Reference Citations: A) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas From A Single Reference

Reference Citations
Citations in the Text

The information presented in a literature review or research report is a combination of new ideas and data that originate with the writer(s) plus ideas and data
that have been "borrowed" from earlier work by other authors. Using citations allows the writer to give proper credit for information or ideas from these authors (and so,
to avoid plagiarism). The citation also directs the reader to the reference at the end of the paper that will tell them more about the study or idea being addressed.
A) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas from a Single Reference
Direct citations are those that include the surname of the author as part of the text of the sentence and the date within parentheses. Indirect citations give both
the surname and the date parenthetically. Indirect citations help maintain the "flow" of the writing because people are very good at reading around parenthetical
information. Direct citations are sometimes used to call attention to the identity of the author(s). Examples of each are shown below for the different types of citations.
Number of Authors Direct Indirect

Hasker (1987) has demonstrated that practice improves
If the work has a single author, the performance. or The positive effect of practice upon performance has
citation tells the surname of the author been demonstrated (Hasker, 1987).
and the date of publication. The positive effect of practice upon performance has
been demonstrated by Hasker (1987).
Jones and Washington (1992) conducted an An earlier study (Jones & Washington, 1992)
If a work has two authors, cite both examination of the differences between … examined the differences between …
surnames and the date every time you
make a citation. Note: and is always used in text (direct citation) Note: & is always used in parentheses (indirect
citation)
If a work has three, four, or five
authors, cite surnames of all the authors Initial citation Initial citation
(in the same order that it appears in the
article) and the publication date the first In an influential study of personality characteristics, The results from an influential study of personality
time you make the citation; in Gomez, Smith, and Voo (1984) reported … characteristics (Gomez, Smith, & Voo, 1984)
subsequent citations, you need only cite demonstrated …
the surname of the first author, followed
by “et al.” and the date. Subsequent citations Subsequent citations
Note: initial and subsequent citations of A weakness of the Gomez et al. (1984) study was that These results (Gomez et al., 1984) also represent the
the same article can have any they failed to control for the possible effects of … first demonstration that …
combination of direct and indirect forms
If a work has six or more authors, An article by Haxby, Grady, Horwitz, Unger, Mishkin, Carson, Hersovitch, and Rapoport would be cited as …
cite only the first author followed by “et Haxby et al. (1991) have conducted one of the few One of the few physiological studies of this topic
al.” and the year for all citations. physiological studies of this topic. (Haxby et al., 1991) has shown that …
B) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas from More than One Reference
Sometimes the writer wants to refer to more than one citation within the same sentence. Usually this is because multiple references report congruent or
cumulative findings. Doing this often improves the "flow" of the writing.
Direct Indirect
If the works are by the same author(s) order The importance of early experience to the visual These findings differ with population (Shannon,
in the year of publication (use a, b, etc, if system has been shown by Hubel and Wiesel 1999, 2000a, 2000b)
multiple articles in the same year). (1963, 1965a, 1965b).
If the works are by different authors list in Hanson and Bender (2002) and Ponder (1997) The importance of feedback has been
alphabetical order by the first author's name found this generalizes to females as well. demonstrated repeatedly (Foss, 2000; Johnson &
(divide references by semi-colons). Barber, 1995; Martz, 2003)
C) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Direct Quotation of One Reference

* The direct quotation of a reference is only appropriate if the specific wording is important to convey the meaning *
Direct Indirect
When directly quoting a reference the citation Flammel (1998) found that “the effect disappeared She stated, “Extrinsic rewards were no longer
includes the author’s last name, the publication year, after participants completed multiple trials” (p. needed to motivate participants to perform” (Soo,
and the page number where that information appears. 287). 2002, p. 309).
Double quotation marks are placed before and after
the quoted material.
D) Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas from a Secondary Source

When paraphrasing information that the current source referenced to a previous source name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source.
Howe and Bruer’s study (as cited in Corso, Klass, & Rush, 1997) found that individuals with ….
• The Reference page citation should include the information for the secondary source only.
• In this case, you read Corso et al. (the secondary source), and they cited Howe and Bruer (the original source), but you did not read Howe and Bruer.

Reference Citations: A) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas From A Single Reference

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Reference Citations

Citations in the Text

Number of Authors Direct Indirect

C) Direct and Indirect Citations Accompanying Direct Quotation of One Reference

D) Citations Accompanying Paraphrased Ideas from a Secondary Source

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