THERMODYNAMICS

THERMODYNAMICS
CONTENTS:

A. Definition of Terms
B. Properties of Working Substance
C. Work, Heat and Power
D. Laws of Thermodynamics
E. Ideal Gases
F. Processes Involving Ideal Gases
G. Pure Substance
H. Processes Involving Pure Substance
I. The Carnot Cycle
Thermodynamics – the
study of heat and work and
those properties of
substance that bear a
relation to heat and work.
Definition of Terms:
1. Surroundings → all matter and space outside to a
system.
2. Isolated System → is a physical system that does
not interact or exchange energy with its surroundings.
3. Control Volume → the focused volume is in space
from which the substance flows. (Ex. Turbine, pumps,
heater, etc.)
4. Control Surface → the surface that surrounds the
control volume.
5. Phase → quantity of matter having same chemical
composition or homogeneous.
6. Property → a quantity which serves to describe a
substance.
Two Types of Thermodynamic
Properties

A.Intensive Property → a property

which does not depend on the mass of
the substance such as temperature,
pressure, density, stress and velocity.

B.Extensive Property → a property

which depends on the mass of the
substance such as volume,
momentum and energy.
 Working Substance - a substance to
which heat can be extracted.
•   Types of Working Substance:
Two

A.Pure Substance→is a working substance

whose chemical composition remains the
same even if there is a change in phase.
Ex. Water, ammonia, Freon-12
B. Ideal Gas→is a working substance
which remain in gaseous state during its
operating cycle and whose equation of
state is PV= mRT.
Ex. Air, .
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

•1.Mass
  and Weight
Mass→ a property of matter that
constitutes one of the fundamental
physical measurements or the amount of
matter a body contains. Units of mass are
in , slugs, or in kg.

Weight→ the force acting on a body in a

gravitational field, equal to the product of
its mass and the gravitational acceleration
of the field. Units of weight are in N or kN.
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE
•  
2. Volume

Volume → the amount of space

occupied by, or contained in a body
and is measured by the no. of cubes a
body contains. Units of volume are in ,
Gallons, liters, .
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE
•3.  Pressure
→force per unit area. Units of pressure are
measure in psi, kg/, kN/ or kPa.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure +

Atmospheric Pressure
kPaa = kPag + 101.325

Psia = Psig + 14.7

PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

•1  Atm pressure = 0 kPag, 0 psig.

= 101.325 kPa
= 1.033 kg/
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 14.7 psia
1 bar = 100 kPa

Pressure of Perfect Vacuum = - 101.325

kPag
=absolute zero pressure
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

•4.  Temperature
Temperature→the degree of hotness
or coldness of a substance.
Relations of Temperature Scales, ˚ C
and ˚ F:
˚C = (˚F – 32) ˚F = + 32

Temperature at which molecules stop

moving
= - 273 ˚C = -460 ˚F
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

•  
Absolute Temperatures:
˚K = ˚C + 273 ˚R = ˚F +460

Temperature Change or
Temperature Difference:
∆˚C = ∆˚F ∆˚K = ∆˚C

∆˚F = ∆˚C ∆˚R = ∆˚F

PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

5. Specific Volume,  Density and

Specific Weight
Density, ρ=
Specific Volume, ν= = =
Specific Weight, = kN/
Specific Gravity of a liquid =
Density of Water=1000=9.81 KN/=62.4 lb/
Specific Gravity of a Gas =
Density of Air = 1.2 at 101.325 kPa and
21.1˚C
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

6. Internal Energy, u, kJ/kg

Internal Energy → heat energy due to

the movement of the molecules within
the substance brought about its
temperature.

Internal Energy is zero if

temperature is constant
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE
•  
7. Flow Work, W, kJ/kg

Flow Work→ work due to the change in volume.

W = F x L = PA x L = Pv

Where:
F = Force, kN
L = Distance
A = Area,
P = Pressure, kPa
v = Specific volume, /kg
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE

8. Enthalpy, h, kJ/kg
Enthalpy → the total heat and heat
content of a substance which is equal
to the sum of the internal energy of a
body and the product of pressure and
specific volume.
Enthalpy = Internal Energy + Flow
Work
h = u = Pv
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE
•9.  Entropy, s,

Entropy→measure of randomness of the

molecules of a substance or measures the
fraction of the total energy of a system that is not
available for doing work. The increase in entropy
is known as entropy production.

Where:
= entropy production, kJ/
= energy transfer, kJ/kg
= constant surrounding temperature, ˚K
WORK, HEAT AND POWER

WORK → the quantity of energy

transferred from one system to
another. Units of work are, ft-lb, J or kJ.

