1

FUNCTIONS

OVERVIEW Functions are fundamental to the study of calculus. In this chapter we review
what functions are and how they are pictured as graphs, how they are combined and trans-
formed, and ways they can be classified. We review the trigonometric functions, and we
discuss misrepresentations that can occur when using calculators and computers to obtain
a function's graph. The real number system, Cartesian coordinates, straight lines, parabo-
las, and circles are reviewed in the Appendices. We treat inverse, exponential, and logarith-
mic functions in Chapter 7.

Functions and Their Graphs

1.1
Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can be
represented by an equation, a graph, a numerical table, or a verbal description; we will use
all four representations throughout this book. This section reviews these function ideas.

Functions; Domain and Range

The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling
point drops as you ascend). The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length
of time the investment is held. The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle. The
distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-line path depends on the
elapsed time.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y, depends on the value of another
variable quantity, which we might call x. We say that "y is a function of x" and write this
symbolically as
y = f(x) ("y equals f of x").
In this notation, the symbol f represents the function, the letter x is the independent vari-
able representing the input value of f, and y is the dependent variable or output value of
fatx.

DEFINITION A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique

(single) element f(x) E Y to each element XED.

The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of
all values of f(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function. The range
may not include every element in the set Y. The domain and range of a function can be any
sets of objects, but often in calculus they are sets of real numbers interpreted as points of a
coordinate line. (In Chapters 13-16, we will encounter functions for which the elements of
the sets are points in the coordinate plane or in space.)

1
2 Chapter 1: Functions

Often a function is given by a formula that describes how to calculate the output value
from the input variable. For instance, the equation A = 1Tr2 is a rule that calculates the
area A of a circle from its radius r (so r, interpreted as a length, can only be positive in this
formula). When we derme a function y = f(x) with a formula and the domain is not
stated explicitly or restricted by context, the domain is assumed to be the largest set of real
x-values for which the formula gives real y-values, the so-called natura! domain. If we
want to restrict the domain in some way, we must say so. The domain of y = x 2 is the en-
tire set of real numbers. To restrict the domain of the function to, say, positive values of x,
we would write "y = x 2 ,x > 0."
Changing the domain to which we apply a formula usually changes the range as well.
x --:-_.~ J :"""":~~•• J(x) The range of y = x 2 is [0, 00). The range of y = x 2, X ;;,: 2, is the set of all numbers ob-
Input Output
(donurin) (nmge) tained by squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In set notation (see Appendix 1), the
rangeis {x 2 Ix;;,: 2} or{Yly;;': 4} or [4, 00).
FIGURE 1.1 A diagram showing a When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the function is said to be rea!-
function as a kind of machine. valued. The domains and ranges of many real-valued functions of a rea! variable are inter-
vals or combinations of interva1s. The interva1s may be open, closed, or half open, and may
be finite or infinite. The range of a function is not a!ways eaay to find.
A function f is like a machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever

~
we feed it an input value x from its domain (Figure 1.1). The function keys on a calculator give
an example of a function as a machine. For instance, the Vx key on a calculator gives an out-
~J(a) J(x) put value (the square root) whenever you enter a nonnegative number x and press the Vx key.
A function can also be pictured as an arrow diagram (Figure 1.2). Each arrow associ-
D = domain set Y = set containing ates an element of the domain D with a unique or single element in the set Y. In Figure 1.2, the
tberange
arrows indicate thatf(a) is associated with a, f(x) is associated with x, and so on. Notice that
FIGURE 1.2 A function from a setD to a a function can have the same value at two different input elements in the domain (as occurs
set Yassigns a unique element of Y to each with f(a) in Figure 1.2), but each input element x is assigned a single output value f(x).
element in D.
EXAMPLE 1 Let's verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple
functions. The domains in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense.

Function Domain (x) Range (y)

y = x2 (-00,00) [0, 00)

Y = I/x (-00,0) U (0, 00) (-00,0) U (0, 00)
y= Vx [0, 00) [0, 00)
y=~ (-00,4] [0, 00)
y = v'1=7 [-I, I] [0, I]

Solution The formula y = x 2 gives a rea! y-value for any real number x, so the domain
is (- 00, 00). The range of y = x 2 is [0, 00) because the square of any real number is
nonnegative and every nonnegative number y is the square of its own square root,
y = (vY)2fory;;,: O.
The formula y = l/x gives a real y-value for every x except x = O. For consistency
in the rules of arithmetic, we cannot divide any number by zero. The range of y = I/x, the
set of reciprocals of all nonzero real numbers, is the set of all nonzero real numbers, since
y = I/(I/y). That is, for y oF 0 the number x = I/y is the input assigned to the output
valuey.
The formula y = Vx gives a real y-value only if x ;;,: O. The range of y = Vx is
[0, 00) because every nonnegative number is some number's square root (namely, it is the
square root of its own square).
In y = '\I'4-=x, the quantity 4 - x cannot be negative. That is, 4 - x ;;,: 0, or
x :5 4. The formula gives real y-values for all x :5 4. The range of '\I'4-=x is [0, 00), the
set of all nonnegative numbers.
 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 3

The formula y = ~ gives a real y-value for every x in the closed interval
from - 1 to 1. Outside this domain. 1 - x 2 is negative and its square root is not a real
number. The values of 1 - x 2 vary from 0 to 1 on the given domain, and the square roots
of these values do the same. The range of ~ is [0. 1]. •

Graphs of Functions
If j is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane
whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for j. In set notation. the graph is
{(x,j(x)) I XED}.
The graph of the function j(x) = x + 2 is the set of points with coordinates (x,y) for
which y = x + 2. Its graph is the straight line sketched in Figure 1.3.
The graph of a function j is a useful picture of its behavior. If (x. y) is a point on the
graph, then y = j(x) is the height of the graph above the pointx. The height may be posi-
tive or negative, depending on the sign of j(x) (Figure 104).

X y=xl
FIGURE 1.3 The graph of f(x) = x + 2 FIGURE 1.4 If(x.y) lies on the graph of
-2 4 is the set of points (x,y) for whichy has f. then the value y = f(x) is the height of
-1 1 the value x + 2. the graph above the poiut x (or below x if
f(x) is negative).
0 0
1 1
EXAMPLE 2 Graph the function y = x 2 over the interval [-2,2].
3 9
2 4
Solution Make a table ofxy-pairs that satisfy the equation y = x 2• Plot the points (x,y)
2 4 whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a smooth curve (labeled with its equation)
through the plotted points (see Figure 1.5). •
y
How do we know that the graph of y = x 2 doesn't look like one of these curves?
(2.4)
y y

--~--~~~~--~~X
-2 -1 0 2

FIGURE 1.5 Graph of the function in

Example 2.
4 Chapter 1: Functions

To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The
basic question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like be-
tween the points we plot? Calculus answers this question, as we will see in Chapter 4.
Meanwhile we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as best
we can.

