l ...

, , J

I UN IT- Ill
I An interc onnec tion betwe en the local tranemii,aion
increase in l!ervice re liabil ity at consid erably leiIB
incur in the const ructio n of additional lines . Whe n
w·ce, the reliability iA still furthe r improved .
11y slem of two utiliti es can \ead t.o an
expen se than that which both would have to
the lines ar'! fed Erom more than one generation

COORDINATED .OPERATION 80
(l,) Addi tion and repla ceme nt of trans missi
on facili tie s: U>ad growt h neces sitate s
a,lditiona l trans missi on facilities. The quest ions like
cost of ri ght of way and iriatal lation of line
OF POWER -PLANTS and the ter·r itory to be serve d can be more econom
ut.ility is involv ed. The utiliti es can share t he cost
ically and easily decid ed when more than one
and use of the lines. This would evidently
JeRd to optimum use of facilitie s.
(a) Insta lled capa' city savin gs: An interc onnec
tion is likely to decre ase t he instal led
capacity needed to meet the load req uitem enta. in major
ity of cases it happe ns that the maximum
Q.1. \Vhy inter conn ectio n opera tion of powe · l t ·
r pan ts ncces sary?· (Imp ortan t) 1 dema nd of one area does not coincide with the maxim um dem and of anoth er area . This could be
Ans. Type s of Inter conn ectio ~: Majority of today . . due to difference in sun times and weath er condi
's power syste ms ha~e m~er conne ~wn tions of the two areas . It could also be due to
facilities with one anoth er . Both small and large the fact that in one area the major load is indus
benefit .
°
utiliti es find interc onnec twn treme n ous
commercial. If two such areas are interc onnec ted, the
trial while in the other it i.s reside ntial and
divers ity of loads would cause the maximum
Syste m interc onnec tion may be of two types: integr combined dema nd to be less than the sum of the
ated and ~ ni~t~ rate.! !, The t':o types indiv idual maxi mum dema nds. .
differ in the degre e of coord inatio n betwe en the indivi (d) _D ecrea se in spinn ing reser ve requ irem
dual system s interc onnec ted with each ents: Every utilit y h~ to keep some
other. generation capac ity as reserv e to take mto accou nt
· · th_e capac ity reduc tion ~ue to forced outag ~s
An integ rated interc onnec ted system opera tes as if and sched uled maint enanc e, As a thum b rule a capac
the total system is one. T~e iden~i-~~ of , is rty equal to the capac ity of the l~rge st urut
individual syste m is almos t lost. All opera tions like kept as reserv e: Whep two syste ms opera te separ ately
plann ing, incre ased gen_erat10n facthties, each has to main tain a separ ate reserv e
instal lation of new equip ment, increa se in reserv e capacity. If they are interc onnec ted it may be suffic
capacity, incre menta l loa_di~g of g~~e~ators, ient to have a small er total reserv e for the
coordi nation of build ing and .main tenan ce progr amme combined system for the same degre e of reliab ility
s, increa se in transJillssi~n facilities ~tc. ..
81-e done in a coord inated way . Such a system has a centra l office ~ Oper ating savin gs:- When two differ ent
to deal with account~ng, utiliti es are ope.ra ting separ a tely, each would
'dispa tching, prepa ration ofloa ding and maint enanc · run.it s units most economically. Howe ver when
e sche_dule, laying down stand ard practi ces the two are interc onnec ted and the optim um
e~ scheduling is decid ed for the comb ined syste m; the
-. opera ting costs are likely to decre ase. Thus
· In an unint egrat ed interc onnec ted system the identi energy interc hange betwe en the two would resul
ty of indiv idual utiliti es is not lo~t. . . .
t in. savin gs for both.
.E~cb utility is prima rily respo nsible for meeti ng the
load requi remen ts of the area serve d by it. Q.3. Why a powe r syste m need s shun t ·com pens
-'There is no c~ntr al contro l office. Howe ver the differ ation both at time s of peak load and
ent utiliti es forming the pool have some off-p eak load?
~contracts with each other . These contr acts include suppl (UTU 2010-11)
y of definite quant ity of energy_ ~t definite Ans. Reac tive Powe r Requ irem ents Duri ng Peak
times, mutu al help at diffic ult times , .use of some and Off-p eak Hour s: In powe r system
special facilities create d by one utility by'the operation the variab le load probl em becomes all the
other utiliti es etc. more complex becau se the reactive power
. _ requi remen ts are likely to be differ ent at differ ent
An in~gr ated interc onnec tion resul ts in maxim times of the day and_-in differ ent seasons.
um overa ll econom~: !lowe ver, such an The reacti ve powe r requi reme nts have to be met
organisatio n tellds to become unwie ldy espec ially to keep the syste m voltag es at prope r levels .
when more than tw~ utiliti es are memb ers of A typical powe r syste m is show n in figure 1.-The powe
the group . In view of this most of the system inter conn r syste m opera tes at differ ent voltage
ectio n~ are ~teg rate d. The ~ntra cts levelsvizAOOkV, 220kV , 132 kV, 66kV, 33 kV and
between differ ent utilit ies formi ng a pool includ e one 11 kV. Large , mod.e mand effi.c ientge nerat.ors
economy interc hange , jo~t maint enanc e, p ~ g
or more items like emer gen~ assist ance, are connected to 400 and 220 kV buses . Small er, olders
and less efficient gener ators are connected
, inadv erten t interc hange etc. . to 132 and 66 kV buses . The 33 and 11 kV voltag e
levels repre sent distri butio n netwo rks. Some
Q.2. Wha t are the adva ntage s oflnt ercon necti times some local gener ators are also conne cted to
on? . 33 and 11 kV buses . The differ ent voltage
Ans. Adva ntage s of Inter conn ectio n: Syste m levels are interc omiec ted throu gh trans forme rs and
·interc onnec tion leads to sever al advan tages distri butio n netwo rks .
both to the memb ers of the pool and the use;a of electr Durin g peak load hours it may be neces sary to run
icity. It is neces aar~ that advan~ages a°:d almo st all the availa ble gener ating units
savin gs be exam ined thoro ughly and weigh ed again · to meet the system requi reme nts. Durin g off
peak hours the less efficient plants .woul d be shut
st the cost of syste m interc onnec tions. This
analy sis is comp licate d by the fact that some benef down so that gener ation cost is kept to the minim um.
its canno t be evalu ated in ~rm~ of mon~y. Each gener ator i~qui11p_ed with autom atic
(a) Incre ase in servi ce relia bil~ Every equip ment voltage regul ator so that the voltag e at differ ent buses
is pron~ to outag e dunn g its operation is kept withi n limits at all system loadin g
Syste m interc onnec tion leads to increa se in reliab conditions. -
ility. of electr ic suppl y. In the e~ent of or_1e . ·
utility falling short of gener ation due to forced outag Most loads netd. laggi ng reacti ve powe r to suppl y
e of gener~tor~ or unexp ected mcre~se m the magn etisin g curre nt of transf orme rs ,
dema nd, anoth er ut ility·o fthe pool can come to its induc tion motor s etc. As the active powe r requi remen ts
rescu e by makm g its surpl us power ava1lable . incre ase the reacti ve power requir emen ts
also increa se. More over the reacti ve powe r requi
reme nts are large r in sumr aer than in winte r.
 UNIT-Ill - LUIUJ - ts.lt:l,M. - rv,wcn .,,, ,'"'''""',. ,- ,."'_,, __
[48)
~ • I
t I time the var d emand on the n e twork is clos.e l y rel a ted in magnitude and active and reactive loading of t r anAmission lines, the incr emental cost is also a functi on of bot}

I
At a n Y momen o - . 1 th e acLivo and reactiv.e powe r .
.· to the voltage at consumer t erm ma s . .
location_ es of peak load the vars absorbed by the series inductance of lines ere larger tha n The operation o[ an interconnected system has therefore to be co-ordinated from three angles
At t.un oted by shunt capacitance
· o fli n es : I nan extreme case 1t . may b c necessary ",or t h e 1·me t,. At any time the total sys tem gene ration must equal the system load plu~ transmissior
va r~ scne r " . . losses. ·
• ort va rs at both ends (i. e., the delivered load is at leading powe r factor) in orde.r to reduce
the voltage drop. In addition t e consumers eman s ,or aggmg vars must b e met. I t 1st
t.o imp · · h d d " l . . . l 1ere~ore
" 2. At any time the balance betwee.n production and absorption or lagging vazs must b,

l eces sary that generators deliver enough vars to the _ s ystem to meet the requirements. Sincei
~he generator rated power _factor is around 0.8 lagging, there is a limit to the maximum vars
maintained. ·
3 . The generation · at different plants must l;>e scheduled so that the incremental ~st 0
which the generators can delive r to the system. This necessitates the use of shunt capacitors power delivered to the load is the same for each ge nerator.
I _a nd synchronou s condensers for ge nerating lagging vars. ·
Q.4. Describe the equipment for load frequency controller.
C Ans. Equipment for Load Frequency Control: The controller is an impedance bridge w hicl

220 KV
+

e. 33KV . ·

~O -100-MVA
100- 200 MVA
is at balance when the frequepcy is 50 Hz. When the frequency varies (by a value as gmall a
): 0.005 I-lz) an unbalance current flows, the direction of current depending on whether the c.hang
in the frequency ie positive or negative. The galvanometer· of the frequency controller deflect
to close a certain set of contacts and 'this causes the motion of the governor motor. The duratio·
· of impulse to the governor motor depends on the frequency deviation. The greater the frequenc
deviation, the greater is the duration of impulse, greater is the governor action and greater i
the change in prime mover input. In addi_tion to the above feature, a manual knob is also providec
Q.5. ·Describe the integral load frequency control (UK tech 20U
2 0-1 00MA~ Ans. Integral Control: The single area control technique can .r esult in conSJderable stea d

33KV ¥C
state frequency drop from no load to full load. The steady state frequency can be adjus.ted r.o th
desired value by adjusting the speed changer setting of the governor. A better control t.e<-hniqu
- has been developed to improve the dynamic response of the system. In this control (known ll
'
I
11 KV
C integral control) the speed changer setting i.s adjusted automatically by a signal obtain.e d b
amplifying and integrating the frequency error. In loa d frequency control application. th l
frequency change in an area is known as Area Control Error (ACE). Thus~ in integral contra

'l
the speed changer setting is adjusted automatically by a signal o(the type JACE di. The in tegr.
control gives zero steady state error. A block diagram of this control i.s shown in Fig. 2.
A
~Pds)
AVR automatic voltage regulator ◊Auto
11 KV A auxiliaries 8two winding l~sfonner transformer
a consumers
C

Fig. 1. A typical power system

,

I
During off peak period the line generates lagging vars (i.e., absorbs leading vars). Generall
_the lagging vars produced by the lines are many. times that absorbed by the consumers_unde_ Fi
the off peak conditions . Therefore the remaining la~ging vars m~st be absorbed by runrung th ACE F!equency
generators under-excited. Sometimes even this may not ~e sufficient and 1t may be nece~eary Sensor
adopt additional means like switching out unnecessary lines .(especially c~bles), staggering tap_
Fig. 2. Integral load frequency control
on paralleled transformers and installation of shunt reactors . Gene~ally 1t has been fou~d tha,
balance between generation and absorption of reactive power dunng off peak hours 1s mor, If the frequency deci-eases , the integrator calls for an increase in power. The ga.m Ki cont.re I•
difficult than during pea k load hours, - . . · ,
the response . The polarity of t he integral contr9ller must be chosen so that a positive freq~en I
error gives a, uegativ•e or decrease generation command and a nega tive freq~ency e~r gwe~
The problem of economic load allocation between different plants 11:1 a sydstemh, Tlhe ds~stteh
· t l ost of the power dehvere tot e oa 1s positive or incre ase generation command. Generally electronic integrators ot the type m anal,
will be in economic dispatch when t h e mcremen 8 c . . f t· f b th th
· h · ta] transm1ss10n losses are a unc 10n o o compute rs arc used.
same for each generator Since t e mcrem_e n
 l
!' I
. creaseB the frequency decreases. During. the first few instants the integral
"'hen Ioad in
Uer has not had time to act and the system response 1s the same as that of primary ALFC 2

con~er some time the integral controller comes into action and brings the frequency back to
nonual value .
KJ{ P
If - T- >
I'
[
1 + K 1,IR
ZT
I' 1
.. .
. Eq. (it) ca n be wntten in the form (s + p1) (i; + p2) where both~ and
I

