbing water prescribed in permit documents)
removal/recycling
filter for
fly- ash
removal
Avoid the production of unnecessary toxic

Operators
materials; only toxic products like producer gas
intoxication, 3.12
and scrubbing water cannot be avoided. Provide
injuries Irritation
personnel protective measures
3.13 Wear protective cloths
Operators should wear hand gloves, glasses and

3.14
safety shoes
CO can only be detected by sensors giving alarm.

Gas High percentage
3.15 Then it should be described in the OM what to do
engine of CO
when CO alarm
4. Operational and Maintenance Hazards

Locatio
Potential Measure
n of Origin of Hazard Measu Recommended counter measures Possible
Where?

79
Rotating parts Injuries 4.1 Shielding, visual signs Emergency stop button
Implement permit systems and formal procedures

for conducting any hot work during maintenance
Fire ignition
Welding Explosion, which 4.2 activities, including proper tank cleaning and
can lead to more venting Repairs like weldingmust
explosions (i.e. be subjected to a permit to work system
dust explosions),
Flammable plantdestruction, When performing repairs such as welding,
material Explosive fire, etc. 4.3 flammable material and explosive mixtures or
mixtures/atmosphe
atmospheres must be removed or prevented
res
Gas intoxication, Operators should avoid contact and inhalation of

CO poisoning either toxic or suffocating gases / liquids. This
Toxic/suffocating would obviously avoid most hazards that occur
Suffocation (CO, 4.4
The gases during maintenance. All plant maintenance
PAH) irritation to
whole eyes, etc. procedures should be well documented while
plant operators should routinely follow procedures.
Make sure only skilled and qualified personnel are

Various
4.5 allowed to operate and maintain the plant. Provide
consequences
Bad operational/ training to the personnel
maintenance
Grounding Include formal procedures for the use and the
practices
connections 4.6 maintenance of grounding connections
deterioration and
malfunction
Make sure safety related-changes to the process

Wrong settings and control system are only performed by trained
Inadequate control 4.7
malfunction personnel and that the procedure is well
system documented (operation manual)
leading to various
programming
consequences
Make sure alarm settings are only re-programmed
4.8
after the problem is solved

80
4. Operational and Maintenance Hazards (contnued)
Locatio
Potential Measure
n of Origin of Measur Recommended counter measures Possible
Hazard Hazard When? e No. reduction measures
Where?
Reactor Malfunctioning 4.9 Install anti backfiring system at reactor
Install anti back firing system: Flame arrestor or

4.10 water seal (reference to EN 12874) Automatic
Bad weather ignition
Gas Pressures build-ups
associated to
flare leading to The cross section area of the pressure relieve
poor gas quality
backfiring in the channel to the flare should be about double the area
4.11
previous section, to compared to the pressure relieve valve cross
gas escape and its sectional area
consequences
Gas Improper (please refer to Install anti backfiring system at air inlet to the
4.12
inlet ignition timing section 3) engine according to national regulation
Implementation of safety procedures for operation

At
and maintenance including use of failsafe control
valves Overpressure 4.13
valves and emergency shutdown and detection
location
equipment of the pressure
In the Locally higher

Make sure there are two escape routes to an open
gasifier oxygen levels 4.14
air from the gasifier building
reactor may occur
Fire ignition
Explosive Explosion, which
After Flaring the gas or purging the whole system with
atmosphere can lead to more 4.15
start up nitrogen
Ignition sources explosions (i.e. dust
explosions), plant
destruction, fire, Purging with nitrogen Purging with air is also
After Explosive etc. applied in practice. When purging with air,
shutdow atmosphere 4.16 explosive atmosphere is not prevented - ignition
n Ignition sources sources have to be eliminated (secondary explosion
protection)
5. Thermal Hazards
Locatio
n of Origin of Potential Measur Recommended counter measures Possible Measure
Hazard Hazard When? consequences e No. reduction measures implement
Where?
Fuel
storage,
transport Temperature Feedstock self- Monitor temperature in big piles of feedstock,
5.1
and rise ignition Install CO monitors,Install sprinkler installations
feeding
Malfunctioning of
the process due to
overheating of
Hot materials like Water spraying at ash discharge, Set maintenance
surfaces Chemical refractory lining, intervals, Corrosion resistant steel material, Detect
5.2
of gas reactions valve settings, etc. leakages by indication of temperature increase in
cooler which may cause all case auto-ignition temperature exceed set limits
sorts of dangers in
particular gas
escape
Hot Thermal stress and