Representing a Function Numerically

We have seen how a function may be represented algebraically by a formula (the area
function) and visually by a graph (Example 2). Another way to represent a function is
numerically, through a table of values. Numerical representations are often used by engi-
neers and scientists. From an appropriate table of values, a graph of the function can be
obtained using the method illustrated in Example 2, possibly with the aid of a computer.
The graph consisting of only the points in the table is called a scatterplot.

EXAMPLE 3 Musical notes are pressure waves in the air. The data in Table l.l give
recorded pressure displacement versus time in seconds of a musical note produced by a
toning fork. The table provides a representation of the pressure function over time. If we
first make a scatterplot and then connect approximately the data points (t, p) from the
table, we obtain the graph shown in Figure 1.6.

p (pressure)
TABLE 1.1 Tuning fork data
1.0
Time Pressure Time Pressure 0.8
0.6
0.00091 -0.080 0.00362 0.217 0.4
0.2
0.00108 0.200 0.00379 0.480 t (sec)
0.00125 0.480 0.00398 0.681 -0.2
-0.4
0.00144 0.693 0.00416 0.810 -0.6
0.00162 0.816 0.00435 0.827
0.00180 0.844 0.00453 0.749 FIGURE 1.6 A smooth curve through the plotted points
0.00198 0.771 0.00471 0.581 gives a graph of the pressure functioo represented by
0.00216 0.603 0.00489 0.346 Table l.l (Example 3).

0.00234 0.368 0.00507 0.077

0.00253 0.099 0.00525 -0.164
0.00271 -0.141 0.00543 -0.320
0.00289 -0.309 0.00562 -0.354
0.00307 -0.348 0.00579 -0.248
0.00325 -0.248 0.00598 -0.035
0.00344 -0.041
•
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a function. A function 1 can
have ouly one value I(x) for each x in its domain, so 110 vertical line can intersect the graph
of a function more than once. If a is in the domain of the function I, then the vertical line
x = a will intersect the graph of 1 at the single point (a, I(a».
A circle cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical lines intersect the circle
twice. The circle in Figure 1.7a, however, does contain the graphs of two functions of x:
the upper semicircle defmed by the function I(x) = ~ and the lower semicircle
defined by the function g(x) = - ~ (Figures 1.7b and 1.7c).
 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 5

Y Y Y

-I
--~----~----~-->x --~----~----~~x
-I 0 o

(C)Y~-~

FIGURE 1.7 (a) The circle is not the graph ofa function; itfails the vertical line test. (b) The upper
semicircle is the graph ofa function f(x) = ~. (c) The lower semicircle is the graph ofa
y functiong(x) = -~.

Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts of its
domain. One example is the absolute value funetion

x;;" 0
FIGURE 1.8 The absolute value Ixl = { x,
function has domain ( - 00, 00) -x, X < 0,
and range [0, 00).
whose graph is given in Figure 1.8. The right-hand side of the equation means that the
y function equals x if x ;;" 0, and equals -x if x < O. Here are some other examples.

EXAMPLE 4 The function

{-:~,
x<O
f(x) = 0:5x:51
I, x > I
FIGURE 1.9 To graph the
function y = f(x) shown here,
is defined on the entire rea! line but has values given by different formulas depending on
we apply different formulas to
the position of x. The values of f are given by y = -x when x < 0, y = x 2 when
different parts ofits domain
(Example 4).
o :5 x :5 I, and y = I when x > 1. The function, however, is just one function whose
domain is the entire set of rea! numbers (Figure 1.9). •
y
,
,'Y=x
3
, , ----..0 EXAMPLE 5 The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less
2 , ,.!......o than or equal to x is ca!led the greatest integer function or the integer floor function.
~ Y~LxJ It is denoted l x J. Figure 1.10 shows the graph. Observe that

--_~2~_~I-'.¥~~~2~~3~~x
, " l2.4J = 2,
l2J = 2,
ll.9 J
lO.2J
=
=
I,
0,
lOJ = 0,
l-0.3 J = -I
l-1.2J = -2,
l-2J = -2. •
"
........a -2

"
FIGURE 1.10 The graph of the EXAMPLE 6 The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer greater
greatest integer function y = l x J than or e9ual to x is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is
lies on or below the line y = x, so denoted I xl. Figure 1.11 shows the graph. For positive values of x, this function might
it provides an integer floor for x represent, for example, the cost of parking x hours in a parking lot which charges $1 for
(Example 5). each hour or part of an hour. •
6 Chapter 1: Functions

y Increasing and Decreasing Functions

/
' y=x
3 If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from left to right, we say that the
'7 function is increasing. If the gmph descends or falls as you move from left to right, the
2 0---;-' function is decreasing.
, y ~ rxl

DEFINmONS Let f be a function defmed on an interval I and let X, and X2 be

any two points in I.

1. If f(X2) > f(Xl) whenever Xl < X2, then f is said to be increasing on I.

2. If f(X2) < f(Xl) whenever Xl < X2, then f is said to be decreasing on I.
FIGURE 1.11 TIre graph ofthe
least integer function y ~ rxl
lies on or above the line y = x. It is important to realize that the defmitions of increasing and decreasing functions
so it provides an integer ceiling must be satisfied for every pair of points Xl and X2 in I with Xl < X2. Because we use the
for x (Example 6). inequality < to compare the function values, instead of :5 , it is sometimes said that f is
strictly increasing or decreasing on I. The interval I may be finite (also called bounded) or
infmite (unbounded) and by definition never consists of a single point (Appenrux 1).

EXAMPLE 7 The function graphed in Figure 1.9 is decreasing on (-00,0] and in-
creasing on [0, I]. The function is neither increasing nor decreasing on the interval [I, 00)
because of the strict inequalities used to compare the function values in the definitions. _

Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry

The graphs of even and odd functions have chamcteristic symmetry properties.