(Very Important) ., renl and positive. /1.F(s) has a real pole pair in the stable s plane . The response 6. f(t) is
~ 2 are
Q.G. Explain Dynamic response of Integral Controller.
Ans. Dynamic response ofintegral controller. The evaluation of exact response (by including '.'_- non -osr:iUatory and contains terms like E- P,I and £-P,1 .
the effect of time constants T, and T 1 is very complex. An approximate analysis can be done by The critical value of J( is given by the equation
8 s.woung T, an~ T1 equal to zero . Mo~over we assume that speed changer acts instantaneously.
These assumptions affect the dynaxmc response to some extent but the static response is not
affected. . KiK,,_= [1 + K,JRr
r,, zr,,
The speed changer setting is controlled· by a signal obtained by first amplifying and the.:i
integrating frequency error. A positive frequency error causes a ·negative or decrease generation
command. Therefore we can write . · . _ (1 + K,,tRl
Or,
4T.pK /l
l{i.,cril - ... (ii(

6.P'(s) = -Ki 6.F(s)

s . ,: Figure 3. shows the dynamic response of integral controller for two values of K;, One valU(
For a step chaxige in l~ad, 6.Pi, =M of K, gives oscillatory response. A lower value of K, gives non-oscillatory (damped) response
Both these responses are shown in figure 3. The steady state frequency error (in the absence o
;. integral controller)_is also shown.
and ',

1 N
Using control system theory (biock diagram algebra) we can write the following expression I
for the block diagram of Fig. 2. . .

-Kp M -0.01
b.F'(s) = - - - - - - - - - - - . . ..{i)

l T,, 2+)(i+~Jl+KiK p . ·'

8
l T,, J T,, Witt:,out Integral controner

The dynamic response depends on the poles ofEq. (i). Depending on the nature pf poles, the·
response can be oscillatory or non-oscillatory. The polynomial in the denominator ofEq. (i) can -0.03
be written as: ' ·
Dynamic response ol integral controller
Fig. 3.
1+ J{,,) 2 2 If the value ·of I(. is less than critical, ~e get non-oscillatory but sluggish response. The tim
s2
(
R ' KiKp -[
+s-'---..:..+-- l+K,,tR] + KiKp -
- s+---'-
Tp
ll+KJR1
'l:l'P
0

. taken by the systen'.i to bring freq\lency to the initial value will be quite large. However it i
better to use a sub critical (i.e. less than .critical) value of K;. so that the generator may m
TP T,, 'l:l'P
chase rnpid load changes causing equipment wear.
The nature of poles depends on the relative magnitudes of different terms in equation (ii). It is also seen from Fig. 2 al)d Fig. _3, that the response during the first few instants is_th
. 2 same in the two cases .. This is because of the tune taken by the integral controller to come ml
K-K > [1 + K 1' IR] .. ? w h ere both a an d
Eq. (t) can be expressed .m the form (s + a) 2 + ur aclion. Once the integral controller comes into action the frequency comes back to the initii
If_,_µ ,
·
T,, 2TP value nnd there is no static frequency drop.
The. autOJllntic load fre4>lency control of figure 3. is also known as primary ALFC loop . Tb
ro are positive and real. M'(s) has a co~jugate complex pole pair in the stable s plane. The integral controller (Fig . 2) is also known as secondary ALFC loop.
1
response t:.f(t) contains daxnped oscillatory terms of the type £""° sin oot and £-« cos rot.
1
The mi.nus sign indicates that power transfer 1s from axea B to area A
 l,.,.._ 1 - v,•• r•h l- ''-"' J

(53) - UNrT•lfl - (lfTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE

(b) MA =O.
20 single nrea systems. In addition a. tie line load recorder controller is also necessary.
M 8 = - -= 0.01 The load on
2000 tie line i.B measured by a thermal converter which operates the tie line load recorder-controller.
-Using Eq. (i.ii) i: A knob 00 th.is controller seta the scheduled amount of power tran8fer. Whenever the interchang'e
I •
,,.,, l,,.o- above or below the eet value, a eet of contacts in the Io'-\d controUer comes into service.
fl {0 = - 0.016 Hz These
.,:~ cootocts Are in series ,vith load frequency c::ontroller circuit. 1'heee contacts open
1
and block aU
those impulseA which would make the lie line load to further dev:iate from the set value.
= 0 -105 x O.Ol = 0 .00168 .u. MW
{
6.P However
AB,O 0 .105 + 0.62 p ' , all impulses which aid in keeping .echeduled ;.,terchange are ailowed· to go to the governor

= 0,00168 X 2000
't motor. Generally the ea me equipm ent can be used for all the following types of control
by putting
;, · the selector switch io the proper position.
3.36MW L · Flat frequen cy control. The job of maintaini ng the frequency constant is a8Signed
The po,ver transfer is from area A to area B. to
an
one machine or one station. This machine or station absorbs changes in the system
load while all other machines (and etatiom,j carry constant Loads. There ii no amtrol 011
Q.7. A system has two similar areas of equal capacity 4000 MW. R = 2 Hz/pu
MW and
H= 5 seconds. The tie line has a capacity of600 MW and is operatin g ata power tie line power (the tie line load recorder controller is out of circuit) and frequency
angle '
of 40°. Find (a) the frequenc y of oscillatio n of the system (b) steady state change controller& 81'0 used on only the master machines. Oo master machines the frequency
in tie ·
line power ifa step change of 100 MW load occurs in are8:B (c) frequenc y of oscillatio controller can usually detect as small as 0.005 ffz change in fr~uency arid' initiate
n ,
of the system if speed governo r loop is open. The system frequen·c y is 60 Hz. control action. Flat (requency control has the advantage that new and m.Cln! efficienl
Ans. (a ) Using the formula, we get machines can be made to carry the base load and the le• efficient machines can act a"E
the master machines for taking up load changes. The main disad\-aDtage of this type ol
control is that it results in random variations in tie line powen.
T= GOO cos40° -=0.115
4000 2. Flat tie line load control The aim of thi&control is to keep the tie line power eon.atan1
Using the formula, we get irrespective ofload demands. The increase in demands ofan are.a is met by increase ir
generation in that area. This control i&used when a small system and a large system

(1)-=
0
rL
21tx50x0 .115 _( 50
5 . l
4 x2x 5
11°·
2 5 are interconne cted through a tie line. The large system maintains the .,.,tem frequenc:,
and the small system is CODtrolled to kee:p the tie line power constant. It is not.suit:ablE
when two or more large sys~ms are interconnected because in .!Uch case!I (and· witx
this control) the tie line power and frequency deviation have a tendency to mug.baci
= 2.38 radians/se c.
and forth (in addition to the swings at tie line nati,u:ru frequency) following a load change.
(b) S~ce the t;,,,.o areas are similar, each area ·will supply half of increase in load. Needless to add that in thi& type of control the control equipmen t ~nsista of th£
This is :
2 fr~uency controller only (similar to the one used for single area systems) at the largeJ
. (1 + Kp IR) _
!
,
also evident from equation Kir.nt == TpKp because ll.4 - l}B . . system and tie line power controller-recorder at the smaller system.
4
3. Tie line load bias control This is the most widely
Therefore , used method on large inter connections. All power n - --
t,PAB,o = 50 MW from area A to area B systems as!;list in regulating frequency and tie line x
(c) Using the formula, we.get power flow irrespective of where the disturbanc e ~ \---.:..:.:: ~-1--:--... :::.,.___rl
originates. Each power system has control units of ~ Y
'
_ ( 2n X 50 X 0.115 . )0 6 almost identical operating characteri stics. l
ooo- . 5 Frequenc y tie line load relationsh ip is shown in IL
= 2.866 rad/sec.
figure 4. Solid line yy represen ts flat frequenc y
character istic. If the system were operating on this .
t
z
Q E la' the different types of automati c load fi:equenc y control for interconn ected characteristic, the tie line loan would change over very wide
Q...,. xp m . . . . I - 116_li1a Loacl
power system. . (UTU 2011-12) · limits. Line zz shows flat tie line load characteri stic. In Rg." 4. Frequency_~line load
. . this case the tie line load is held constant irrespectiv e of
A T f A tomatic Load Frequen cy controls for Intercon nected Po"':cr ~y~tems. -characlenSllcs · .
o:s~nr: e\: w~ether one or all the system have ~een assigned the job of m~tntauu · freq\,en~y. In the tie line load control with frequency bias the actual charact.eristic_is adjuatabl,
ng the .
p between the above two extreme limits and occupies positions x:x. The slope of line re:
f requencygcons ta n t and extent of tie line load required, three methods are available for load can bt
(requency con tr o1 of m · terconn . · th
· ected _systems The equipmen t used 1s the same as lil e case o
• _ .
f be
adjusted. It can be made less drooping (i.e., line oo) or moved.pa rall~ to itself (i.e., ~ebb) 81
that any line load can be scheduled and maintaine_d thereafter . Thus thls control provides
mor,
flexibility for a wide range of operating conditions.
 POWER STATION PRACTICE (55) - UNIT-fll - (UTU) - B.TECH. POWER STATION PRACTICE
(54] - UNIT~II - (UTU} - B.TECH. -