Work = Force x Distance, ft-lb,

kN-m or kJ

W = F x L = Pv
WORK, HEAT AND POWER
•HEAT
  →form of energy due to temperature
difference. Units of heat are in Btu, cal,
kcal, kJ
Q = mC∆Tthen C = or
Where:
m = mass, kg
∆T = Temperature Change (Increase), ˚C
=
C = Specific heat,
WORK, HEAT AND POWER
•  
SPECIFIC HEAT, C→ the heat required
to change the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance 1˚C.

= specific heat at constant pressure, or

= specific heat at constant volume, or

WORK, HEAT AND POWER

CONVERSION UNITS OF HEAT:

1Btu = 778 ft – lb 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ

= 252 cal (0.252 kcal) 1N–m=
1J
= 1.055 kJ 1000 J = 1 kJ
WORK, HEAT AND POWER
•POWER
  → time rate of doing work

Power = hp, watts or kw

Conversion Units of Power:
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec 1MHp = 0.736 kw
= 33, 000 ft-lb/min 1.014 MPh = Hp
= 2545 Btu/hr 1 Boiler Hp = 33, 480 Btu/hr
= 42.2 Btu/min = 35, 322 kJ/hr
= 0.746 kw 1 watt= J/sec
LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
A.FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Total Energy Entering a System =

Total Energy Leaving a System
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
•  
from which:
W = m(-) + m(-) + m(-) – q
W = m(-) neglecting KE, PE and q
Where:
h = Enthalpy
KE = Kinetic Energy
PE = Potential Energy
q = Heat loss
W = Turbine work
B. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Kelvin Planck statement applied to

the heat engine:

“It is impossible to construct a heat

engine which operates in a cycle and
receives a given amount of heat from
a high temperature body and does an
equal amount of work.”
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Clausius statement applied to the

heat pump:
“It is impossible to construct a heat
pump that operates without an input
work.”

The most efficient operating cycle is the

C.THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

“The entropy of a substance of

absolute zero temperature is zero.”

D. ZEROTH’s LAW

“If two bodies has the same

temperature as a third body they have
the same temperature with each
other.”
IDEAL GASES
•  
An ideal gas is a substance that has
the equation of state:
PV = mRT
Where:
P = absolute pressure, kPa
V = volume, or /sec
m = mass, kg or kg/sec
R = gas constant,
T = absolute temperature,
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF AN
IDEAL GAS:
•1. R =
1. R =
2. R
3. = k
4. = R
5. =

Where:
R = gas constant =specific heat at constant
volume
M = molecular weight k = specific heat ratio
= specific heat at constant pressure
PROPERTIES OF AIR:
•  
M = 28.97 kg air/mole of air k = 1.4

R = 53.3 = 0.287

= 0.24 = 0.24 = 1.0

= 0.171 = 0.171 = 0.716

PROCESS INVOLVING IDEAL
GASES
•  
Any Process:

= = mR

- = m(-)

- = m(-)

- = m In - mR In
PROCESS INVOLVING IDEAL GASES
•  
Reversible Process:No friction loss

Adiabatic Process:No heat loss, no

heat gain, that is completely insulated
system

Adiabatic Throttling Process:constant

enthalpy or isenthalpic process, that is,
= and =

Constant Pressure or isobaric

PROCESS INVOLVING IDEAL
GASES
•  
Constant Volume or Isovolumic
Process:
=

Constant Temperature or Isothermal

Process: =

Constant Entropy or Isentropic

Process:adiabatic and reversible, =

Polytropic Process:non-adiabatic process

CONSTANT PRESSURE
(Charles Law)
•
 
= =

Work Done = (- )

Heat Added = m(- ) or Q = ∆H

Entropy Change = m In
CONSTANT VOLUME (Charles
Law)
•  
= =

Work Done = 0

Heat Added = m(-)orQ = ∆U

Entropy Change = m In
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (Boyle’s Law)
•  
= =

Work Done = In

Heat Added = mRIn or Q = W

Entropy Change = mR In
CONSTANT ENTROPY
•  
= C, =

==

Work Done =

Heat Added = 0

Entropy Change = 0
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
•  
= C, =

= =

Work Done =

Heat Added =

Entropy Change = In
PARTICULAR VALUES OF n:
Particular Values: Process:

n=0 Constant Pressure or

isobaric
n=1 Constant Temperature
or isothermal
n=k Constant entropy or
isentropic (adiabatic)
n>1 Polytropic process

n=∞ Constant volume or

isochoric or isometric
MIXTURES INVOLVING IDEAL GASES

Consider a mixture of three gases, a, b, and c,

at a pressure P and a temperature T, and
having a volume V.