DEFINmONS A function y = f(x) is an

even function ofx if f( -x) = f(x),

odd function ofx if f( -x) = - f(x),
for every X in the function's domain.
y

The names even and odd come frorn powers of x. If Y is an even power of x, as in
y = x 2 or Y = x\ it is an even function ofx because (-x)2 = x 2 and (-x)4 = x4. Ify is
(-x,y)
an odd power of x, as iny = X or y = x\ it is an odd function ofxbecause (-x)' = -x
x and (-X)3 = -x 3.
0 The graph of an even function is symmetric about they-axis. Since f( -x) = f(x) , a
(a) point (x,y) lies on the graph ifand only if the point (-x, y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.12a).
A reflection across the y-axis leaves the graph unchanged.
y
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Since f( -x) = - f(x) , a
point (x,y) lies on the graph ifand on1y if the point (-x, -y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.12b).
Equivalently, a gmph is symmetric about the origin if a rotation of 1800 about the origin
------~~~------x
leaves the graph unchanged. Notice that the definitions imply that both x and -x must be
in the domain off.

EXAMPLE 8
(b) f(x) = x 2 Even function: (-xl' = x 2 for all x; symmetry about y-axis.

FIGURE 1.12 (a) The graph of y ~ x 2 f(x) = x 2 + 1 Even function: (-xl' + 1 = x 2 + 1 for all x; symmetry about y-axis
(an even function) is symmetric about the (Figure 1.13a).
y-axis. (b) The graph ofy = x' (an odd
function) is symmetric about the origin. f(x) = x Odd function: (-x) = -x for all x; symmetry about the origin.
f(x) = x + 1 Not odd: f( -x) = -x + 1, but - f(x) = -x - I. The two are not
equal.
Not even: (-x) + 1 '" x + 1 for all x '" 0 (Figure 1.13b). _
 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 7

y y

----~~------~x -----,!'-~------x

<aJ (bJ

FIGURE 1.13 (a) When we add the coostant term I to the function
y = x 2 , the resulting functioo y = x 2 + I is still even and its grnph is
still symmetric ahoul the y-axis. (b) When we add the constant term I to
the function y = x, the resulting function y = x + I is no longer odd.
The symme1ry about the origin is lost (EXlIDlple 8).

Common Functions
A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in calculus. We iden-
tify and briefly describe them here.
Linear Functions A function of the form j{x) = mx + b, for constants m and b, is
called a linear function. Figure 1.14a shows an array oflines j{x) = mx where b = 0,
so these lines pass through the origin. The function j{x) = x where m = I and b = 0 is
called the identity function. Constant functions result when the slope m = 0 (Figure
1.14b). A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through the origin is
called a proportionality relationship.

y
m=-3

m=-l m=l y

m=z1 2
------~~~----~ __ x

<aJ (bJ

FIGURE 1.14 (a) Lines through the origin with slope m. (b) A constant function
with slope m = O.

DEFINmON Two varisbles y and x are proportional (to one another) if one is
always a constant multiple of the other; that is, if y = kx for some nonzero
constantk.

If the variable y is proportional to the reciprocal I/x, then sometimes it is said that y is
inversely proportional to x (because I/x is the multiplicative inverse of x).
Power Functions A function j{x) = x·, where a is a constant, is called a power func-
tion. There are several important cases to consider.
8 Chapter 1: Functions

(a) a = n, a positive integer.

The graphs of f(x) = x·, for n = 1,2,3,4,5, are displayed in Figure 1.15. These func-
tions are dermed for all real values of x. Notice that as the power n gets larger, the curves
tend to flatten toward the x-axis on the interval (- I, I), and also rise more steeply for
Ixl > I. Each curve passes through the point (I, I) and through the origin. The graphs of
functions with even powers are symmetric about the y-axis; those with odd powers are
symmetric about the origin. The even-powered functions are decreasing on the interval
(-00,0] and increasing on [0, 00); the odd-powered functions are increasing over the entire
real line (-00,00).

-1 -1

FIGURE 1.15 Graphs of J(x) = x', n = 1,2,3,4,5, deImed for -00 <x< 00.

(b) a = - l o r a = -2.
The graphs of the functions f(x) = X-I = I/x and g(x) = x-2 = I/x 2 are shown in
Figure 1.16. Both functions are dermed for all x '" 0 (you can never divide by zero). The
graph of y = I/x is the hyperbola xy = I, which approaches the coordinate axes far from
the origin. The graph of y = I/x 2 also approaches the coordinate axes. The graph of the
function f is symmetric about the origin; f is decreasing on the intervals (-00,0) and
(0, 00). The graph of the function g is symmetric about the y-axis; g is increasing on
(-00,0) and decreasing on (0,00).
Y

~, 1
JY 1
Domain: x '* 0 ~~c--+~~~ x
Range: n' 0 0
Domain: x =F 0
Range: y> 0

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.16 Graphsof1hepowerfunctionsJ(x) = x'forpart(a)a = -1

and for part (b) a = -2.
I I 3 2
(c) a = 2'3'2,and 3 .

The functions f(x) = xl/2 = Vx

and g(x) = x ' / 3 = \Yx are the square root and cube
root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root function is [0, 00), but the
cube root function is defined for all real x. Their graphs are displayed in Figure 1.17
along with the graphs of y = x 3/2 and y = x 2/3. (Recall that x 3/2 = (x ' /2)3 and
x 2/3 = (xl/3)2.)
Polynomials A function p is a polynomial if
p(x) = anxn + an_IX n- 1 + ... + a,x + ao
where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers 00, al, a2,"" an are real constants
(called the coefJicients of the polynomial). All polynornials hsve domain ( - 00, 00). If the
 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 9

y
y y

1
--~O~--I~------~x ------~~~----~x ------~~----~x ------~~----~x
o 1
Domain: O:s x < 00 Domain: 0 ~ x < oc Domain: -00 < x < 00

Range: 0 :S Y < 00 Range: 0 :S Y < 00

Range: 0 :S Y < 00

FIGURE 1.17 Graphs of the power functions J(x) = x'fora = t,t,~,andt.

leading coefficient a. '" 0 and n > 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial. Linear
functions with m '" 0 are polynomials of degree I. Polynomials of degree 2, usually written
as p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, are called quadratic functions. Likewise, cubic functions are
polynomials p(x) = ax' + bx 2 + ex + d of degree 3. Figure 1.18 sbows the graphs of
three polynomials. Techniques to graph polynomials are studied in Olapter 4.

x3 x2 2x +31
Y=3-Z-
Y
4 Y
Y
Y = 8x 4 - 14x 3 - 9x 2 + llx - 1 Y = (x - 2)4(x + 1)3(x - I)
16
2 2

-10
-4 -12
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.18 Graphs of three polynomial functions.