In o multi-area integrated · and trans - ·

system. it is necessary to control geneTat,on
The control signals (for each area) are proportional to the change m frequency oe well os · I I
•-- th ki missior
from a not10na contro centre . This control centre co-oTdin a..,,, e wor ng of area contra
clrnnge in tie line power. As in tie case of single area systems inb!grnl control is preferable Th f ct' f
loac
data collection
bccaUSl' it gwes 1,ero steady stale enor The area control errors for a
two aren syst,em are given centres.
frequency
e un
contro
10ne
1 wit
_
hio
n
anharea
t e
control
area,
centre i.~clude load prediction,
• ' .
economic dispatch with the a rea , system switching
· h duli
by mainte~ali~ce ec e ng etc., etc. An area ~ontrol centre has access to telemetered values of al
ACEA =-.6. p AJJ + UA Mi\ 0 outputs of all big generating units and voltage profile at maJor · 1oac
maJOT tie ne · · al owa,'l
power
ACE8 = 6. P1111 +ix 8 6.(8 points. Th e nation .contro CeQt~e acts as a coordinating canter responsible for inter-area ene
of
ACEA = ¾ea control Ol'ror system A . transfer and operating plans for weeks and IDunthe ahead, ~
,,:here
In a manual load dispatch system, the control engineer at the area control cent b•~;-,
ACE8 = Area control error of syerem B , l d .nfi . . re o '-0..U.U
the te emetere 1 ormation mentioned above, calculates the station outputs to diffe ren t pl an •· ...
6. P Al3 = Change in.power transfer from A to B (positi_ve cir negative) · h ditt . · .
and ad VIses t e uerent stations to mcrease or decrease the generation.
I\P B.~ = -ti.P,\H With systems becoming more and more comph''<, it is very difficult to satisfy all the systems
Lt_ and a are constants which specify the frequency bias and a_re determined from a knowledge For e_ach generator the_des~ed output P0 and a~tual output PA are compared ·by balancini
1 8
oft.he size of the system. . · , ,. amplifier an~ a corr~ction S1gnal 1s sent which brings about a change in output of the unit i.J
Tbe commands to the speed changers are of the form , agreeme~t with desired output. The area requirement signal is developed from the frequenc:
and net mterchange errors. The controller develops a correcting signal which is sent to th,
J
.<\PA = -K,.4. (6. PAn + a 11 f11) dt speed governing system of aU the units under control. If a change in load occurs an are:
req~ement signal is imm~diately generated and this signal calls for a change in g:neration
liPa = -K,nJ(a.PnA +anfn)dt As mcremental cost of received power changes. the station penalty factors get adjusted so tha
aJl generators operate at the same incremental cost. By modifying the incremental cost signa
The constants K;A and K;n are integrator gains. The minus sign is essential because the .
by the penalty factor the signal sent to each unit is the proper incremental cost for the station
generation 111 each area must increase if either its frequency error or tie line power increment is : The penalty ~actor computer requires for its input a knowledge of station loads, tie line· flow
negative . ·
etc. The function generator is an electronic st.orage device which indicates t he economic schedul·
· Most of tpe lime a control area is.interconnecte d with many other areas though several tie corresponding to operation of all units at the same incremental cost.
: lines. Let there be a total of m tie lines. Then for the ith control area, the net interchange is the '
. sum of power transfer over all them tie Jines. ~e area control en-or ACE, of the /th area ehould Q.10. Why interchange of power & energy may_be necessary? .
be proportional to total exchange of power and can be expressed as Ans. Types of Power/Energy Interchange: Operation in an interconnected manner leads t
reduction in costs and other beQefits. However, interchange of power and energy' may be necessar
, ,11 - .
for~ number of other reasons also. ·
I,
ACE, = ti.Pu +o,; a. t,
1. Capacit~ lnter~hange. Every utility keeps on adding new generation capacity to mee
j:1
t~e ever mcreas~g demand of consumers. Nevertheless this may not be possible at a;
The tie line power data of all the Jines al'.e sampled continuously at sampling intervals of: times due to vanety of reasons e.g., financial constraint, delay in procurement c
about ·1 ,;econd or so. These data are added in an energy control centre and compared with : ~qwpment, ~el~y in construction etc. Under such circumstances the utility may ente
desired interchange (decided earlier by mutual agreement). The total tie line power tr~sfer mto a capacity interchange agreement with a neighbouring utility (which haij surplu
error is added to frequency bias error_a; 6. fi to give the area control error. This ACE command capa~ity), A capacity interchange agreement may also be necessary to cover the reserv
is•rommunicated to the speed changers of all the generators in the area. requirement ·of a system. j
The equipment consists of load frequency controller and tie line load recorder controller. 2. Diversity Interchange: When two areas have peak power requirements at differer
·The tie line instrument biases the frequency controller till a desil:ed relationship between the times (due to characteristics and types of loads in the two areas as also due to the fac
tie line loading and frequency is obtained.
Q .9. Write a short note on automatic load.'dispatchin g.
J\ns. Automatic Load Dispatching: The operation of a modern pow.e r system has become
very complex. It is necessary to maintain frequency and voltage within limits in addition to '
ensuring reliability of electric supply. For maintaining the frequency and voltage within limits
that the two areas span different time zones), they may enter into diversity interchang
agreement. The interchange of power in such a case would be in both directions. Whe
system A is facing peak load, it. would buy power-from system B (Which does nof hav
its peak at this time). When system Bis facing peak load, it would buy power from, .1
Such an interchange agreement may also be possible if the seasons for peek power i
areas A and B are different. System A may have its peak occuring in sum~er while .
I~

\
I
it is necessary to match the generation of active and reactive power with the demand. To ensure ,
reliability of supply it is necessary to put additional generation capacity into the system in the·,
event of 2.,1 outage of generating eq uip~ent at some station. Over and above this, it is necessary ·
has its peak in winter. During summer B will sell power to A while A, would sell powt
to B during win~r. Such diversity interchanges can bring immense benefits to both th

\
J_
Lo ensw-e that the cost of electric supply is kept to the minimum.
systems.
1
 [56) - UNIT-Ill - [UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE [57) - UNIT-Ill - [UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE

I 3. Energy Banking: Let Area A be a predomimmtly hydro system nnd e.ron B

ho n ,I. Comploxity as regards dealing with regula tory authorities, if pool operates in more
I - thnn one state:
predominantly thermal system. When runoff is high, A hoe spare energy and can sell it
' to B. When runoff is low A would face energy shortage and can buy from B. 5. Fear of some mem hers that their freedom will be restricted, if pool is form.ed.
Another method for energy accounting (which does not require buy and sell agreements) 6 . Effort by each member of the pool to maximize its savings.
is energy banking. One of the systems acts as a bank and the other a depositor. The ·It is import.ant to note that form ation of pool does not merge different utilities forming the
depositor (say A) can d eposit energy (when it has surplus energy) with Band withdraw ool into one company. Thie is merely an arrangement to maximize the savings and attain more
energy (when it faros shortage) from B up to the amount it had deposited. Moreover, pfficient utilization of facilities. Pool agreements always contain clauses for reimbursement to
the roles of bank and depositor can also be reversed, During periods of high runoff A :embers for many of their contributions beyond the agreed ones.
acts as depositor· and Bas bank, During periods of low runoff A withdraws t.he energy it Sometimes power pools are eet up without a central dispatch office. The central office acts
had deposited with 'B. Sometimes B may deposit energy with A and withdraw it later . · only as a brokerage house for transactions between the members. The decisions regarding
Now B acts as d epositor and A as bank. p_a yments and disbursements are, generally, the most ones in power pools.
4. Emergency lntcrchange: Sometimes a utility may face unpr(!cedented forced outages
Q.12: A 3 phase long line has constant A= 0.98 L3° and B= 110L75°ohm per phase, (a)
of its generating units or an unforeseen high demand. To meet the energy ·r equirement
Uthe load is 60 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, find the capacity 0£ shunt compensat ion
under such circumstances it may have an agreement with a neighbouring utility.
equipment if voltages at the two ends of the line are 132 kV each (b) Find the capacity
.G enerally such agreements, are only for short periods and the price of such an energy
, o£shunt compensation equipment if the voltages at the two ends are to he maintained
supply is also high.
at 132 kV under no load condition.
5. Inadvertent Exchange: The automatic generation control (AGC) systems are not
perfect. The error in AGC may lead to an inadvertent exchange of power. In most p = IV. I I V, I cos (~ _ 6) _ I A I IV, 12 cos(j3 _ a)
Ans. (a) Using Eq. ... (1)
interconnected systems, such inadvertent receipt of energy is paid back at a similar r !Bl IBI .
time next day or next week.
It is possible that the inadvertent exchange .goes beyond the normal practice (It may be · 2
30)
done deliberately to meet energy shortages due to fuel or water constraints). This condition is ·
132 X 132
50x 0 8 = ----cos._.,
IA
- - - - - r os (75o -
- u~) - 0.98(132)
. llO 110
~ often called 'Leaning on the ties' . This energy ~xchange is also paid back so that the account is
, cleared. However, if the leaning is for longer duration or involves large amounts of energy, · or. 40 = 158.4 cos@ - o) - 47.97
· some compensations may also be done: ·
or, _ @ - 6) = 56 .26°
. Q.11. Explain -the meaning of "Power pool" ,
;._ Ans. Power Pool: Interchange of power between two systems can be beneficial to both systems. ' Using Eq,_ Q -- --''I v. -I -IV, I . en ) I A II V, 12 • (A )
' - - 81D f' - a - - - --em f' - a ... (2)
· lt is also possible that a system is interconnected with a number of systems. Signing up·, ' IBI · IBI
interchange agreements between each pair of systems can be a difficult task. It may be more
2
advantageous to form a power pool. A power pool, formed by some utilities, has a central dispatch Q = 132 X 132 sin(56_26c)- 0.98(132) sin (750 _ go)
office from where the pool is administered, All tasks regarding interchange and settlements of · ' 110 llO
disputes etc., are a!lsigned to the pool office, The formation of a pool and finalisation of ter~s = - 15.91 Mvar
and conditions binding on the pool members is gener_ally a complex issue. However, the formation
·· Thus for the given operating ronditions, a leading Mvar of 15.91 must be drawn from the
of a pool leads to the following advantages:
line alo~g with real pow'e r of 40 MW. Since the load requires 50 :t 0.6 i.e., 30 Mvadagging, the
l . Decrease in operating costs. static capacitors must deliver (30 + 15.91) i.e., 45.91 Mvar lagging (or absorb 45.91 Mvar leading)
2. Savings in reserve capacity requirements. The capacity of shunt compens!ltion_equipment is, therefore, 45.91 Mvar.
· 3. Help from pool in unit commitment. (b) Using Eq. (1)
4 . Minimization of costs of maintenance sheduling.
2
5. More reliable operation. . 0 = 132 x 132 cos@
- o)·- 0.98(132) ~s (750 _ 30)
Formation of power pool is beset wit h a number of problems and constraints. Some of these · 110 llO .
are: or, o = 158.4 cos <P - o) - 47.97
1. Pool agree~ent may be very complex. or. <P - 6) = 12.a1°
2. Costs associated with establishing central dispatch office. . 2
3. Reluctance of pool members to relinquish their rights as regards individual transactions. Using Eq, (2), Q = 132 X 132 sin (72 _370) _ 0.98(132) cos (?20 )
r 110 . 110
= 3.33 M\rar
 l
[58) - UNIT-Ill - [UTUJ - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE
(59) - UNtT•III - [UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STATION P'RACTtCE

Thus under no load condition the line delivers 3.33 Mvar at the receiving end . This reactive
r must be absorbed by shunt reactor at the receiving end . Thus the capacity bf shunt or
powe
·rea ctor , for no load cond 1t.1on,
' · · 3 .33 Mvar.
1s . .. (3)

Q. t3. How v~ltage can he controlled by using top changing transformer&. For complete compeil15ation V 1 = V2 end t, can be found fro m Eq. (3) . t , = Ilr, ln Eq. (3) aU
[Important) quantities O"re in per phase . .
Ans. Voltage control using·tap Changing Transformers: Another method of voltage control Q.14, Describe the Regulating Transformer {Very Important\.
is through the use of tap changing transformers. Almost all transformers are provic1ed with the /\DB, l{egulating Transformer:/\ speciaJ type of transform~r desi~ed fo_r smaJl adjustmen~
winding for adjusting the ratio of transformation . Taps are usually provided on the high voltage . of vol toge is known os regulatrng transformer. The MVA r ating of regu.latmg transformer is
winding to enable a fine control of voltage. Generally the tap changing con be done only when ·.
transformer is in de-energised state. However in soma cases tap changing is also possible when
t.he transformer is energised and such transformers are known as tap changing _under load
(TCUL) transformers. These transformers make it possible to maintain a constant voltage level
on important buses in the system. •
R IX I
b l_- - - -- -- - - - + - - - + - - - - '