surfaces 5.3 Regular inspection and maintenance
corrosion
of High
Temperature Proper insulation and shielding Wear heat resistant
reactor, Operators injuries 5.4
cyclone hand gloves

81
82
6. Electrical Hazards
Location of Potential Measure
Hazard consequences implement
Pressures build-up
leading to gas
escape and its
Power failure 6.1 Safety emergency stop
consequences
(please refer to
section 3)
The whole
plant Fire ignition
Static electricity Use proper grounding to avoid static electricity
Explosion, which 6.2
build up can lead to more build up and lightning hazards
explosions (i.e.
dust explosions),
plant destruction, Use of intrinsically safe electrical installations and
Sparks fire, etc. 6.3 non-sparking tools Screw conveyors should have
shaft speed monitor and speed control
Where Instrumentation and electrical equipment should

explosive Bad zoning be for Zone 1, otherwise the equipment should be
6.4
atmosphere practices secured; in the gasifier itself equipment should be
can happen for Zone 2
Fire ignition
Explosion, which
Gas can lead to more
All gas conducting part should be electrically
conducting Sparks explosions (i.e. 6.5
grounded
part dust explosions),
plant destruction,
fire, etc.
PLC Galvanic separation of measurement devices, PLC

Static electricity 6.6
Programma Malfunction of should be properly grounded to earth
ble Logic the PLC PLCs have to be supplied by an uninterrupted
Controller Power failure 6.7
power supply unit (UPS)
Shielded cables should be used in order to avoid

Inlet to the Electrical Backfiring in the
6.8 electrical breakdowns that could cause backfiring
engine breakdown inlet system
in the inlet system.
7. Mechanical Hazards
Location of Potential Measure
Hazard consequences implement
7.1 Shielding, visual signs, emergency stop button
Conveyors,
Sharp edges, Safety switches and local circuit breakers on
electro Operator injuries
sharp parts rotating parts and switches, on access panels, on
motors
7.2 pressure relieve equipment, on critical valves with
access to gas containing equipment such as
feeders, cyclones and ash outlets

83
Appendices

73
74
12 The Project
The Global Environment Facility approved a project under its Climate Change Focal Area
entitled, “Promoting sustainable energy production and use of biomass in Pakistan.” The
general target of the venture is to advance business sector based selection of biomass
vitality change innovations for process heat and power generation in Small and Medium
Scale Enterprises (SMEs) and electrify rural areas in Pakistan. The project aims at building
the capacity of SMEs through alternative means of power generation and promoting
biomass gasification technology in the country.
12.1 1.1 Project Background
The power condition in Pakistan is categorized by a wide gap between demand and supply.
The order of magnitude of unmet demand in peak demand months is over 25% of peak
demand. This situation adversely affects the economy. Many SMEs have problems in
retrieving contemporary energy services due to the regular electricity supply stoppage in
the country, and have convinced to the diesel generators usage. Shortage of energy not only
effects the production and profit but also depresses the capacity and opportunity to rise.
The energy shortage results in lowering of their production, profit and capacities and
opportunities to grow.
UNIDO is implementing a GEF funded project entitled “Promoting Sustainable Energy
Production and Use from Biomass in Pakistan”. The conversion of biomass into producer gas
can be carried out under controlled conditions of temperature and oxygen during the
process of gasification and more of the heat content of the biomass is captured.
Under this project UNIDO is trying to establish the economic probability and marketable
practicality through pilot projects and doing efforts in building capacity of local
manufacturers/fabricators. This international conference on BGTs application in SMEs and
rural areas is bringing in renowned energy experts from around the globe, technology
providers, manufacturer, policy makers, financial institutions and other key market players
in Islamabad. Through this technology transfer of BGTs in Pakistan, UNIDO aims at
promoting the concept of “inclusive and sustainable industrial development”–ISID.