Rational Functions A rational function is a quotient or ratio J(x) = p(x)jq(x), where p

and q are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real x for which
q(x) '" O. The graphs of several rational functions are sbown in Figure 1.19.

Y
Y 8 llx + 2
Y Y=2x 3 -1
6
2
4
2x2 - 3
Y= 7x + 4 Liney=~
3
x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2
-4
-2 NOTTOSCAlB
-6

-8
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.19 Graphs of three rational functions. The straight red lines are called asymptotes and are not part
of the graph.
10 Chapter 1: Functions

Algebraic Functions Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic opera-
tions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) lies witbin the class
of algebraic functions. All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more
complicated functions (sucb as those satisfYing an equation like y3 - 9xy + x 3 = 0,
studied in Section 3.7). Figure 1.20 displays the graphs of three algebraic functions.

y
y y ~ x(l - x)'"

-----+1---~f---~x ----+..---;+----->x

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.20 Graphs of three algebraic functions.

Trigonometric Functions The six basic trigonometric functions are reviewed in Section 1.3.
The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in Figure 1.21.

w~·_
-1
0

(a) f(x)
w

~ sin x
w ~

(b) f(x) ~ cosx

FIGURE 1.21 Graphs of the sine and cosine functions.

Exponential Functions Functions of the fonn f(x) = aX, where the base a > 0 is a
positive constant and a oF 1, are called exponential fuoctions. All exponential functions
have domain ( - 00, 00) and range (0, 00), so an exponential function never assumes the
value O. We study exponential functions in Section 7.3. The graphs of some exponential
functions are shown in Figure 1.22.

y y

12 12
10 10
8 8

6 6
4 4

2 2
x
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.22 Graphs of expooential functinos.

 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 11

Logarithmic Functions These are the functions t(x) = log" x, where the base a '" 1 is
a positive constant. They are the inverse jUnctions of the exponential functions, and the
calculus of these functions is studied in Chapter 7. Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four
logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the domain is (0, 00) and the range
is (-00, 00).