A. MASS OR GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS:

= + +
•  

1= + +
B. VOLUMETRIC OR MOLAL
ANALYSIS:
 
V = Va+ +

1= + +

Where:
= volume that gas a would occupy at
pressure P and temperature T
= volume that gas b would occupy at
pressure P and temperature T
= volume that gas c would occupy at
pressure P and temperature T
C. DALTON’s LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
•  
P= + +
= (P) = (P) = (P)
Where:
P = total pressure
= partial pressure of gas A, that is, the pressure that gas
A will exert if it alone occupies the volume occupied by
the mixture, etc.
= partial pressure of gas B, that is, the pressure that gas
B will exert if it alone occupies the volume occupied by
the mixture, etc.
= partial pressure of gas C, that is, the pressure that gas
C will exert if it alone occupies the volume occupied by
the mixture, etc.
D. SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE
MIXTURE:
• 
Cp = Cpa + Cpb + Cpc

Cv = Cva + Cvb + Cvc

Where:
= specific heat at constant pressure of the
mixture.
= specific heat at constant volume of the
mixture.
PURE SUBSTANCE
→ is a working substance that has a homogenous
and invariable chemical composition even though
PHASES
there OFofAphase.
is a change PURE
SUBSTANCE
1. Solid → the state of matter that does not depend on
the shape of its container.

2. Subcooled liquid → liquid whose temperature is

lower than the saturation temperature at the given
pressure.

3. Saturated liquid → liquid water at its boiling

temperature and at standard temperature.
PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

4. Liquid-vapor Mixture → substance made up

of liquid and vapor portion or a two-phase liquid-
vapor system.

5. Saturated Vapor → vapor or steam at

standard atmospheric pressure and at its boiling
temperature.

6. Superheated Vapor → vapor whose

temperature is higher than the saturation
temperature at the given pressure. A
superheated vapor absorbs more heat than is
needed to vaporize.
PHASES OF A PURE
SUBSTANCE
Saturation Temperature - the temperature at
which vaporization takes place at a given pressure,
this pressure being called the saturation pressure
for the given temperature.

Degrees Superheat – difference between actual

temperature and saturation temperature.

Compressed Liquid – liquid whose pressure is

higher than the saturation pressure at the given
temperature.
If the temperature is held constant and the pressure
is increased beyond the saturation pressure.
PHASES OF A PURE
SUBSTANCE
Degrees Subcooling – difference between
saturation temperature and actual temperature.

Critical Point – is the condition of pressure and

temperature at which a liquid and its vapor are
indistinguishable. At the critical point the latent
heat vaporization is zero.

Triple Point – is the point in which the

temperature and pressure at which three phases
(gas, liquid and solid) of a substance may coexist
in thermodynamic equilibrium.
SATURATED LIQUID AND
SATURATED VAPOR
Examples of saturation temperature at various
pressures for three common pure substances:

SATURATION TEMPERATURE
Pressure Water Ammonia Freon-12

50 kpa 81.33˚C -46.73˚C -45.19˚C

101.325 100˚C -33.52˚C -29.79˚C

kpa
500kpa 151.86˚C 4.08˚C 15.59˚C
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED LIQUID
AND SATURATED VAPOR
at various temperatures and pressures are
found in tables (Table 1 and Table 2 for steam)
with the following typical construction:

Specific Internal Enthalp Entrop

Volume Energy y y
TempPress hfhfghg
= - = -
= - = -
MIXTURE
•  
x = quality or dryness factor
= ratio of mass of saturated vapor to the
total mass of the mixture, expressed in
decimal or percent.
x= =
1 – x = wetness
Where:
= mass of vapor
= mass of liquid
= total mass
PROPERTIES OF MIXTURE
•  

V= +x h= +x

u= +x s= +x
THE T-S DIAGRAM OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

The Mollier diagram (h-s) of steam is

usually useful in determining the final
enthalpy of steam after an isentropic
PROCESS INVOLVING PURE SUBSTANCES:
PROCESS: ANOTHER TERM:
Constant Pressure ( = ) Isobaric Process
Constant Temperature Isothermal Process
(=) Evaporation and Condensation occur
at P = C and T = C
Constant Volume ( = ) Isometric/Isovolumic/Isochronic
Process
Constant Entropy ( = ) Isentropic process
(reversible and adiabatic Process or
no friction loss that is completely
insulated system)
Constant Enthalpy () Throttling or isenthalpic Process
1. If the final state is a mixture such
as in a throttling valve:
+x
2. If the initial state is a mixture such
as in steam calorimeter.
BASIC FORMULAS:
PROCESS HEAT ADDED OR
REJECTED
Constant Pressure Q = mCp ()
Heating or Cooling of
Liquid For Water:Cp = 4.187
Evaporation or Q = m() = m()
Condensation = latent heat
( P = C and T = C )
Constant Volume ( V = Q = m( - )
C)
Constant Entropy ( S = Q = m( -)
C)
Isentropic
THE CARNOT CYCLE
Schematic Diagram of a heat
engine:
THE T-S DIAGRAM:
PROCESS 1 → 2: ADIABATIC
REVERSIBLE EXPANSION.