] ~ v,
[Jn C

Fig. 6. Voltage control of a line using tap changing transformer

.•
Fig. shows a line, with impedance R + jXhaving tap changing transformers at its two ends.
Let ts and tr be the fractions of the nominal transformation i.e., tap ratio/nominal ratio e.g. a ·
transformer with nominal ratio 11/33 kV when tapped to convert 11 kV to 36 kV has t 8 = 36/33 :
= 1.09. V 1 and V 2 are the nominal voltages at the sending end and receiving end respectively.· .
\Vhen taps are ~ed., the actual sending end and receiving end voltages would be t 8 V1 and t 2 V ·
2
;. The product ts tr 1s generally made unity so that overall voltage level remains in the same order . Fig. 7. Regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control.
· and the minim um range of taps is use~. The tap ratios ts aad t, can be determined as under: · quite small and it can.be used to change the voltage at a point by a small amount. It can b,
brought into the circuit by the closure of a relay whose operation can be controlled by systen
ts vl t2V2 + IZ =trV2 + IR _cos 0 + IX sin 0
=
I
voltage or system current. A regulating transformer can be used for voltage magnitude contro
Where 8 is the power factor angle ofload and equals tan- 1 (Q/P) ... (1). ·, or phase angle .c ontrol. ·
1. Regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control: F ig. 8 shows a typica
Since I cos 0 = ...!!_ and I sin 0 =..!l..., we get arrangement to use a regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control in a 3 phase ci:rcuit
tiV2 trV2
A 3 phase transformer provides an adjustable voltage to the primary windings of the regula·tulj
transformer. The secondary windings of the regulating transformer are connected in serie
... (2) I
with the lines. Thus a voltage magnitude I~ VI is added to the voltage of each phase. i ~ VI fo
each phase is in phase. with the voltage of that phase. The changes in volt.age magnitude
Substituting mainly affect_the reactive power flow. Therefore this method can be used to control the flow c
reactive power in the system.
2. -Reguluting transformer for voltage phase angle controL Fi.g. 8(0) shows the use c
a regulating transformer for phase angle control. The voltage added to each phase voltage i
displaced by± 90° from it. As seen from Fig. S(b) this arrangement does not cause any change i:
the magnitude of phase voltages. However the phase angles are .changed and the change i
or phase angle is approximately proportional to the magnitude of added voltage I 6. VI. The phns
angles control the flow of real power in the system. Therefore this method can be used to contrc
real power flow in the system.
 '1
lV. J
[6D] _ UNIT-Ill - (UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE

1., 1. I.,ack of ope rati?n11I di scipline among constituents. Each con.qtituent in a region
v.,, _____, is expected to maintain a ba lance bet ween its own generati.on (plus sha re from cent ral
proj ects) flncl dema nd . However due to overa ll shortage 1n insta lled capacity. the
colistitucnts tend to <>verdraw share fr om central stations. This leads to a di1,turbance
in grid param eters a nd system stability problema.
2. Frequency regulation. It ia known tha t for proper system ope ra tion frequency should
be mai ntai ned at least between 49.8 Hz and 50.2 Hz. However due to acute shortage
during peak load conditions frequency tends to he aa low as 48.5 Hz. Duri ng off-peak

I
1·-
~+dVen ·
!!,.Ven .
C ~ r , "-:::,,-"<:...-,-___;i.-,
ll V1,n
conditions frequency goes up to about 51 Hz. Proper load ma nagement, use of under
frequency r elays for a utomatic load shedding a nd acce-lerated se tting up of new
generation un its is needed.
I· s, Voltage control. It is necessary tha t a proper voltage profile ·IS ma intained in the
I v"'
la) (b)
system. However due to reactive power unbalance , very low and h igh voltage conditions
are common. The problem of low voltage is especially severe in summer season due to
Fig. 8. Regulating transformer 1or voltage phase arigle control inductive loads of air conditioners, coolers, fans etc. and in agricultural period due to
I ·~ inductive load of pumps. It is known that these problems can be tackled by meeting
I
Q.15. Explain power system interconnection in_India. . reactive power requirement at the load centres. The programme of installation of shun t
Ans. Power System lnterconncction In Jndia: Indian has vast power system network.' capacitors needs a big thrust.
I coosisting of a large number of hydro, thermal and other power plants and400 kV, 220 kV and ' 4. Load dispatch and communication. The present load dispatch and communication
' 132 \..V transmission lines and sub-stations. It is proposed to integrate the whole system to 1 0

· facilities are inadequate . The present power line carries communication (PLCC) system
ensure the benefits 0£ intercorlnection. · cannot be expanded due to congestion in the available frequency spectrum, difficulty in
The load despatch system operates at four levels. At level 1 is the national lo.ad despatch ; cascade tandem operation etc. It is proposed to add multi channel digital microwave
centre (NLDC) -at Delhi. At level ·2 are the five regional load despatch centres: northern (NRLDC) : system and fibre Optic communication system to provide better load dispatch and
at Delhi, western (WRLDC) at Bombay, southern (SRLDC) at'Bangalore eastern (ERLDC) at communication facilities .
.1 Calcutta and north eastern (NERLDC) at Shillong. Level 3 consists of state load despatch centres 5. Lack of Spinning reserve. At the time of peak loads, ·the demand is more than the
.; (SLDC) of all states The load despatch centres at central projects are also included i.q this level. . generation and there is no spinning reserve in the system. Better load management
. At level 4 are area or sub-load dispatch centres (sub-LDC). and installation of additional generation facilities is needed.
lI · The national load despatch centre is being set up. However load despatch centres at the : 6. Metering and Instrumentation. Adeq\lllte metering and instrnmentation is needed
I t i other 3 levels have been set up. Each regional load despatch centre co-qrdinates the activit1es of '! at different levels. It is necessary to install sequential recorders, disturbance recorders,
•. the state load despatch centres of that region. Tie lines exist between different regions for time of day meters etc. ·
transfer of power. · 7. Inadequate transmission facilities. The transmission system has not been
The ·functions being performed by each regional electricity board are : strengthened to proper level. This has resulted in problems of power evacuation from
l. To plan and review· the progress of power development programs in the region. large pithead super stations. Additional investment in transmissioq system is needed.
2. To ensure integrated operation of the pow~r system in the region so that.the generation , .> There should be adequate redi,mdancy in transmission system for satisfactory operation
and load requirements match at every instant and maximum possible benefits accrue of grid.
' I to the region. · Q. iG. Two power plants A and· B interconnected by a short line. Capacity of A is 200
3. To prepare and co-ordinate maintenance scheduling of the _power plants in the region. MW and that ofB is 100 MW. Their speed regulations (from no load to full load) are
4. To determine optimal generation scheduling at w#'erent power plants in the region. 1.5 ¾ and 3%- respectively. The load on bus of each station is 100 MW. Find the
5. To determine power transfer between different states in the region under different .· · generation at each plant and transfer of power through line.
contingency conditions. · Ans. Speed regul~tion of plant A is
6. To evolve suitable tariffs for exchange of power between different states in the region. ·
7. To plan and monitor the installation of reactive power compensation in the region. 1.5 X 50
S. To carry out system studies for .o perational strategies and system losses. RA=· 100 x 200 = 0.00375 Hz/MW
The regional load despatch centres are being equipped with speech, telemetry, teleprinter Speed regulation of plant Bis
and back up communication facilities, on line real time computer system and peripheral devices
and under frequency relays for automatic load° shedding. R _ 3 x 50
Some problems in satisfactory working of system interconnection in India are as under: n - lOO x lOO = 0.01 5 H:z/MW
 1,- • - ., - · · -- · --
l""""J

-------e
~ tpn
ra:on at plant A be PA' Then generation at plant Bis 2 x 100 _ p
A = =
Real power tranefe~ l x l x coe 8 0.933 p.u..
0.00375 PA = 0.015 (200- PA) Reactive power transfer= l x l x ein 8 = 0.36 p.u. leading
PA= 160MW (b) The·phaeor diagram ie shown in Fig.-10. ·
or.
PB=40MW : 1.052 + fl - 2 x 1.05 x 1 x coe o = (0.095) 2
!i<,'.11
. Transfer of power from plant A to B over the interconnector , The solution is 6 = 45°
1

= 160'- 100 = 60 MW "i · Moreover, 1.052 = 12, + (0,095)2 - 2 x 1 x 0.095 (cos LDBC)
impedance of 1.6 + j 2.6 ohm interconnects two Plants · ·• 'I'he solution ia, LDBC = 60.53°
17. A short line having an ,,,' I

~t~d B. Each plant operates _a t 11 kV and the two voltages are equal in magnitude an · \. LO= 71.6- 60.53 = 11.07°
· b.nse. It is proposed to transfer 20 MW power at 0.8 p.f. from plant A to B. Find th . Real power= 1 x 1 x cos I l.07° = 0.D814 p.u,
.P ltagc boost needed at plant A to achieve ti}is power transfer. . ,
VO . • Reactive power= 1 ~ 1 X sin 11.07° = 0.192 p.u. lagging.
r . Ans. The current transfer is

✓33iox
l 103
r I= = 1312.2L -36.87°
x 11 x0.8 ·
Il
= 1312.2 (0.8 - j 0.6)
I = 1049.76 ~ j 787.32 A
I Voltage drop in the interconnector
i, = (1049.76-j 787.32) (1.5+ j 2_.5)
= 3542.94 +j1443.42 V
The voltage boost needed at station A is 3542.94 + j1443.42 V.
Q.18. A 3 phase interconnector connecting two ~tations has an imp~dance of (3 +j9 ,
·.~ per cent. Find the phase angle between two station voltages and pu real and reactiv ,
'.; power received when the voltages at two stati9ns are (a) I pu ea9h (b) 1.05 and 1 PU
jhc current intercannector is rated full load cur);'ent. · · · :'
1
Ans. Z= 3 + j 9% = 0.03 +j 0.09p.u.
I= 1 p.u.
Iz = 0.03 + j 0,09 = 0.095 L7 l.60°
(a) The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 9 & 10. · ·
C
C

Fig. 9. Flg.10.

=
P. + 12 - 2 x 1 x. 1 x Cos 6 (0.095) 2

• I ·The solution is · · COB O= 5.445°

Moreover
[2 = 12 + (0.095) 2 - 2 x 1 x 0.095 (cos LABC)
· The solution is L ABC = 82.277°
LO= 180° - 81.277° - 71.6 = 21.1°
 (65) - UNIT•IV - (U'TUJ - 8.TECH, - POWER STATION PJ!ACTICE
UNIT-IV Pcrrormance aocJ Fuel Requiremcmh or Diesel Engj 06 Plllnhr The . .
, . _ . . - · energy input to
lhe diese l engine pla nt m the form o( fue l mput con be broken UJJ into follow ing corn ponentR:
t (a) Useful work : about 34%
DIESEL GAS TURBINE & MHD GENERATORS _
SP«ilic ltJ91
+ '· (b) I-lent loRI. in cooling wn tc r : nbout 30% 40",I,
0,4
(c) Heat lost t h.rough exhaust gases: about 26% r
(d) ll co t los t in r a dia t ion . fr iction a nd
30"• OJ r
unaccounted heat : 1 i.%. ~
C 20%
thermal efficiency i>( a diese l plant at ~
·i; Thus the
·Q, l. Ot-Ecribc tbc layout of a medium si~e diesel power station. (Important
ull load ie about 34%. When the plant is runni ng at w IO%
An~ Diesel Pinnt Layout: Figure 1 sho,vs the layout of a medium size diesel power station -~ 88 _ than full load the efficiency decreases
Generally tbe units are placed parallel t.o ea~ other so that the electrical connections fron 'ppreciably. Figure 2, shows the variation ofthermal .____._ __.,_ _.__....____, 0
0
lte.rnators to the control board and air ducts and exhaust pipes are short. There should f,(iciency with load. The .variation of specific fuel 0 25% 50% 75% 100,:,
a6ulTioent space between the sets for carrying out repair and maintenance and dismantling th nswnption is also shown. At full load the specific Fig, 2. Performanc1t of Diesel plant
u: 1f ~ecessai-y. The foundations should be flrm and sub- soil solid. The engines and alternato : el consumption is about 0.23 kg/kWh The specific
:e placed on lari;e concrete slabs preferably rei~orced. Special care should be t~ken in th , ~fuel consumption rises appreciably at loads less than full load. Therefore, it is not economical
design and construction for absorption of V1brat1ons so that they arc not transmitted ~ th ~o rlln it at loads less than full load.
buildmb· The air in~ke and filters .and the exhaust muffiers should not be located m th
a n · f Log Sheets: A log sheet is
a half hourly record of the data regarding Uie perfor mance of
"'"e room . Good natural lighting and ventilation should be-providedrin the engmef room
il .
~n.,~ · ~ach unit of the plant.
i1 may be necessary to provide forced air ventilation. Adequate space ,or storage o o , repa
i;hop and office should be provided near the engine room. . · ~. The data includes voltage, current in each phase, kW, pressure of wa ter a nd oil,
,:.l;e·m peratures (both inlet and outlet) of water and oil etc. A separate form ia used for each unit
Workshop & C:and data is recorded every half en hour. The data recorded on these sheet.a enables the personnel
Stores
Loading Bay : to check that the plant is working satisfactorily. The performance of the p lant can also be
,evaluated from this data.
14r-- Water cooling
- """T- - - 1 5 m - - - - . i pumps , Selection· of Engine Size: The selection of engine size depends on the capac~ty of the
450 kW Set
3 Cylinder single
□ Hot.Well ,~-I~nt. Diesel engine plants are used only for special services and emergency semces. The
acting 4 sttoke 0 ~verlo~d capacity of the plant is very low and its operation at loads less than full load~ 1s
Aomlnistralive i~neconomical Therefore, the determination of plant capacity is very important. To determine
· Olllce -~ lant capacity en estimate of essential connected loads (~hich must be supplied under
DO \o o .~mergency ,conditions) is necessary. It is also necessary to estimate the de~8:°d factor :ind ~ e
Jdiversity factor. The connected load multiplied by demand factor and dm ded by d1verS1ty
ompressed air ('° · Water .
storage cylinder "4 Cooling
factor gives the plant capacity.
Tanks ''. ' · The size and number of engines depend on plant capacity, p~ose for which plant_is being
DO . \o o
:1set up and the· load characteristics. For small scale indus'tries only one or two engmes are