--~O~~
~~~~=Y=~~IO~~XX
-1 , Y = lOglOx

FIGURE 1.23 Graphs offour logaritlunic FIGURE 1.24 Graph ofa cateoary or
functions. hanging cable. (The Latin word calena
means "chain.")

Transcendental Functions These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and many
other functions as well. A particular example of a transcendental function is a catenary.
Its graph has the shape of a cable, like a telephone line or electric cable, strung from one
support to another and hanging freely under its own weight (Figure 1.24). The function
defming the graph is discussed in Section 7.7.

Exercises 1.1
Functions 8... Y b. y
In Exercises 1--{j, find 1he domain and range of each function.
1. f(x) = I + x' 2. f(x) = 1 - ;Ix
3. F(x) = v'Sx + 10 4. g(x) = v'x' - 3x
4 2
S. f(t) = 3_ I 6. G(t) = t' _ 16

~------------~X ~-------------+x
In Exercises 7 and 8, which of1he graphs are graphs of functions oh, o o
and which are not? Give reasons for your answers.
7.a.y b.y Finding Formulas for Functions
9. Express 1he area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a
function of1he triangle's side leng1hx.
10. Express 1he side 1eng1h ofa square as a function of1he 1eng1h d of
1he square's diagonal. Then express 1he area as a function of 1he
diagonalleng1h.
11. Express 1he edge leng1h ofa cube as a function of1he cube's diag-
~------------~X ~-------------+x onal 1eng1h d. Then express 1he surface area and volume of 1he
o o cube as a function of1he diagonalleng1h.
12 Chapter 1: Functions

12. A point P in the first quadrant lies 00 the graph of the functioo 31. a. Y b. Y

~x
I(x) ~ Vx.
Express the coordinates of P as functions of the
2
slope of the line joining P to the origin.
13. Consider the point (x, y) lying 00 the graph of the line
a + 4y ~ 5. Let L he the distsnce from the point (x, y) to the I 3 - --=---t-i-- - x
origin (0, 0). WriteL as a functioo ofx. (-2,-1)
14. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of y = ~. Let
L he the distsnce hetweeo the points (x,y) and (4, 0). WriteL as a 32. a. Y b. Y
function ofy.
1
Functions and Graphs A
Find the domain and graph the functions in Exercises 15-20.
15. I(x) = 5 - a 16. I(x) = I - a - x' o
17. g(x) = '\J'Ix1 18. g(x) = h n+-~!'--~x -A
OTT
19. F(t) = t/ltl 20. G(t) = !fit I 1:
21. Find the domain ofy = x~.
4 - x' - 9 The Greatest and Least Integer Functions
33. For what values oh is
22. Find the range of y ~ 2 x'
+ -,--.
x +4 a.lxJ=O? b. rxl=O?
34. What real nwnhers x satisfY the equation l x J = r xl?
23. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
graphs of functioos of x. 35. Does r -xl = -lxJ for all real x? Give reasons foryour answer.

L Iyl=x b. y'=x' 36. Graph the function

{f:~:
24. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not x~o
graphs of functioos of x. I(x) = x < O.
L Ixl + Iyl = I b. Ix + yl = I
Why is I(x) called the integer part ofx?
Piece>rise-Defined Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 25-28. Increasing and Decreasing Functions
25. I(x) = {x, 0 :5 x :5 I Graph the functioos in Exercises 37-46. What synnnetries, if any, do
2-x, 1 <x::S;2 the graphs have? SpecifY the intervals over which the function is in-
I - x Osxsl creasing and the intervals where it is decreasing.
26. g(x) = { 2 _ x: 1<x:52 37. y = -x' 38.y=_I,
4 - x'a' x:S 1
x
27. F(x) ~ { ,
x + , x> I 39. y =-~ 40.y=~
I

28. G(x) ~ {I/X, x<O 41. y = '\J'Ix1 42.y=h

x, OSX'
43. y = x'/8 44. y = -4Vx
Find a formula for each function graphed in Exercises 2c}"32. 45. y = -x'/2 46. y = (-x)'/3
29. L Y b. Y
Even and Odd Functions
(1, 1) In Exercises 47-58, say whether the function is even, odd, or neither.
2 r-1
I I
Give reasons for your answer.
I
I
I
I 47. I(x) = 3 48. I(x) = x- s
X
2 0 2 3 4 49. I(x) = x' + I SO. I(x) = x' + x
51. g(x) = x' + x 52. g(x) = x' + 3:x;' - I
30. L b. Y
I x
3 53. g(x) = -,-- 54. g(x) ~ - , - -
x - I x - I
I
5
x 55. h(t) = t=1 56. h(t) = It'l
x
57. h(t) = 2t + I 58. h(t) = 21tl +I

Theory and Examples

-3 59. The variable s is proportiooa1 to t, and s = 25 when t = 75.
Determine t when s = 60.
 1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 13

60. Kinetic energy The kinetic energy K of a mass is proportional 66. a. y = 5x b.y=5X
to the square of its velocity v. If K = 12,960 joules when
y
v = 18 m/sec, what is Kwhen v = 10m/sec?
61. The variables r and s are inversely proportional, and r = 6 when
s = 4. Determine s when r = 10.
62. Boyle's Law Boyle's Law says that the volume Vofa gas at con-
stant temperature increases whenever the pressure P decreases, so
that V and P are inversely proportional. If P = 14.7 Ibs/in2 when
V = 1000 in\ then what is V when P = 23.41bs/in2?
63. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular
piece of cardboard with dimensions 14 in. by 22 in. by cutting out
equal squares of side x at each corner and then folding up the
sides as in the figure. Express the volume V of the box as a func-
tion ofx.

I, 22 )1 D 67. a. Graph the functions j(x) = x/2 and g(x) = 1 + (4/x) to-

~
IX x I_ gether to identify the values of x for which
Tf-x'
14
x
x
2" > 1 + x·
4

1 x
-I x xl
.3_

D 68.
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically.
a. Graph the functions j(x) = 3/(x - 1) and g(x) = 2/(x + 1)
64. The accompanying figure shows a rectangle inscribed in an isosce- together to identify the values of x for which
les right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 units long. _3_<_2_
x-I x+l·
a. Express the y-coordinate of P in terms of x. (You might start
by writing an equation for the line AB.) b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically.
b. Express the area of the rectangle in terms ofx. 69. For a curve to be symmetric about the x-axis, the point (x, y) must
lie on the curve if and only if the point (x, -y) lies on the curve.
y Explain why a curve that is symmetric about the x-axis is not the
graph of a function, unless the function is y = O.
70. Three hundred books sell for $40 each, resulting in a revenue of
(300)($40) = $12,000. For each $5 increase in the price, 25
fewer books are sold. Write the revenue R as a function of the
number x of $5 increases.
71. A pen in the shape of an isosceles right triangle with legs oflength
x ft and hypotenuse of length h ft is to be built If fencing costs
$5/ft for the legs and $1 O/ft for the hypotenuse, write the total cost
-1 C of construction as a function of h.
72. Industrial costs A power plant sits next to a river where the
river is 800 ft wide. To lay a new cable from the plant to a location
In Exercises 65 and 66, match each equation with its graph. Do not in the city 2 mi downstream on the opposite side costs $180 per
use a graphing device, and give reasons for your answer. foot across the river and $100 per foot along the land.
65. a. y = x4 b. y = x 7 c. Y = x lO I~(- - - - 2 mi- - - - - + 1
.1
P Q City

Power plant
NOT TO SCALE

------~~--7
0 r---~~----~X a. Suppose that the cable goes from the plant to a point Q on the
opposite side that is x ft from the point P directly opposite the
plant Write a function C(x) that gives the cost oflaying the
cable in terms of the distance x.
b. Generate a table of values to determine if the least expensive
location for point Q is less than 2000 ft or greater than 2000 ft
from point P.