75
13 Biomass Fuels in Pakistan
In Pakistan, most common biomass fuels are cotton stalk, wheat straw, rice husk, sugarcane
trash, bagasse and other crops residues. Currently, most of these biomass products are
treated as biomass waste and is usually burned in the fields. Biomass burning has a
significant impact on global atmosphere chemistry since it provides large sources of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.
The waste products which are the main contributors to biomass burning are bagasse, rice
straw and husk, cotton wastes, barley residue, maize stalks and leaves, and millet and
sorghum stalks. Sugar cane provides the next sizeable residue with two major crop wastes;
barbojo or the leaves and stalk and bagasse, the crop-processing residue from sugar mills.
The cotton crop also gives significant residue in the form of stalks and husks.
Biomass resources, particularly residues from wood processing, agricultural crops and agro-
processing, are under-utilized in Pakistan. These resources are renewable, environmentally
friendly in energy production and sustainable in terms of supply.
Some of these residues are already used as raw materials for other products (e.g. particle
board and fiber-board) as fodder and fertilizer or as household and industrial fuels.
However, large portions are still unused and represent potential sources of energy. Energy
generation technologies specifically designed to use biomass residues are available and are
becoming more and more economical. Pakistan has yet to make optimum use of the
additional power generation potential from its biomass residue resources, which could help
it to partially overcome the long-term problem of energy supply.
Statistical data on the production of various types of biomass in Pakistan refers to the data
mention in .
13.1 Bagasse
Bagasse is comprised of lingo cellulosic residues and is a by-product of Sugar cane. It is

essentially the fibrous waste left containing 48-50% cellulose; after the Sugar cane is
extracted for crystallizing into sugar. Bagasse has considerable potential as biomass fuel
since it arises mainly at sugar factories. Each fresh ton of sugar cane on processing in the
sugar factory yields around 300 kg of the residual fiber, which has useful energy content.
Sugar cane top and cane trash normally range from 15 to 23% by weight of sugar cane.
Sugarcane top and trash is usually used as a fodder for animals. Presently, almost all power
requirements of sugar mills are met by using bagasse as a fuel but it is pertinent to mention
that some of sugar mills are producing surplus power to the grid. In fact, sugar mills in
Pakistan either have established the improved technology in their existing facilities or these
are in process for generating surplus power to the National Grid at the moment.
Approximately 96-98% bagasse produced from cane is consumed in all sugar mills
(operating) in the country to meet the steam requirements for sugar and for in house and
surplus power requirements.
Annual production of sugar cane top and trash, and bagasse is in the range of:
Average sugar cane top and trashper annum: million tonnes
Average bagasse per annum: million tonnes

77
13.2 Rice Husk
Rice husks are one of the commonest global agricultural residues and by-products of rice
paddy milling industries. Rice husks have 45-53% cellulose and hemicelluloses, lignin and
protein ranges 25-30%.
As per the research, 100 kg of paddy contains almost 67 kg of rice and 33 kg of bran powder,
and husk and dust.
Average Rice husk producedper annum: million tonnes
Average Annual quantity of Paddy straw: million tonnes
13.3 Wheat Straw
Cereal straw from small cereal crops as wheat is produced at around 2.5-5/ha depending on
crop type, variety and the growing season. It is estimated that equivalent yield of wheat
straw is produced by weight from wheat crops. Wheat straw is almost 40% cellulosic in
nature. It is also pertinent to mention that almost all the wheat straw is generated in the
field when the wheat crops are to be processed through ripper machines, combined
harvesters or manually cutting tools and readily available to Flour Mills for producing flour.
No countable/significant wastages are produced in Flour Mills or in the field that can be
used as a burning fuel because all wheat is converted into flour and farina (cream of wheat).
In terms of comparative gross energy values, 1 tonne of straw equates approximately 0.5
tonne of coal or 0.3 tonne of oil. It has higher silica content than other forms of biomass,
leading to ash contents of up to 10% by weight.
Wheat straw produced in Pakistan is heavily consumed as fodder to about 88% of its overall
production. Approximately 5% wheat straw of its overall production is utilized in the
manufacture of pulp for producing paper and paperboard in the country.
Production of wheat straw: million tonnes
It is to be considered that wheat straw is also abundantly used as fodder for animals, raw
material for pulp, paper and paperboard manufacturing; and fuel for brick manufacturing.