I
,l!Ufficient. It is advisable to calculate the generation cost and overall plant econom~ for_more
-than one alternative and select the best one·. The total space available in the installation 1s also
~n important consideration in determining the number and size of _u nits.
CJ Fuel Chn~ging Role of Diesel Plants: There has been lot of change in the role o~ diesel
\ plnnts, in India, during the pnst about 20 years. This is depicted in Table 1. .
r---;~:;;:i---\ Cl
•-------------
Ovemead Crane

. 1 Layout .of a medium size Diesel plant

F
. 19. ·
 [66) - UNIT-IV - [UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE l"'J - - ...,, •.• • • s. - . - .,

Table 1. Role of die&!:!l plants in India ey can be Atarted and put on load quickly without any @f.an1Hr1 losses and have goc
~iency (obout 43-46%).
Service Fuel
period~- - t ---:------T:=--:----------+...:O~p~e~r~•t~l~ng~tl~m~o'...__ _ \._)V,'fhey require lees space for fuel storage.
Before 1980 standby High speed diesel (HSD) Lees than 3 hours per day ·. e 1/e free from a.eh handling p.rob.leme.
1980-85 !Standby . HSD About 6 hours per day 7. ·__.,.capital coat per kW of capacity U1 low.
1986.90 standby Cum base load HSD, fuel, oil (FO), . ~ / 4 hng water requirements for diesel plants are !~es than for steam plant.a.
Residual fuel (Low sulphur
About 10 Houn per day
~
~ ¢ can be located very near the loads.
heavy stock LSHS)
..!£:.Jbey can use variety of fuels: residual fuel oil, low sulphur heavy stock etc.
Multifoel HSD, Light
1990 onwards base load for captive Diesel Oil (LOO), fuel oil, Continuous Q.S. Write a short note on djesel engine alternator. _ .
power plants and inde- residual fuels (Heavy Ans. Diesel Engine Alternator: The diesel engine alternators ar~ ~f rotating~ fiel~. saliei
pendent power p1-oducers petroleum stock} .. pole construction, the num her of poles varying from 6 to 28 and capacihes from 25 to 5000 k~
~~ ai 0.8 p.f. Jagging. Generally they are rated at 3 phase_440 volt though larger m~chines m.'
Presently four stroke di:sel ~ngine plan~ in the capacity range of 3-23 MW are being use, l': . · have a voltage rating of 2.2 kV. The alternators are directly coupled_to th~ engmes. Sp.eci
in base load plants. Small size diesel plants m the capacity range of less than 3 MW are use
Ji, . attention as regards mechanical design of alternator is necessary to avotd settmg up of tomon
for standby purpose. Two stroke diesel engine plants of more than 10 MW can use variety 0
fu~ls and are used in base load plants. · . . ,/ .vibrations due to uneven turning moment of the engine.
· The alternators have a percentage regulation of around 30% at 0.8 p.f. lagging. They a
When the plant size is bigger (100 to 200 MW range) low speed two stroke engines a · ~ . p~ovided with automatic voltage.regulators to permit close voltag~ regul~tion and sati~fa~
preferred because of following reasons: · . .
'f,_\ · parallel operation. Almost all diesel engine alternators are proVJded with da;111per wmdin(
1. The number of unite is 1.esser. · .•~ Each alternator is provided with its own exciter usually coupled to the engme shaft e1th
.2. ~a required for the plant is lesser. ~'. directly or through a belt to increase speed. The voltage rating of exciter is 115 V or 230 v,
3. Service life is more due to low speed. It has been reported that for lo~ speed dies ' ·~ .and j,ower rating 2 to 4% of the alternator rating.
engines life can be upto 25 years.
Q.4. D~scribe the applio~tions of diesel plants.
· 4. Lower operational and maintenance costs.
Ans. Applications Of Diesel Plants: The size limitations not withstanding, the escalati
The following new diesel plant technologies are being developed. As and when they a oil prices have made the operation· of diesel electric plants very uneconomical. In view of U
used in commercial power generation, diesel plants would beoome niore popular. . they play a minor role in electric power generation. .
. 1. Diesel combined cycle (DCC) plant: In the diesel combined cycle plant the exhau The existing plants are operated only when absolutely necessazy. Their fields of applicati
gas temperatures are higher due to combination of design and tuning. This technology .use
bot combustion process for combustion instead of the conventional procees. In the hot combuetio' ·. a r ~ countless number of industries, all over the co~try. have install
process the diesel engines cooling losses are reduced thus increasing the temperature of ho diesel electric plants in their premises to maintain essential services when supply from t
exhaust gases. The waste heat of exhaust ~see is use·d in steam genen,.tion which is used , · grid is not available.
generate electricity thus improving the plant efficiency. DCC plant is equipped with nitroge 2. They are used for starting auxiliaries in steam power stations.
· oxide catalytic converter and desulfurization system to keep the pollution level low.
3. Mobile plants. Mobile diesel electric plants mounted on trailers are used for temporc
. 2. Bio fuel based Diesel Engine: A low cost method of converting wood and other bi and emergency purposes. ·
fuels into liquid bio fuels is being developed. In this method, known as pyrolysis, wet wood·
4. Peak load plant. A diesel plant can be started and loaded quickly. As such these pla1
dried in rotary'drier to a 10% moisture content and then ground to a minimum particle size o can be used as peak load plants.
is
6 mm. It then fed to a reactor having a -temperature of 450°C to 550°C. The wood ge .
5. Standby plants. They can be used as standby plants when supply from grid is not availal
amverted into organic vapours and char. These vapours are condensed in a condenser togiv'
liquid bio fuel. It has been reported that from dry wood 70% (by weight) ofliquid bio fuel an 6. They can be used in remote locations where supply from grid is not available. The USE
10-15% of charcoal can be produced. This process, when commercialired, will be of great us : diesel electric plants during the construction stages of thermal and hydro electric power pla
is very commo,n.
Q.2. What are the advan~ges of Diesel electric plants?
Q.6. Write a short note or diesel engine. .
Ans. Airyantages of Diesel Plants:
Ans. Diesel-Engine: The.diesel engine, for a diesel electric plant, may be a four stroke c
J/fheir design and installation is simple. two stroke engine. In a 4-stroke engine, the cycle of operation is completed in 4-11trokes (I
J/l'hey can be quickly procured, installed and commissioned: . . , revolutions), the four strokes being suction, compression, w01·king and exhaust. In the· I
3. The layout, design and construction of foundation and bwldmg for diesel plants a stroke engines ell the four operatio'Iis:are ·completed in two lffioltes or 'one revolution,
✓cheap and simple. . · : •
 b c1cw11r
a
d stroke combi ning worki ng and exhau st and/'
ression. A two E1trok e engin e de velop s more power
c0tUP rnent and costs less -than a four stroke enain
djsp1ace H·
d
,orwru· stroke comb· . . k
for the
same speed
mmg mto ~ an
d (69) - UNIT-IV - [UTUJ - B.TECH . - POWER STATION PRACTICE
l
. ., e. oweve r a four atrok ond , p1eton
efficiency, lower spea. [ic fuel cons\l mptio n and h
hlgber . mor rr ', . o engine as ·•,'', (lJ) Engin e ·Cool i~g Sy11te"". 'l'he .: xtra heat, not
J;e engine. e euectt ve lubric ation thnn a two uee~ _for doi ng ueeful work, has to b
. 6moved from the engine . Other wise thie extra beat
may d1emte grate the lu bricati ng oil fLlr
sUoThe ignitio n may be throu gh compr ession ignitio n or ep1ll'k the cylfod er walle and damag e the cylind er linera ,
i nitiou I . . .. '
'ne the oombusti.on sta~ by spont aneou s ignitio n of fuel ~ads, walls, pieton and rings. Small engine s may be air-
and~ir bec~u ~:~r~ BBJO n 1grullon
en~ loped by the compression of the air where as n spark ignit' !iiaolcd but large engin es mostly emplo y forced water
. ig tempe rature
?e,,ete tlle fuel air mixtu re. The diesel engin es a;e mostly com~ - oling. Cold water ie eent throug h the cylind er jacket
:Be~~ e u_e~s a spark plu_g to
ignt1be speed range of 200-1 000 r .p.m. are more comm on with the help of a pump . The hot water is cooled in
in li d Each cylinsd1on ~gnd1t1?n tydpef. Engin es a
. •
~r. kW and multi- cy n er engm es avmg
h . · er 1s es1gne or aroun d · ~pray pond and recirc ulated . It is necess ary to keep
,~ her output s. upto 16 cylind ers· arrang ed f all the Engine
d /' i xit tempe rature of the cooling wat.er aroun d 70°. U this
' ver ic Y, are use ,or Jackel v,atar Raw-water
~tempe rature ie too low, the lubric ating oil film will not coot,n
What are the essen tial equip ment s in· a diese l plant pump pump pond
s? l's. pread proper ly and will result in cylind er and piston
Diese l Plant Equip ment : \ vear. If this tempe rature is too high, the lubrica •i.ng
oil Fig. 4· Closed circuit cooling system
:des engine , diesel plant s need the follow ing equip ments .'burns . This neceSBitates a contro l of the flow of coolin
for their opcr~ tion. g
Fuel system -Fuel s~rag e tanks , pump s, strain ers, oil ''1.'.~ ater accord ing to _the load on the engine. -T he coolin
filters , meter s, heater s, pi.Ping. g water requir ement of diesel engine (fo
Air-inta ke syste m-au filters , ducts, super charg er. ho•C tempe r~ture rise) is aroun d 2 to 4 litree per bhp per minut e. It is possib
le to utilise th
,;;;heat of exit cooling water for heatin g oil or buildi ngs.
Engine cooli ng-sy stem- p~ps, spray -pond, heat-e xchan
ger, water -treatm ent, pipin'g. · ·
It is necess ary to treat the make u1
·;:water to remove the scale forming impur ities. Zeolite soften
Engine lubric ating system -<>il tanks , oil pump s, reliefv er or lime or lime-soda-M h treatm en
alves,' filters , purifie rs, coolers, piping . ;,ie employed. Fig. 4 shows a ~osed circuit. cooling system .
Exhaust syste m~nn ectin g ducts, silenc ers, muffl ers, ·
water heater a. :' · (4) Engin e Lubri cating -Syste m: High pressu res and
Engine startin g syste m-ba ttery, air compr ea~or, electri small cleara nces necess itate a g00<
c motor . · ~•. lubrication system for a diesel engine . The life of the
Alternators with excite rs. engine and the efficiency depen d larget
';: on the lubrication eyetem . In additio n to lubrica ting the
moving parts, the lubric ating oil remove
Jnstrum entatio n. ::;heat from cylinde~ and bearin gs, carrie s away solid
matte r from rubbe r moving parts an,
·switchgear and contro l equip ment. :, helps piston rings to seal gases in the cylind er. The parts
. of the engine which need lubricatio1
1 Fuel Unloading '. mclud e piston and cylinders, gears, crank- shaft and
1. Fuel Syste m: The fuel receiv ed by the plant conne cting rod, bearin gs etc. Piston an,
Line ;;: cylind er need specia l lubric ating oil. The forced feed
is stored in bulk storag e tanks which are situat ed ., equipm ent for this purpo se includ es pumps , oil cooler,
lubric ation is mostly n&ed and th,
~utdoors for safety . Oil is drawn from these tanks by oil cleane r, sump oil tank etc. Tb,
~/ lubricating oil costs of a diesel plant are around 30%
~pumps, daily or at suitab le interv als and delive red "· of the fuel costs.
~ :(5) Exhau st Syste m: The function of the exhau st system
through strain ers and meter s to small storag e tanks is to discha rge the engine exhaus
,l · to the atmos phere outsid e the builq.ing. A good
_called day tanks which feed engin es, Fig. 3 shows a exhau st system should keep the noise at a lo~
~- level, exhau st well above the groun d level to redu·ce·the
typical arrang ement . ' should isolate the engine vibrat ions from the buildi
at
air pollut ion breath ing level am
ng by using a flexible section of exh~us
The functio n of the engin e fuel admis sion system pipe . The ·exhau st pipe is provid ed with a· muffle r to reduce
To Engines pressu re in the exhau st line am
is to supply correc t amou nt of fuel to each ~lind er in eliminate most of the n·oise. The exhau st system must carry
Fig. 3. Fuel system for a diesel power plant aroun d 0.17 to 0.23 m3 of air pe
advance of the worki ng stroke at prope r time even minute per horse power developed. The waste heat of exhau
st gase.s may be used to raise 1011
with varyin g load condit ions. pressu re·steam or heat the oil or buildi ngs.
. · (G) Engin e S~att ing System : Becau se of high compr
Now-a-days all diesel power plant engin es use mecha ession pressu res, even n small diese
nical injecti on. Fuel at~ pressu re of
around 100 Kg/cm2 is delive red mecha nicall y, throug h engine in a ·power plant canno t be starte d by hand cranki
the atom~ er nozzle, into the compressed ng.,Comp ressed air system is moetl:
. used for startin g diesel engine s in power plants . Comp
air. ressed air, from air tank, at about 21
times atmos pheric·press ure is admit ted to a few of the
(2.) Air-in take Syste m: Air requir ement s of large diesel engine cylind ers makin g them worl
4-6 ma per kWh. Air 1s drawn from outsid e the engine room andplan~e are consid_e_rable, ~und .
deh~e red ~ -the inlet ~a~fo ld
like reciprocating air motor s to turn the engine shaft.
through the air filters which remov e the dust and other Q. 7. Expla in the princ iple 0£ opera tion of gas turbin
suspen d~d lDlpur_ities from air{il t~~ e plant s.
P, types include dry oil bath viscou s impin gemen t and Ans. Princ iple of Opera tion of Gas Turbi ne Plant
electro static prec1p1tetor filter_e. , n ':° s: A gas turbin e plant consis ts of 1
1'. ~limates the in~e air ~ heate d, by using the heat compressor, combu stion chainb er, gas turbin e and
from ex~au et ga~es, before inJect i~- ·a lterna tor. The compr essor takes it
1' ; t ' •
Supercharging is usuall y emplo yed to increa th ressur e of intake air above atmos pheric atmospheric air, compr esses it and suppli es the presBu
ri!ied air to the combu stion chamb er
se e P
!i' ll::,. .,ressure. Fuel is injected into the comb\lstion chamb er and burnt
in the stream of air suppli ed by th1
compressor. The combu stion raises the tempe rature
of air and increa ses its volum e unde .
L!
..
C!
 (70} - UNIT-IV - [UTU} - B,TECH. _ POWER ST"':TION p
(71} - UNIT-IV - (UTU) - B.TECH, - POWER StAllON .-HAC-11\;t::
----- " RACTICE
t pressure. The hot pressurised gos expands in lhc l b •
~ ostan ns the rotor of the turbine. Both the compressor o.n'::' t~neJroduces mechanical power
d'~dof the hot gas from combustion chamber, 10 that the hot pa may be cooled to 8 8 at:
~ erature of around 800°C. The temperat~ at e-xhauat i.e around 5oo•c. e.
and~ shaft Due to the high temperatu1·e of the products f o btornetor nre coupled to the :}~(ficlency of open Cycle Plant: The efficiency o( an open cycle plant is Vf!r"J low. This ia
turbine · h O com ustion lhc turbine out t
- the input tot e compressor. The turbine, therefore d . h • pu '\JAC of the feet that about 65% .or the mechanical power developed in the turbine i.e uaed to
eiccecd~ · th l T • rives l o compressor nnd the
rpl 8 power drives e a ternator. be products of combu t' ftc e the compreeeor. The fact that the hot gas from the combustion chamber 18 cooled to a a
,11rb;e are finally exhausted to the atmosphere. Such pl~~n, n knrexpansion through the ·, ~ temperature before admitting it to turbine, also reduces the efficiency. Becauae of the
tu • nre own as open cycle gne
t~bine plants. . -~ reaeone the efficiency rarely exceeds 20%. .
8
Combusllon V'R egeneration, lntercoolinlJ and Reheating: The efficiency of an open cycle plant can
Oil chamber . tnpro'Ved through a combination of regeneration, intercooling and reheating.
1uel -------i-li ·Regeneration means transfe-r o( heat energy from exbawt gaees to t h e ~ ~
compressor Turbine '~ compre880r •mil the combustion chamber. Thuithe-amount of heat kiss
{Iieoxhaulif'gases is r ~ · ·
~lntercooling means the removal of heat from compressed air between the et,ges of
----{]----- n-e-a-oAlternator