22 Chapter 1: Functions

+ +-t)'
81. 3(x - I)' + 2(y + 2)' ~ 6 a. fg b. f/g e. g/f
d. f' ~ If •. g'~gg r.
+ ~)' + ~ 54
fog
82. g. gof h. fof i. gog
83. Write an equation for the ellipse (x'/16) + (y'/9) ~ I shifted 4 86. Can a function be both flNeo aod odd? Give reasons for your
units to the left and 3 units up. S1retch the ellipse and ideotifY its answer.
center and major axis. D 87. (Continuation of Example 1.) Graph the functions f(x) ~ Vx
84. Write an equation for the ellipse (x'/4) + (y'/25) ~ I shifted 3 and g(x) ~ ~ together with their (a) sum, (b) product,
units to the right and 2 units down. S1retch the ellipse and ideotifY (c) two differences, (d) two quotients.
its center and major axis.
D 88. Let f(x) ~ x - 7 aod g(x) ~ x'. Graph f and g together with
Comlrining Functions f 0 gandg 0 f.

85. Assume that f is an even function, g is an odd function, and both

f andg are dermed on the entire real line R. Which of the follow-
ing (where dermed) are flNeo? odd?

Trigonometric Functions
1.3
TIris section reviews radian measure and the basic trigonometric functions.

Angles
Angies are measured in degrees or radians. The number of radians in the central angle
A' CB' within a circie of radius r is defined as the number of ''radius units" contained in
the arc s subtended by that central angie. If we denote this central angie by () when meas-
ured in radians, this means that fJ = sir (Figure 1.38), or

< s = r£J (fJ in radians). (1)

C""10 of ,ifo""

FIGURE 1.38 TIre radian measure of the

central aogleA'CB' is the number 9 ~ s/r. If the circie is a unit circle having radius r = i, then from Figure 1.38 and Equation (i),
For a unit circle of radius r = 1,8 is the we see that the central angle fJ measured in radians is just the iength of the arc that the an-
length of arc AB that central angle ACB gle cuts from the unit circie. Since one compiete revoiution of the unit circie is 3600 or 21T
cuts from the unit circle. radians, we have
1T radians = i80° (2)

and

1 radian = i!O ('" 57.3) degrees or 1 degree = 1~0 ('" 0.017) radians.

Tabie 1.2 shows the equivalence between degree and radian measures for some basic
angles.

TABLE 1.2 Angles measured in degrees and radians

Degrees -180 -135 -90 -45 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
-31T 1T 1T 1T 1T
fJ (radians) -1T
4
o 6 4 3 2
 1.3 Trigonometric Functions 23

An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin
and its initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Figure 1.39). Angles measured counter-
clockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured clock-
wise are assigned negative measures.

y y

Initial ray
---------.~,---~--~x

FIGURE 1.39 Angles in staodard position in the xy-plaoe.

Angles describing counterclockwise rotations can go arbitrarily far beyond 2" radi-
ans or 360°. Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have negative measures
of all sizes (Figure lAO).

y y y y

3"

- -"-H --'....+----x - - ---*--,----> X ----hh-+---~x

9"
4
hypotenuse
opposite
FIGURE 1.40 Nonzero radiao measures cao be positive or negative and cao go beyond 2"..

Angle Convention: Use Radians From now on, in this book it is assumed that all angles
adjacent are measured in radians unless degrees or some other unit is stated explicitly. When we talk
sin {1 = opp csc {1 = hyp about the angle ,,/3, we mean ,,/3 radians (which is 60°), not ,,/3 degrees. We use radians
byp opp because it simplifies many of the operations in calculus, and some results we will obtain
d· byp involving the trigonometric functions are not true when angles are measured in degrees.
COS{1=:~ sec {1 = adj
opp cot {1 = adj The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions
tan 9 ~ adj opp
You are probably familiar with derming the trigonometric functions of an acute angle in
FIGURE 1.41 Trigonometric terms of the sides of a right triangle (Figure 1041). We extend this dermition to obtuse and
ratios of an acute angle. negative angles by first placing the angle in standard position in a circle of radius r.
We then derme the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates of the point P(x, y)
where the angle's terminal ray intersects the circle (Figure 1.42).
y
sin l/ = )I r
sine: r cosecant: cscl/=y

cosine: cosO = rx secant: sec l/ = l'

x

tangent: tan 0 =)1

x cotangent: cotO =""
y
These extended dermitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle is acute.
Notice also that whenever the quotients are defined,

lanO = sinO I
cosO cotO = lanO
FIGURE 1.42 The trigonometric
functions of. general angle 6 are
defmed in terms ofx,y, and r.
secO =~
cos v
I
cseO = sinO
24 Chapter 1: Functions

As you can see, tan IJ and sec IJ are not defined if x = cos IJ = O. This means they are not
defined iflJ is ±1T/2, ±31T/2, ... . Similarly, cot 0 and csc 0 are not defined for values of 0

~1
zj
forwhichy = O,namelyO = 0, ±1T, ±21T, ....
2 The exact values of these trigonometric retios for some angles can be read from the
triangles in Figure 1.43. For instance,
'"4
-
'"2
-
. 1T 1 . 1T 1 . 1T V3
1
sm-=-
4v'Z
sm 6 =2 smT=2

FIGURE 1.43 Radian angles and side 1T

cos-= -1 1T
cos 6 = 2
V3 1T
cosT =
1
2
leng1hs of two common 1riangles. 4v'Z
tan
1T
=1 tan 1T = _1_
4 6V3
The CAST rule (Figure 1.44) is useful for remembering when the basic trigonometric func-
tions are positive or negative. For instance, from the triangle in Figure 1.45, we see that

cosT
21T
= -2'
1
tan 2; = -V3.

y
(cos 2;, sin 2;) = t-~, ~)
y
S A
sinpos all pos

T C
tanpos cospos

FIGURE 1.44 The CAST rule,

remembered by the statement
"Calculus Activates Student FIGURE 1.45 The 1riangle for
Thinking," tells which calculating the sine and cosine of21f/3
trigonometric functions are mdians. The side leog1hs come from the
positive in each quadrant. geometty of right triangles.

Using a similar method we determined the values of sin 0, cos 0, and tan 0 shown in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3 Values of sin 0, cos 0, and tan 0 for selected values of 0
Degrees -180 -135 -90 -45 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
-31T -1T -1T 1T 1T 1T 1T 21T 31T 51T 31T
o(radians) -1T
4 2 4
0
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
1T
2
21T

sinO 0
-v'Z -I
-v'Z
0
1 v'Z V3 1
V3 v'Z 1
0 -I 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

cosO -I
-v'Z
0
v'Z 1
V3 v'Z 1
0
1 -v'Z -V3 -I 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

tan 0 0 1 -I 0
V3 1 V3 -V3 -I -V3 0 0
3 3
 1.3 Trigonometric Functions 25

Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

When an angle of measure 8 and an angle of measure 8 + 21T are in standard position, their
terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigonometric fimction values:
sin(8 + 21T) = sin 8, tan(8 + 21T) = tan 8, and so on. Similarly, cos(8 - 21T) ~ cos 8,

IPeriod. of Trigonometric Functions

Period 'IT : tan (x + ".) ~ tan x
sin(8 - 21T) = sin 8, and so on. We describe this repeating behavior by saying that the six
basic trigonometric functions are periodic.

cot(x + ".) ~ cotx

Period 2'IT: sin(x + 2".) ~ sinx DEFINmON A function f(x) is periodic ifthere is a positive number p such that
cos(x + 2".) ~ cosx f(x + p) ~ f(x) for every value ofx. The smallest such value ofp is the period of f.