78
79
14
The following data on gasifiers are from two manufacturers.

1. Technical Parametersof gasification furnace and cooling/cleaningsystem
Generator rated output

200 400 600 800 1000 1200
power（Kw）
Production volume of biomass

800 1500 2250 3000 3650 4500
gas (Nm3/hr)
Gas temperature of gasification

furnace outlet (℃) 700~800 700~800 700~800 700~800 700~800 700~800
Outlet gas temperature after

cleaning and cooling (℃) <45
Consumption of biomass fuel

0.3~0.36 0.6~0.72 0.9~1.08 1.2~1.44 1.5~1.8 1.8~2.16
(ton/hr)
Circulating water flow volume

6~8 12~15 18~23 24~30 30~37 36~45
(m3/hr)
Gross weight of gasification

21.8 26.7 30.8 34.8 38.7 42.5
furnace(ton)
Ash removing manner Wet or Dry type(Screw-conveyer collection & discharge)
Two cyclone separator+two Spray scrubber+ two venturi scrubber+spray

Device of gas cleaning & cooling
scrubber+spray filter(removing dust, tar and cooling)+ roots blower+alkali
system
water washer gas-water Separator
2. Technical Specifications:
No
. Item / Power 400KW 800 KW 1MW 1.5MW 2MW
1 Building are (m2) 350 400 480 550 600
2 Main building height (m) 6 6 6 6 6
3 Total units weight (T) 22 28 32 40 50
Syngas production rate

4 (Nm3/h) 1400 2800 3500 5300 7000
Raw material (biomass)

5 consumption (kg/h) 800 1,600 2,000 3,000 4,000
Acceptable material moisture

6 content (%) 16 16 16 16 16
7 Gasifying efficiency (%) 70 70 70 70 70
8 Self consumption (kW) 22 40 48 60 80
Φ1.4,H=7. Φ2.0,H=10. Φ2.2,H＝12. Φ3.0,H=12. Φ3.7,H=14.

9 Gasifier dimensions (m) 5, 0 0 0 0
10 Ash discharging type Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry

80
81
15 References

83
16 Units Conversion Table
Conversions of SI and other commonly used units are presented in this appendix.
Energy Units
J = Joule = 1 Watt second = 278 x 10^-6 Wh

kJ = 1000 J
MJ = 10^6 J
GJ = 10^9 J
watt-hour = Wh = 3 600 J
kWh = 3600000 J
cal = Calorie = 4.18 J

kcal = 4.18 kJ
Btu = British Thermal Unit = = 1 055 J
Power Units
W = Watt = 1 J/second
kilowatt = kW = 1000 W
Megawatt = MW = 1000 kW
Gigawatt = GW = 1 million kW
HP = Horse Power = 745.7 W
kVA = kilo Volt-Ampere
Force Units
N = Newton
kgf = force kilogram

1 kgf = 9.8067 N
Pressure Units
Pa = Pascal = 1 N/m²
Bar = 105 Pa
hPa = hectopascal = 100 Pa
1 millibar = 100 Pa