Starting
J pression. This neceBSitat.es"the-u~ of compreaeorBW1tntwo stages viz. low preaeure and
~h-pressure. Intetcooling reduces t:he mumal consumpbon of power b)'1Jie plant. Usually
,µercooi
a urface coolers are used - - - -
u d13 - -
motor
. ' Reheating is the increase of temperature of partially expanded gas by burning more fuel in
\ '
~.iTbis process necessitates a compounding of the turbine. It is especially good for improving
~e efficiency of plants having high pressure ratio and moderate maximum cycle temperature.
Air Intake · Exhaust f Fig. 7 shows an open cycle plant with the above three featur~s. The intercooler is added
Fig. 5. Open cycle gas turbine plant ' iltween the two stages of the compreseor. The preeeurieed gas, from the high preeeure
The gas turbine bas to drive the compressor as well as the alternate~. Some times two ' 'mpressor, passes through the regenerator before being admitted to the combustion chamber.
·~ turbines are used ~or the~e two purposes. A high pressure turbine drives the compreseor a~d a . ;_ · e partially expanded gases from the high prelj8ure turbine pass through a reheat.er (i.e. a ·
low pressure turbme denves the alt.ernat,or (Fig. 6). This arrangement has.the advantage that . · ·cond combustion chamber) before going to the low pressure turbine. Both comp;e8801'8 and
' the speed of the power turbine (which drives the alternator) can be .k ept constant at synchronous ;R<)th the turbines are mounted on a common shaft. The alternator iB coupled to the main shaft
:· speed while the speed of the turbine driving the compressor can be varied depending on the · through gears to reduce the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator. The above
~ required output. ,r efinements improve the·efliciency of an open cycle plant to around 30%.
• -/j

t Combustion ' Compressors

Oil chamber
;; ;
fuel
I I· I
i .. , compressor
,!:,
III 1• \
Alternator
i·\, ----{}----· · -:o-e-□-Q
Ir l,_i Starting
'Air
Regenerator t
l1 •. motor Exhaust >\
Fig. 7. Open cycle gas turbine plant with intercooler, regenerator and reheater.

' i Q.7. Describe the closed cycle gaa turbine plant.

\ .. 4 ,., ,..... '''"" ., Ans. Closed Cycle Gaa Turbine Plant:
Fig.· 6. Open cycle gas turbine plant with LP and HP turbine J. In an open cycle plant the fuel is mixed with air in the combJJetion chamber and the.beat
~ The pressure ratio in gas turbine plants is around 5: 1. The compressor compresses the air '
·· rejection process occurs in the atmosphere aa the turbine exhaust is discharged into the
. atmosphere. In a closed cycle plant the fuel is not mix~ with the working meclium which can
', to about 5 times the atmospheric preseure. The pressure at exhaust is nearly the atmoephe~c
-. be air or any other gas. The heat rejection proceu-occure in heat exchanger or recooler. Thue
\ ;' "· S pressure. In the combustion chamber the temperature is around 1600°C. The ho! gas at this
( the same working medium is circulated again and again through compressor, heater, turbine
'r' 1; · 1 high temperature cannot be allowed to enter the turbine d~ectl~ becaue~ of a possible dam~ge , and recooler. The intercooling regeneration and reheating features can also be added. Fig. 8
1 • to the turbine blades. A part of the air (from compresaor) 1s delivered directly to the turbine,
'JI
,~,__
l, I
 [72) - UNIT-IV - (UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE mJ - UNIT-tV - (UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE

en~ with all the above feotures. The function of recooler, in a closed cycl
shows a closed cycl? pl_ }.\ plication o f Gall Turbine Plants_
gas turbine plant, 18 similar to that of condenser in a steam plant. ·. p (a) Peal, load plants. Gae turbine plantA a-re very suitable for use 88 peak load plant
Regenerator been use t hey can be started and loaded quickly . .
r~;'.(u) Base toad plants. Th e operating cost o( ~ gas turbine ~lant is very high. As such il i
1! , rnrcly used a8 base load plant. However 1( natural gne La abundantly available at aom
,f_' site, it ro:iy be econ omicnl to run it as a base load plant also.

~"""' i~ 8
• · ' (c) AJLriliary power plant for thermal statwns. Gas turbine plants of about 2-5 MW size ar
0

~:. .
1
ti I
used in coal fired steam power plants for starting the auxiliaries of the plant. Thea
machines arc either accommodated 11o :thin the main building or in a separate buildin
6
ituatcd conveniently on site. Many a time this gas turbine plant is alSQ used as he
Turbines Allernator
standby plant. Many 500 MW steam plants in the world have gas turbine plants o
L.P. -0- - H.P. - 0- H.P. -o- L.P.--0-0 □-o. , their premises for this purpose.
starting ~pM ! .
motor Q.9. Given the principles of ':>peration of MHD power generation. (UTU 2010-ll
;,A ns. Principles of MHD Power Generation ·
Reheater
} 1, The principle of MRD generation is simply that discovered by Faraday: when an electri
lnteroooler ':&i°hductor moves across a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it which produces an electri
Fig. 8. Closed cycle gas turbine plant •~current. This is the principle of the conventional generator also, where the conductors consiE
The advantages of a closed cycle plant are: ~?f cop~er sb·ipe. In MHD gen~rator, the solid_cooduct~rs are replaced by a gaseous conducto,
an iomzed gas. If such a gas 1s passed ata high velocrty through a powerful magnetic field,
1. A working medium having more desirable properties than air can be used. These ar ·
· -'.current is generated and can be extracted by placing electrodes io a suitable position in th
hydrogen, argon, helium etc. This results in economy in plant size.
1 ~stream. This arrangement as illustrated in Fig. 8 provides d.c. power directly.
2. The risk of corrosion of turbine blades is absent since the turbine is free from th '••·

products of combustion. .i z y

3. The working medium is at high internal pressure. This results in economy in dimensio E 8
of turbines etc. ·
. 4. In an open cycle plant the incoming air has to be filtered. This is evidently eliminate
. in a closed cycle plant. ✓
✓

5. The rate of heat transmission is better. ✓

X
(b)
The above advantages are offset by additional complexity of plant because a closed cycl
plant requires externally fired heater, gas recooler etc. · ·
Q.8. Give-the comparison of gas turbine plants & steam plants & also give applicatio
of gas turbine plants. ·
Ans. Comparison Of Gas Turbine Plants And Steam Plants Direction of
applied magnetic
1. The capital cost of a gas turbine plant is lower than that of a-steam plant of the same
field
size.
2. It has no standby losses. Fig. 8. Principle of MHD Powet Generation
3. It requires leBBer area than, a steam plant of the same ca.pac~ty. The principle can be explained as follows. An electric conductor moving through a magneti
'
4. It has less w'ater requirement as compared to a steam plant. I, '
field experiences a retarding force as well as an induced electric field and current. This effec
5. Its foundations and buildings are simple and cheap. · is a result of Faraday'!! law of electromagnetic induction. The induced emf is given by
G. They can be started and put on load more quickly than steam plants. • E.d=iixB
· lO
7. ·A gas turbine plant can be located very near the load even·in the cities and towns,
where u is_the velocity of the conductor and B is the magnetic field intensity as shown in Fi!
a
8. The operating costs of gas turbine plant are very high as compared to steam plant.a. B(b). The induced current density is
9. Gas turbine plants can be used only in small sizes about 50 MW or so.
J inci = cr Eint1
where o is electric conductivity.