sec(x + 2".) ~ ..cx
csc(x + 2".) ~ cscx
When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually denote the in-
dependent variable by x instead of 8. Figure 1.46 shows that the tangent and cotangent
functions have period p ~ 1T, and the other four functions have period 21T. Also, the sym-
metries in these graphs reveal that the cosine and secant functions are even and the other
four functions are odd (although this does not prove those results).

y
y - tunx

Domajn: _00 < x < co Domain: -co < x < 00 Domajn'

.X
*+'1r + 3'17"
-2'- 2.···
Even Range: -1:s y :s 1 Range: -1:s y:s 1
Period: 2'1T Period: 2'1J"
Range: -co < y < 00
Period: '1T (c)
cos ( -x) ~ cosx (a) (b)
y y y
sec ( -x) ~ secx y = socx y - cotx

\v
Odd
sin( -x) ~ -sinx
_3(\ 0
-,t-=-tnt-t-~~~,
n
Domain'• X "" -2'-2
+ 1T + 31T •... Domain: x "'" 0, ±'1f, ±2'1f, ••• Domain: x "'" 0, ±'1f, ±2'1f, ...
tan(-x) ~ -tanx Range: y::5 -lory 2:: 1 Range: _00 < y < 00
Range: y:s -1 ory ~ 1
esc ( -x) ~ -cscx Period: 2'17"
Period: 271' Period: '1T
(d) (0) (I)
cot ( -x) ~ -COlx

FIGURE 1.46 Graphs of the six hasic trigonometric functions using radian measure. The shading
for each trigonometric function indicates its periodicity.
y

Trigonometric Identities
The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can be expressed in terms of the point's
distance r from the origin and the angle 8 that ray OP makes with the positive x-axis
(Figure 1.42). Since xlr ~ cos 8 andylr = sin 8, we have
x = rcos6, y ~ rsin8.
When r = 1 we can apply the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle in
Figure 1.47 and obtain the equation

FIGURE 1.47 The reforenoe (3)

triangle for a general angle 8.
26 Chapter 1: Functions

TIris equation, true for all values of 6, is the most frequently used identity in trigonometry.
Dividing this identity in turn by cos2 6 and sin2 6 gives

1 + tan2 6 = sec2 6
I + cot' 6 = csc2 6

The following formulas hold for all angles A and B (Exercise 58).

Additioo Formulas
cos(A + B) = cosA cosB - sinA sinB
(4)
sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB

There are similar formulas for cos (A - B) and sin (A - B) (Exercises 35 and 36). All
the trigonometric identities needed in this book derive from Equations (3) and (4). For ex-
ample, substituting 6 for both A and B in the addition formulas gives

Double-Angle Formulas
cos 26 = cos2 6 - sin2 6
(5)
sin 26 = 2 sin 6 cos 6

Additional formulas come from combining the equations

cos2 6 + sin2 6 = I, cos2 6 - sin2 6 = cos 26.
We add the two equations to get 2 cos2 6 = I + cos 26 and subtract the second from the
first to get 2 sin2 6 = I - cos 26. TIris results in the following identities, which are useful
in integral calculus.

Half-Angle Formulas

cos2 6 = 1 + cos 26 (6)

2
sin2 6 = I - cos 26 (7)
2

The Law of Cosines

If a, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if 6 is the angle opposite c, then

(8)

TIris equation is called the law of cosioes.

 1.3 Trigonometric Functions 27

y We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin at C and
the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Figure 1,48. The coordinates of A
B(a cos 8, a sin 8)
are (b, 0); the coordinates of B are (a cos II, a sin II). The square of the distance between A
and B is therefore
c 2 = (acosll- b)2 + (a sin 11)2

= a 2(cos211 + sin211) + b2 - Zabcosll

------~~--~~~~~x I
C b A(b,O)
= a2 + b2 - Zabcosll.
FIGURE 1.48 The square of the distance The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If II = 7T/Z, then cos II = 0
betweeo A and B gives the law of cosines. andc 2 = a 2 + b 2 •

Transfonnations of Trigonometric Graphs

The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and reflecting the graph of a function sum-
marized in the following diagram apply to the trigonometric functions we have discussed
in this section.

Vertical stretch or compression; ~ / Vertica1 shift

reflection about x-axis ifnegative ~

y = af(b(x + c)) + d

Horizontal stretch or compression; /

reflection about y-axis if negative
~ Horizontal shift

The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine function
or sinusoid formula

f(x) = A Sin(Z; (x - C») + D,

where IA I is the amplitude, IB I is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is the
vertical shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is revealing and given below.

y
y = A sin (2;<x - C») + D

Two Spedallnequalities
For any angle II measured in radians,

-1111 :5 sinll:5 1111 and -1111 :5 I - cos II :5 1111.

28 Chapter 1: Functions

y To establish these inequalities, we picture fJ as a nonzero angle in standard position

(Figure 1.49). The circle in the figure is a unit circle, sollil equals the length of the circular
p arc AP. The length of line segmentAP is therefore less than IfJl.
Triangle APQ is a right triangle with sides of length
QP = IsinfJl, AQ = I - cosfJ.
From the Pythagorean theorem and the fact that AP < IfJ I, we get

cos 6 1-cosO sin fJ2

+ (I - cos fJ)2 = (AP)2 :5 6'. (9)
The terms on the left-band side of Equation (9) are both positive, so each is smaller than
their sum and hence is less than or equal to 6':
and (I - cos 11)2 :5 6'.
FIGURE 1.49 From the geometry
of this figure, drawn for By taking square roots, this is equivalent to saying that
8 > 0, we get the inequality and 11- cosfJl
sin2 8 + (I - cos 8)2 :5 0'.
so
-161 :5 sinfJ:5 161 and -161 :5 I - cosll :5 161.
These inequalities will be useful in the next chapter.

Exercises 1.3
Radians and Degrees
1. On a circle of radius 10m, how long is an arc that subtends a cen- fJ -3"./2 -"./3 -"./6 "./4 S1r/6
tral angle of (8) 4'1f/5 radiaos? (b) 110'?
sinO
2. A central aogle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by ao arc of cos 8
length 101r. Find the aogle's radian and degree measures. tan 8
3. You waot to ma1re ao 80' aog1e by marking ao arc on the perime- cot 8
ter of. 12-in.-diarneter disk and drawing lines from the ends of sec 0
the arc to the disk's ceoter. To the nearest tenth of an incb, how esc 8
long should the arc be?
4. If you roll a I-m-diaroeter wheel forward 30 em over level In Exercises 7-12, one of sin x, cos x, and tan x is given. Find the other
grouod, through what aogle will the wheel turn? Aoswer in radi- two if x lies in the specified interval.
aos (to the nearest tenth) aod degrees (to the nearest degree).

Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

.
7• smx = 5'
3
XE [f, 'If] 8. tanx = 2, XE [o,f]
S. Copy aod complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefmed at a given angle, enter "UND." Do not use a 9. cosx = 3'
I
XE[-f,o] 10. cosx = -1 3'
5
XE [f,'lT]
calculator or tables.
12. sinx = -t, XE ['If, 3;]
(} -". -2"./3 o "./2 3"./4
Graphing Trigonometric Functions
sinO Graph the functions in Exercises 13-22. What is the period of each
cosO function?
tan 8 13. sin 2x 14. sin (x/2)
cot 8
sec 0 15. cos 71'X 16. cosT
'IfX
esc 8
. X
17• - 8m T
'If 18. - cos 2'1TX
6. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefmed at a given angle, enter "UND." Do not use a
calculator or tables.
19. cos(X - f)
 1.3 Trigonometric Functions 29

Solving Trigonometric Equations

21. Sin(X - -;f) + I 22. COS(X + 2:) - 2 For Exercises 51-54, solve for the angle 0, where 0 ,;; 0 ,;; 2'IT.
Graph the functioos in Exercises 23-26 in the Is-plane (t·axis horizoo·