85
1 psi = 6894,76 Pa (psi - pounds per square inch)
1 torr = 133,32 Pa
1 millimeter mercury (0°C) = 133,32 Pa
kgf/cm² = 98067 Pa
mm W = 9.8067 Pa (Wg – water gauge)
cm W = 98.067 Pa
Atmosphere =1.0133 × 10^5 Pa
Length Units
m = meter
km = 1000 m
cm = 0.01 m
mm = 0.001 m
m = 10^-6 m
Surface Units
m²= square meter

cm = 0.01 m
Mass Units
kg = kilogram
t = tonne = 1000 kg
g = 0.001 kg
mg = 10^-6 kg
Time Units
s = second
min = minute = 60 s
h = hour = 3600 s
yr = year
Biomass Gasification Systems 86

Volume Units
m³ = cubic meter
1 cubic meter (m³) = 1 000 liter (l)
dm³ = 0.001 m³
mm³ = 10^-9 m³
1 = liter = 1 dm³
Temperature Units
K = Kelvin
°C = degree Celsius
1° C = 1 °K
Miscellaneous
Nm³ = normal cubic meter (at 1 atmosphere and 0°C)
mol = quantity of matter unit

gram atom = atomic weight expressed in grams
gram molecule = molecular weight expressed in grams
ppm = parts per million

rpm = revolutions per minute
° = angular degrees
Other Units
Hz = Hertz (frequency)
V = Volt

87
17 Abbreviations and Glossary
17.1 Abbreviations
17.2 Glossary
Carburetting
Carburetting air or gas generally comprises passing it in contact with liquid fuel and
thereby mixing the air/gas and fuel. This often involves lowering the air pressure e.g. in a
venturi.
Destructive distillation
The process of pyrolysis conducted in a distillation apparatus to allow the volatile

products to be collected. An example is tar making from pinewood slices (which are rich in
terpenes), which are heated in an airless container causing the material to decompose,
leaving charcoal and turpentine as by-products.
Dry bulb temperature
The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry
Bulb" because the air temperature is indicated by a thermometer not affected by the
moisture of the air.
Endothermic Reaction
It describes a reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the
form of heat. Expressed in a chemical equation: reactants → products - energy.
Exothermic reaction
It is a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light or heat. Expressed in a
chemical equation: reactants → products + energy.
Gasification
Gasification is somewhat similar to pyrolysis and confusion between these terms is

common. Gasification is a partial oxidation process that converts materials such as coal,
biomass or plastic waste into a gaseous mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (also
known as synthesis gas) by reacting the raw material at high temperatures with controlled
amounts of oxygen and/or steam. See also “Pyrolysis”.
Producer gas
It is a mixture of gases containing carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide
(CO2) and nitrogen (N2). In the USA, producer gas is a generic term referring to wood gas,
town gas, synthesis gas, syngas or raw gas. In the UK, producer gas, also known as suction
gas, means a fuel gas made from coke or other carbonaceous material. Air is passed over
the red-hot fuel and carbon monoxide is produced in an exothermic reaction which reads
2C + O2 → 2CO. The nitrogen in the air remains unchanged and dilutes the gas, so it has a
low calorific value. The gas may be used to power gas turbines which are suited to fuels of
low calorific value.
Pyrolysis
The chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or