7
 j

---Th(' ret.:uding force on the

cond uctor 111 the Loront~
f,n d = J ;.,,/ )( B
.
(74] - UNIT-IV - (UTU} - B.TECH. _ POWER STA~IO PRACTICE
' N
•. n by
.,., ,,r0 rce give

·,
[7!5) - UNIT-IV - (UTU') - B.TECM. - POWER ST•TtON PRACTICE

·oCf electrons. The preeence or t~e

•oot oonductor . The othe r wo.y 8
1
n~ge t ively ch.org: d ~lect.r0ru1 makes t he carrior gaa an
to utcorporate II liquid metal in.too Oowing carrier gae.
From an rnergy point ofvie w, the move me nt.of the force th I d.18 1 ' the metal i&a good e)ectrica.l conductor , the g B&metal mixture can be used as the working
.. aJ
,t~ d
k) is con"ert.cd to electrical work (current flow aaain et prouteiz" I . .u,orenco) by meone f '
)>ttacemont (mcche niC11l
wor . . d . . . l " o
d. . . 0 . •in a n MHO gen era tor.
. e\ectromagne t1c m uct1on p n nc1p e . This is a work enerav co .
"J nvc re1on an JB not hm1ted by . t be overall power cycle. the MHD converter takes the pla~ of a rurbine in a conven tional
f
,I
tne . . l f \
the Carno1 pnnc1p e. o ~ urse, e ect.romagnet ic induction forma the b8818 . 0f .
opernt1on for · ·\lr 01 gee turbine cycle . Still, e compreBeor must be u!k?d to el.evate the p reMUre, heat is
\ · ~; nel e lectric ge nerator!'.
C(ll1',eouO .
ed at fu gh pressure and t he flow is accelerated before enterin g the conTI?rter. A schematic
1'he electrom~ne tic induction principle need not be linii' ted t O 8011.d cond uctore· th h~M}ID power cycle ie shown in Fig. 11.
· · fl ·d h
movement of a cond u cmg w t r oughha magnetic field may also be emp loye d r,or e lectr1c
, _e ' . OH
· b fl ·d · d
t conversion techniqu · all d
eoe© conveT'Slon w e n a u1 1s u se , e energy 18 1
hydrodynamic (MHD), energy conversion. e c e t ,e mogneto ·

· The direct conver sion of kinetic (or motion) energy into electrical b th Huter
Rt
. . d . fl ' d . energy y e 0owofon ..----t----1 Loa
electncallY con uctmg Ul ' us ually a gas or a gas liquid combination • throu h ta . t'
2
· fi ld If the flow direction· ·
·1s at right fi g da' 8 •1onary
magnetic e . angles to t he maan · et·
" 1c e
Id
1rect1on an
· ,. ( 1 · . .
eleotromo~ve iorce ore. ec~nc voltage) 18 md_u ~ed in the direction at right angles to both flow
and field d1rect1ons, a s depicted m figure. This 1s the basic principle ofMHD conver8lon ~
. (re1er
Fig. 9. 3
Compressor
Magnetic We
llelcl Conclucllng
lluld flow
Cooler
4

Ag. 11.

; .10. Explain the MHD system & give ita open cycle sy&tems. [Important}
·.-: ns. MHD Systems: Introductio n: Magneto hydrodynami c convemon systems can opente
n either open or cloeed cycle. In an open cycle system, th e working fluid is used on the once
·ough basis. The working fluid after generating electrical energy· is discharged to the
Fig. 9. Principle ol magneto hydro9ynamic coiwersion :,·?D,osphere through a stack. In the closed cycle, system the working fluid ia continu!)usly
,I }.recirculated; the discharged working fluid is reheated and returned to the conV1!?1er. In an
I. · A schematic of MHD generator is shown in Fig. 10. The conducting flow fluid is forced
•1 be.tween the plates with a kinetic energy and pressure differential sufficient to overcome the ~;open cycle system the working fluid is air. In closed cycle systems helium or argon is used as
I
magnetic induction force F;n4· The end view drawing illUBtretes the construction of the llow -' ~, ;the working fluid. In open-cycle syeteI!lS, the hot combUBtfon gases offer seeding, can be used
channel. An ionized gas is employed as the conducting fluid. Ionization is produced eitht!r by )< directly as the working fluid, in closed cycle systems, however, heat is transferred from the
;; ·combustion gases to the working fluid by means of a heal e:n:hanger. A higher working
:: temperature and a better thermal efficiency are thus possible in ope n cycles, provided suitable
Combustion
chamber Nozzle · construction materials are available.
\_ Electrodes ..I Thus the MHD systems can be cla~ed broadly as follows:

-
Gas flow
D.C.
load
(1) Open cycle systems.
(2) Closed cycle systems. This may be further sub classified as :
(1) Seeded inert gas systems, and
Generator
(ii) Liquid metal system.
channel These are described in· the following sections.
Fig. 10. Simple MHD Generator (magnetic lield perpendicular t(? the plant of the page) . Open-Cycle Sy11te.ms: The arrangement of the system is shown BChematically in Fig. 12
thermal meana_i.e. by _e n elevated temperature or by seeding with substance like cesium or ·.,·'In this system, fuel used may be oil through an oil tank or gasified coal through a cool gasificatior.
potassium vapours which ionize at relatively low temperatures. The atoms of the seed element , · plant. The fuel (coal, oil or na tural gas) is burnt in the combUBtor or combustion chamber. Thi
:, hot gases from combUBtor is then seeded with a small amount of an ionized alkali metal (cesiu n
 l' IJ - .., •••• ,.
[76] - UNIT-IV - [UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE
' ' but more complicated , alternative is to connect each electrode ptur acro~ a separate
or powsium). to incre_ae_e ~he elc_c trical conductivity of the g11s. The seed material, general · r, ~,·g (1~) Another possibili ty is to utilize the Hall current only; eocb electrode pair
a11m 1 • · ·
1
otassium carbonate, 1s mJected mto the combustion chamb er, U1e potassium is the n iontz 0~~circuitcrl outside.
by the hot comb_u stion gases at temperatures of roughly (2300 to 2700°C). . . •·E-s plain tho clo~ed-cycle gy11tems of MHD generators. . (UTU 2011-12)
lnwirter i()losod-cycle systems: Two. gener~l _t~es of_clo~ed c!cle MHD ~ener~tors :ire. bei_ng
______.ll._________ ~inted . In one type, electrical conductmty 1s m3:111tamed in the workmg flwd by 1om1.at1on
AC Stack
~ower •~ed material. a s in open-cycle system~ ; ~nd m the other, a liq~1d ~etal ~rovides t he
Seed
Q ·i!tivity. The carrier is usuolly a chem1cal _mert ~as.' al~hough a ~qu1d came-r baa bee?

-
Fuel Nonie
Combuslor t--,---{::::::::1-
recovery ., ith a -liquid m etal conductor. The working flwd 1s circulated m a closed loop an~ 1B
'a b the combustion gases using a heat exchanger. Hence, ~he he~t source ~ d the working
~ri,~dependent. The working fluid is helium or argon with ceS1um seed mg.
,' tSeedcd inert gas system. In a ·clo~ed cycle system the ca~er ga_s (atgon/belium)
Hot air · ·ees in a form of Brayton cycle. The gas 1s compressed and heat 1s supplied by the source,
Removal
ot N2 & S ; entially constant pressure ; the compressed gas then expands ~n the MHb generator and
i.Jssure and temperature fall. After leaving the generator, heat 1s removed from the gas by
' - - - - - - - ~ Make up l+------G_e_ne_ra_to-- -Jr , 'rJr, this.is the beat rejection stage of the cycle. Finally the gas is recompre~ed and returned
seed "'\ . .
, ·beatmg.
Fig. 12. Schematic of an open cycle MHD generators p · · Sleam
To attain such high temperatures, the compressed air used to burn the coal (or other fue~ !Urbine

1n the combustion chamber; must be preheated to atleast 1100°C. A lower preheat temperatur lrr,ertet
would be ade·quate if the air were enriched in oxygen. An alternative is to use compresse'
ol·ygen alone for combustion of the fuel, little or no preheating is then required. The additiona
~
Combustion Cesium
cost of the oxygen might·be balanced by the savings on the preheater. The hot, pressurize prodJa inieclion
worJ.-ing fluid leaving the combustor flows through a convergent-divergent nozzle similar to ' MHO Diffuser HJ<i
rocket nozzle. 1n passing through the nozzle: the random motion energy of the molecules i.n th · Generalor
1 hot gas is largely converted into directed, mass motion energy. Thus, the gas emerges from th
nozzle and enters the MHD generator unit at a high velogty.
Comwstor
~
The MHD generator is a divergent channel (or duct)
water
4 made -of a heat-resistant alloy (e.g. lnconel) with HX,
external water cooling. The hot gas expands through
the rocket like generator surrounded by powerful Argon
Compressor
magnet. During the motion of the gas the positive and load ~-------1 wilh. \+--------- --'
negative ions move to the electrodes and constitute an inte«:ooler HX 1 - Prirpary heal elCChanger
HX2 - Heat exd,anger 1 2
electric current. The magnet1.c;: field direction, which is
. ,, Fig._14. A closed cycle ~HO system
at right angles to the fluid fl.ow, would be perpendicular
to the plane of paper . A numbe·r of oppositely located f1
A clo~ed cycl~ MHD sys_te~ is shown in Fig. 14. The complete system h as three·distinct but
electrode pairs are inserted in the channel to conduct Fig. 13. MHD ·electrode connections to }· t~rlockmg loops. On the left 1s the external heating loop. Coal is gasified and the gas (having
the electric current generated to an external load. The · minimize Han ·current ~!righ peak value of about 5.35 MJ/kg and at a. temperature of about 525~C is burnt in a
electrodes pair may be connected in various ways one . pib.ustor to provide beat. In the primary heat exchanger, this heat i;; transferred to a carrier·
of which is show~ in Fig. 13. An MHD generator, unlike a conventional generator, produced ~s argon/helium (working fluid) of the MHD cycle. The combustion products after passing
direct current, this can be oonverted into commonly used alternating current.by means of an rough the air preheater (to r ecover a part of the heat of combustion products) and purifier
inverter. · , , :remove harmful emissions) are discharged to atmosphere. Because-the combustion system
. '.fhe arrangement of the electrode connections is determined by the need to reduce losses ~ separate from the working fluid. so also are the ash and flue gases. Hence, the problem of
arising from the Hall effect By this effect, the magnetic field acts on the MHD-generated x;l"acting the seed material from fly ash does not arise. The flue gases are used to preheat the
(Fa~aday) current and prdduces a voltage in the flow direction of the working fluid rather than ~oming combustion air and then treated for flash and sulfur-dioxide removal, if n1?ceseary.
at n ght angles to it, The resulting current in .an external load is then called the Hall current. f or to discharge through a stack to the atmosphere, .
. Vari_o ~s ~l~ctrode connection schemes have been proposed to utilize the Faraday current
while mmrnuz:mg the Hall current. A simple way, although not the best is shown in Fig. (13).
 llbJ - UNll•IV - lUIUJ - D.tc.\.,,n. - rv"'-" "''""'",i rnr"''""''-
POWER ST.ATIUN l'HAC 111,;t
(79] - UNIT-IV - (UTU] - B.TECH. -