tal, s-axis vertical). What is the period of each function? What sym·
51. sin' 0 = t 52. sin' 0 = cos' 0

metries do the graphs have? 53. sin20 - cosO = 0 54. cos20 + cosO = 0
23. s = cot2t 24. s = -tao 'ITt
Theory and Examples
25. s = sec(~t) 26. s = csc(f) 55. The tangent snm formula The staodard formula for the tao-
goot of the smn of two aogles is
D 27. a. Graph y = cos x and y = sec x together for - 3'IT/2 ,;; x
,;; 3'IT/2. Cornmeot on the behavior of sec x in relatioo to the taoA+taoB
tao(A + B) = I - taoA taoB'
signs and values of cos x.
b. Grapby = sin x andy = c8Cxtogetherfor-w ~ x ~ 2'17". Derive the formula.
Comment on the behavior of esc x in relation to the signs and
56. (ContinUIJtion ofExercise 55.) Derive a formula for tao (A - B).
values of sin x.
57. Apply the law of cosines to the triaogle in the accoropaoying fig-
D 28. Graph y = taox aod y = cotx together for -7 ,;; x ,;; 7. Com-
ure to derive the formula for cos (A - B).
ment on the behavior of cot x in relation to the signs and values of
taox. y
29. Graph y = sinx aod y = l sin x J together. What are the domain
and raoge of l sin x J? 1
30. Graph y = sinx aod y = rsin x 1together. What are the domain
and raoge of sin x 1? r
Using the Addition Formulas
Use the addition formulas to derive the ideotities in Exercises 31-36. ----4---~~~~-l----+_--~x
o
31. cos(x - I-) = sinx 32. cos (x + 1-) = -sinx
33. Sin(X + f) = cosx 34. Sin(X - -I-) = -cosx
35. cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB (Exercise 57 provides a
different derivation.) 58. a. Apply the formula for cos(A - B) to the ideotity sinO =
36. sin(A - B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB cos(I - 0) to obtain the addition formula for sin(A + B).
37. What happeos if you take B = A in the trigoooroetric ideotity
cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB? Does the result agree b. Derive the formula for cos (A + B) by substituting - B for B
with something you already know? in the formula for cos (A - B) from Exercise 35.
38. What happeos if you take B = 2'IT in the addition formulas? Do 59. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 aod angle C = 60°. Find
the results agree with something you already know? the leogtil of side c.

In Exercises 39-42, express the giveo quaotity in terms of sin x aod

60. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 aod aogle C = 40°. Find
the leogtil ofside c.
cosx.
61. The law of sine. The law ofsines says that if a, b, aod c are the
39. cos('IT + x) 40. sin(2'IT - x)
sides opposite the angles A, B, and C in a triangle, then
41. Sin(3; - x) 42. cose; + x) sinA sinB
abe .
sin C

. 7'IT . ('IT
43. Evaluatesffi12assm 'IT)
4+3. Use the accoropaoying figures aod the identity sin('IT - 0) =
sin 0 , if required, to derive the law.
44. Evaluate cos If; as cos (-;f + 2:). A A

45. Evaluate cos ~. 46. Evaluate sin ; ; .

Using the Double-Angle Formulas

Find the functioo values in Exercises 47-50.
5'IT B " - - -"'
.- -'-----' C B £..----:.,----.J
47. cos2 '!! 48• cos2 12
8
. 2 'IT 231T 62. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 and aogle C = 60° (as in
49. sm 12 SO. sin
8 Exercise 59). Find the sine of aogle B using the law of sines.
 30 Chapter 1: Functions

63. A triangle has side c = 2 and angles A = 1f/4 and B = 1f/3. 69. TheperiodB Set the constants A = 3, C = D = O.
Find the length a of the side opposite A. a. Plot f(x) for the values B = I, 3, 21f, 5" over the interval
D 64. The appnDimation sin x '" x It is often useful to know that, -41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
whenx is measured in radians, sin x ~ x for n'lDDerically small val- general sine function as the period increases.
ues of x. In Sectioo 3.9, we will see why the approximation holds. b. What happens to the graph for negative values of B? Try it
The approximatioo error is less than 1 in 5000 if Ixl < 0.1. withB = -3 andB = -21f.
L With your grapher in radian mode, graph y = sinx and y = x 70. The horizontal shift C Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, D = O.
together in a viewiog wiodow about the otigin. What do you
a. Plot f(x) for the values C = 0, I, and 2 over the interval
see happening as x nears the origin?
-41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
b. With your grapher in degree mode, graph y = sinx and general sine function as C increases through positive values.
y = x together about the origin again. How is the picture dif-
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of C?
ferent froru the ooe obtained with radian mode?
c. What smallest positive value should be assigned to C so the
General Sine Curves graph exhibits no horizontal shift? Confum your answer with
For a plot.
71. The vertical shift D Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, C = O.
f(x) = ASine: (x - C») + D, a. Plot f(x) for the values D = 0, I, and 3 over the interval
-41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
identify A, B, C, and D for the sine functions in Exercises 65-<i8 aod
general sine function as D increases through positive values.
sketch their graphs.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of D?
65. Y = 2 sin (x + 1f) - 1 66. y = kSin(1fX - 1f) + k
72. The amplitude A Set the constants B = 6, C = D = O.
67. y=-%Sin(ft) +,\0 68. y = ~sin 2L1ft,
2"
L >0 a. Describe what happens to the graph of the general sine func-
tion as A increases through positive values. Confirm your an-
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS swer by plotting f(x) for the values A = I, 5, and 9.
In Exercises 6'J-72, you will explore graphically the general sine h. What happens to the graph for negative values of A?
functioo

f(x) = A Sine: (x - C)) + D

as you change the values of the constants A, B, C, andD. Use a CAS

or coruputer grapher to perform the steps in the exercises.

Graphing with Calculators and Computers

1.4
A graphing calculator or a computer with graphing software enables us to graph very com-
plicated functions with high precision. Many of these functions could not otherwise be
easily graphed. However, care must be taken when using such devices for graphing pur-
poses, and in this section we address some of the issues involved. In Chapter 4 we will see
how calculus helps us determine that we are accurately viewing all the important features
of a function's graph.

Graphing Windows
When using a graphing calculator or computer as a graphing tool, a portion of the graph is
displayed in a rectangular display or viewing window. Often the default window gives an in-
complete or misleading picture of the graph. We use the tenD square window when the units
or scales on both axes are the same. Ibis tenD does not mean that the display window itself is
square (usually it is rectangular), but ioslead it means that the x-unit is the same as the y-unit.
When a graph is displayed io the default window, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit of
scaling in order to fit the graph in the window. The viewing window is set by specifying an
ioterval [a, b] for the x-values and an ioterval [c, d] for the y-values. The machine selects
equally spaced x-values in [a, b] and then plots the points (x, f(x». A poiot is plotted if and