any other reagents, except possibly steam. Pyrolysis is somewhat endothermic and the
products can be gases, liquids (e.g. light crude oil from de-polymerization of organic
waste) and/or solids (e.g. coke and volatiles produced by coking coal). See also
“gasification”.
Synthesis gas (syngas)
A gas mixture that contains varying amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2)
generated by the gasification of a carbon-containing material to a gaseous product with a
heating value (but less than half the energy density of natural gas). When used as a fuel, it
is produced by gasification of coal or municipal waste by the following reactions: C + O2 →
CO2; CO2 + C → 2CO; C + H2O → CO + H2. The name comes from the gas's use as an
intermediate in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG) and in producing ammonia or
methanol.
Torrefaction
It is a thermal process that involves heating the biomass to temperatures between 250
and 300 degrees Celsius in an inert atmosphere. When biomass is heated at such
temperatures, the moisture evaporates and various low-calorific components contained in
the biomass are driven out.
Town gas
Also known as coal gas, and contains hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrogen (N2) and volatile hydrocarbons. It is made by
blowing air and steam over an incandescent fuel bed, usually of coke or coal. The words
"coal gas" could also be used to mean gas made by the destructive distillation of coal. The
gas was used inter alia for lighting before the advent of electric lighting, and for heating
and cooking before natural gas became widely available.
Water-gas
A mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) produced by passing steam over
red-hot coke using the endothermic reaction C + H2O → CO + H2. This product had a lower
calorific value than coal gas so the gas was often passed through a heated retort into which
oil was sprayed; the resulting mixed gas was called carburetted water gas.
Wet bulb temperature
This is the temperature indicated by a moistened thermometer bulb exposed to the air
flow. It can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb wrapped in wet muslin.
The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature difference
between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air. The evaporation is
reduced when the air contains more water vapor. The wet bulb temperature is always
lower than the dry bulb temperature but will be identical with 100% relative humidity
(the air is at the saturation line).
Wood gas
The product of thermal gasification of biomass (e.g. coal, wood chips, sawdust, charcoal) in
a gasifier or wood gas generator. It is the result of a high temperature reaction (> 700
degrees C) where carbon reacts with steam or a limited amount of air producing carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4). It can be
filtered, purified or scrubbed and used to power internal combustion engines, gas
turbines, Stirling engines or fuel cells.
To be expanded as needed.
Prepared by
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US-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy
(USPCAS-E)
National University of Sciences and Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan

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Biomass Gasification Systems

Biomass Gasification Systems

Biomass Gasification Systems

US-Pakistan Centre of Advanced Studies in Energy

Dr. Ehsan Ali

Project – Principle Investigator

1.1 Units used in the Manual 1

1.2 The Manual 1

2.1 Fossil Fuels 3

2.2 Biomass Fuels 3

2.2.1 Chemical Composition 4

2.3 Categories ofbiomass materials 4

2.4 Thermal Properties of Biomass Materials 5

2.4.1 Proximate Analysis 5

2.4.2 Ultimate Analysis / Elemental Composition 7

2.4.3 Heating Value 8

2.4.4 Bulk density 9

3 PROCESSING OF BIOMASS FUELS 11

3.1 Drying of Biomass Fuels 11

3.2 Dryer Principles 11

3.2.1 Types of Dryers 11

3.2.2 Stages of Drying 11

3.3 Dryers Description 12

3.3.1 Rotary Dryers 12

3.3.2 Flash Dryers 13

3.3.3 Disk Dryers 13

3.3.4 Cascade Dryers 14

3.4 Heat Recovery 15

3.5 Drier Choices 15

3.6 Benefits and Disadvantages of Different Typesof Dryers 15

3.7 Fuel Powdering, Pelleting and Briquetting 16

3.7.2 Pelletizing and Briquetting 17

4 BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 21

4.2 Biochemical conversion 22

4.2.1 Anaerobic digestion (AD) 23

5.1 Fixed bed gasifiers 25

5.1.1 Downdraft or co-current gasifier 25

5.1.2 Updraft or counter-current gasifier 25

5.1.3 Cross-draft or cross-flow gasifier 26

5.1.4 Comparison and characteristics of fixed bed gasifiers 26

5.2 Fluidized bed gasifiers 28

5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gasifier types 30

5.4 Factors influencing gasification 30

5.4.1 Equivalence Ratio (ER) 31

5.4.2 Hearth load / Specific gasification rate(SGR) 31

5.4.3 Fuel consumption rate (FCR) and SGR relationship 32

5.4.4 Gasification efficiency 32

5.4.5 Turndown ratio (TDR) 33

5.4.6 Superficial Gas Velocity (SGV) 33

5.4.7 Operating temperature 34

5.4.8 Operating pressure 34

5.5 Gasifiers population and sizes 34

6.1 Producer gas impurities 37

6.1.1 Moisture Content 37

6.1.2 Particulate Content 37

6.1.3 Tar Content 37

6.1.4 Trace impurities 38

6.2 Producer gas quality 38

6.3 Cooling and cleaning of product gas 38