This piston and cylinder are

completely insulated so that no
heat is gained or lost during this
process. The piston continues to
expand with increasing volume
while doing work on the
surrounding.
PROCESS 2 → 3: ISOTHERMAL
COMPRESSION.

The piston compresses the

substance with decreasing volume
and heat is transferred at constant
temperature to the low
temperature reservoir.
PROCESS 3 → 4: ADIABATIC
REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION.

This piston and cylinder are

completely insulated in no heat is
gained or lost during the process.
The piston compresses the
working substance and causing
the temperature to rise.
PROCESS 4 → 1: ISOTHERMAL
EXPANSION

During this process, the piston

expands with increasing volume
and heat is transferred reversibly
at constant temperature from the
high-temperature reservoir.
BASIC FORMULAS:
- = - and - = -
= (-)
= (-) =
W = - = (-)-

= = =

= or =

where:
= Carnot Cycle efficiency
= = highest absolute temperature
= = lowest absolute temperature
BASIC WORKING CYCLES FOR
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS:
APPLICATION BASIC WORKING
CYCLE
Steam Power Plant Rankine Cycle
Gasoline Engine Otto Cycle
(Spark-Ignition)
Diesel Engine Diesel Cycle
(Combustion-
Ignition)
Gas Turbine Brayton Cycle
Refrigeration System Refrigeration Cycle
Example No. 1
A Carnot engine receives 130 Btu of heat
from a hot reservoir at 700˚F and rejects 49 Btu
of heat. Calculate the temperature of the cold
reservoir.
A. -21.9 ˚F C. -20.8 ˚F
B. -24.2 ˚F D. -22.7 ˚F

Example No. 2
The maximum thermal efficiency possible for
a power cycle operating between 1200 ˚F and
225 ˚F is:
C. 58%C. 57.54%
D. 58.73% D. 57.40%
Example No. 3
An ideal gas at 45 psig and 80˚F is heated in a
closed container to 130 F. What is the final
pressure?
A. 54 psia C. 75 psia
B. 65 psia D. 43 psia

Example No. 4
A Carnot engine requires 35kJ/sec from the
hot source. The engine produces 15 kw of power
and the temperature of the sink is 26 ˚C. What
is the temperature of the hot source in ˚C?
C. 245.57 C. 250.18
D. 210.10 D. 260.68
Example No. 5
An air bubble rises from the bottom of a
well where the temperature is 25˚C, to the
surface where the temperature is 27˚C.
Find the percent increase in the volume of
the bubble if the depth of the well is 5 m.
Atmospheric pressure is 101,528 Pascals.
A. 49.3 C. 56.7
B. 41.3 D. 38.6
Example No. 6
Steam enters a throttling calorimeter at a
pressure of 1.03 MPa. The calorimeter
downstream pressure and temperature are
respectively 0.100 Mpa and 125˚C. What is the
percentage moisture of the supply system?

Properties of steam:
P, MPahf hfg hg
1.032010.7 2779.25
Note: at 0.100 MPa and 125˚C, h = 2726.6 kJ/kg
A. 2.62C. 3.15
B. 5.21D. 1.98
•  
Example No. 7
A water temperature rise of 18˚F in the water
cooled condenser is equivalent in ˚C to:
A. 7.78 ˚C C. 263.56˚K
B. 10 ˚C D. -9.44 ˚C

Example No. 8
Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 10 kg/s
and 10 kw of heat are lost from the turbine.
Ignoring elevation and kinetic energy effects,
calculate the power output from the turbine.
Given:= 2739.0kJ/kg and = 2300.5kJ/kg
A. 4605 kw C. 4375 kw
B. 4973 kw D. 4000 kw
Example No. 9
The enthalpy of air is increased by
139.586 kJ/kg in a compressor. The
rate of air flow is 16.42 kg/min. The
power input is 48.2 kw. Which of the
following values most nearly equals
the heat loss from the compressor in
kw?
A. -10.0 C. +10.0
B. -9.95 D. +9.95
•  
Example No. 10
An iron block weighs 5 N and has a volume
of . What is the density of the block? (Apr 96)
A. 988 kg/cu.m C. 2550 kg/cu.m
B. 1255 kg/cu.m D. 800 kg/cu.m

Example No. 11
A volume of 400 cc of air is measured at a
pressure of 740 mm Hg abs and a
temperature of 18˚C. What will be the
volume at 760 mm Hg abs and 0˚C?
C. 376 ccC. 356 cc
D. 326 ccD. 366 cc