The loop in the c~ntre is the MHD loop. The hot argon gas is seeded with cesium o
resulting working flmd 1s passed through the MHD generator ot high epeede. The d.c. pow
Q.l Z. Explain the International status olMHD power generation & is future prospects
;,', (Very Important
out of MHD generator 1s converted to A.C. by the inverter and is then fed into the grid . ·
further recovery oft · . ·_ s. lnternation~l Status of MHD Po"'.e~ Generation and its Future Prospects
The loop_shown on the right hand side in figure is the steam loop for
bternatiooal co-operation bas been prominent m t~e development of MHD power generatioi
heat ~f working fluid and converting this heat into electrical energy in the diffuser, the wor · over the pest 3 decades, reseatch and dev~lopment m M~gneto hydrodynamic (MHD) electri
fl.wd 1s slowed down t-0 a low subsonic speed. Then hot fluid enters a secondary heat exchang ,· ·wer generation hove been accompamed by a considerable upswing in internationa
which serves as a waste heat boiler to generate eteam. This steam ie pertly utili:r.ed to drive' , iperation. The first demonstra~on of the feasibility ~ ~ was made in the USA in 195!l
turbine generator and for driving a turbine which runs the argon (or helium) compreBSor. T Beginning in 1960, related scientific research and engineenng development was undertake1
output of the generator is also fed to the main grid. The working fluid is returned back yUSA. USSR, Japan, UK, France, Poland and other countries.
primary heat exchanger after passing through compressor and inter cooler. \ A 25 MW MHD pilot plant was com.miBSioned in USSR in 1970, which has successful!:
A closed cycle system can provide more useful power conversion et lower temperat , )•upplied electricity to the Moscow grid. Encouraged by the successful operation of the U-2
(around 1900"1{ as compared to 2500°K for Qpen cycle system). The somewhat lower operat' ', cility, the USSR has designed a 500 MW power station with a Z50 MWMHD component an,
temperature of a closed cycle, MHD converter than of an open cycle system have an edvanta itis located near Moscow. A pilot 250MW Engineering Test Facility (-ETF), which is planned t
in permitting a wider choice of materials. On the other hand, the lower temperature oft -&i fully integrated MHD/ateam power plant, is commissioned in USA. Further a Commercii
working fluid a.Isa means a lower thermal efficiency. Furthermore temperatures in t ..,be'm onstration Plant (CDP) to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of an MHD system fo
combustion chamber are still high, and special construction materials are required for t · ' ase load application. In Japan the work on a 20 MW demonstration plant near. Tokyo is i
primary heat exchanger. Moreover the working fluid must be kept absolutely pure. The electri · ~ rogre88. Poland and China are also believed to be developing MHD systeID.8. USA has bee
stabilicy of the flow in the generator poses problems because the gas is subjected to electri ;folleborating with USSR, Poland, Japan and Netherlands in this field. ·
fields approaching breakdown conditions. . . The Indian Rand D programme on MHD started in 1977. It concentrates on developin
The closed cycle MHD using rare gases as working fluid is developed and it is the mo ,;?necessary competence in this area and associated technology which will form the basis of creatin
promising system among all. Generally, the heat source used is gas cooled nuclear reactor. · ? commercially viable equipment for coal based MHD power generation. The Department <
Q.11. What are the advantages ofMHD systems? ;:Non-conventional Sources of Energy (ONES) has sponsored research and developmer
Ans. Advantages of MHD .Systems:
.t programme on coal based MlfD power generation. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) i
-; collaboration with BHEL and Institute of High Temperature (USSR) is executing this researc
{l) The conversion efficiency of an MHD system can be around 50 per cent as compared.
~ and development programme. The layout for a 5--15 MW pilot MHD plant has been prepare
less than 40 per cent for the most efficient steam plants. Still higher thermal efficienci
::, end the construction work is taken up at the plant site at Tiruchirapalli. All the propoaE
(60-65%) are expected in future, with the improvements in experience and technolo
.;;·· ·MHD installation throughout the world are hybrid MHD steam open cycle systeD}B, In Marc
(2) Large amount of power is generated.
:-t, 1985, an experimental 5 MW (Thermal input) plant was commissioned, at Ti.ruchirapally. It
(3) It has no moving parts, so more reliable. ,) . an open cycle MHD pilot plant uaing blue water gas as fuel. preheated 40% oxygen er.richE
(4) The closed cycle system produces power free of pollution. '.,; . air as oxidiser and Aq, Sol. l½C03 as seed material An iron core magnet of 2 teala linE
(5) It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started. 1 intensity gives the required magnetic field. A ceramic lined water cooled combustors is used '
(6) The size of the plant (m /kW)2 is considerably· smaller than conventional fossil f · } obtain desired plasma parameters. The main duct is lined with high temperature materi
plants. . capable of withstanding temperature in excess of 2500°C. Faraday type MHD generator
(7) Although the costs can not be predicted very accurately, yet it has been reported th ' used to extract the MHD power. The hot exhaust gases from MHD channel outlet are cooled
capital costs ofMHD plants will be competitive with those of conventional steam plan a heat recovery system which is made of spray cooling modules. The eeed is recovered throu(
(8) It has been estimated that the overall operational costs in an MHD plant would ,. wet recovery method and the spent combus'tion products
are exhausted out to the atmoephe·
through chimney. The experimental run for power generation OJ?, this.plant was carried o·
about 20% less than in conventional steam plants. -
successfully during August 1985. The experimental studies of individual component performan
(9) Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate the gas turbine (compa
a!e in progress. These will help in developing scientific data and design capabilities for lar1
with a gas turbine power plant) or both the boiler ,and the turbine (compared with
Size plants.
steam power plant). Thia elimination reduces losses of energy.
(10) These systems permit better fuel utilization. The r~duced fuel consumption would O ' The benefits occurring from a full fledged MHD programme are twofold. Apart from ti
· additional economic and special benefits and ~ould also lead to conservation of ener " cheap generation of electricity and conservation of known resources of fossil fuel. the programll
resources. ~ndertake~ d-evelopment efforts in advanced fields of technology. These have far reachii
and metallurgical fields. Theee bene£
(11) It is possible to utilize MHD for peak power generations and emergency service (up ' -~fluence m nuclear, aerospace, defence, chemicaJ
100 hours per year). It has been estimated the MHD equipment for such duties· mclude the development and improvem· e nt in properties of'variou.s refractory materials, meb
simpler, has the capability of generating in large units and has the ability to ma . . and alloys; a better understanding of super conducting technology, construction and fabricati
'_ • of efficient high temperature, high pressure heat exchangers and reactors.
rapid start to full load.
m
 I UNIT-V ~ -good Apecd regu!Ating governor should be quite sensitive to the ch"~
··'should be rop1·d ·

.,m . ' ,
· · 1-1
m action.
. . I I
·
r: owever, 1t must not c1oee the pipe 80 quickly
.· or in tbe pcmit,ock. Th e governor systems "1or modem hydraulic turbines
f d I .
ha
. h
....gee •~
m e oft speed
· ae ..., cause water
~ .,~ .
ve a re"'u..ating
•c·?f :J-5 seconds. rhe prmc1pa e ements o a spee rcgu sting system for hydraulic turbines
POW.ER STATION AUXILIARIES
-jll. Speei responRivc elem~nt - generally fly ball_ mechanism .
,z. Relay valve to supply 011 pressure to either s1de of servo-motor piston.
•;i a. Sel?I0·1110tor along with oil ~essure opcrate_d piston to ~~ve turbine oontrol m ~
Q.l. Write a short note on Hydro-plant Auxiliaries. ;., 4, Resto~ng mechnmsm to hold s e ~ r m ~xed pofil!Jon when mputanil output are
. Ans, Hydr~-plant Auxiliaries: Au.'<il~aries for hydro plant include governor oil system. · equalised. .
Jubricatmg 01~ pumps, coolr.mt_pumps, dramage pumps, fans, cooling oil pumps, air compressors, { 5, Oil Pressure supply required for the action of servo-motor.
beo.d gate dram valve a~d p1pmg, cr~nes, b~tteries, battery charging unit, vacuum and pressure ~1/:D,e scribe .the speed regulating system of a Pelton t~rbine.
gauges, relay ~nd associated pr~tective equipment. exciter, synchronising equipment etc. Every · s.' Speed regulation of Pelt:on.Turbine: The sp~d reg_ulation of a Pelton turbine ~s obtained
hydro system 1s connected to high voltage trans~ssion system through a step up sub-station ' and fro motion of a spear ms1de _the nozzle. This motion changes the cross-seational area.
which contains the usual equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, lightning arresters, •~-_,8 egulating the flow of water according to the load To avoid water hammer, a double speed
isolators, relays, current transformers, potential transformers etc. _~- :ting system using a spear and a deflector ie ·istly used. Figure 1. shows a double
Almost all station auxiliaries are electri.cally driven. The auxiliary power supply may be gi.µating system for a Pelton turbine.
obtained from a neighboripg sub-station or from a separ,a te generator driven by a turbine. The
lat.er system involves extra expense but is more reliab)e. This sep'!u;itR. unit is.selfstarting. Centrifugal
, governor
Q.2. Write a short note on automatic & remote control ofHydro~plant s. , , Dash pot
Ans. Automatic And Remote Control of Hydro-plants: Every hydro plant needs a speed Sleeve ::::tt:~-===;Tf---=-a::;=;---==----==-.,_...A
to
· gov1:ming system for load frequency control and voltage regulator for reactive power control. In
'-4addition, many protecti_ve devices like bearing temperature relays, generator winding .
Turbine
.~mperature rebys, generator short circuit protection Telays, rev~rse power relays, negative ·, shaft
,phase sequence relays, overload relays etc. are also needed. For efficient arid fast operation of
protective .d evices, it is necessary that they operate automatically to detect the abnormal ·
i conditions which call for their operatiorj. and shut down the unit as and when necessary.
, It is always preferable to con_trol the different uni~ in a ·power plant from a centrally situa~d
Gear pump
control room rather than from different floors where the equipment are installed. All the '
operations including· s~ing, synchronising, loading and shut ddw_n of units are performed
from the control room. · Oii sump
Modei:n hydro plants are always run as a part of an integrated P?Wer system consisting of motor

many ·power plants, interconnected throuirh high voltage transmission. network. The whole- Branch
system is remote controlled from an area control centre·. The control engineer (in the case of t 'i.- pipe
manual load dispatching station) or an on line computer (in the case of automatic load dispatching :" · Fig. 1. Speed regulating system of a Pellon turbine
station) determines the generation requirements fur different plants and transmits the. ~: When the loac! n ;·1 t!.c turhine decreases, the speed increases and the balls fly outward, thus
information to the plants for taking corrective action. The communication between the control . moving the ball crank level to~ards bottom. This motion of lever brings the deflector in f~nt of
,-_,.....e and power plants is generally through carrier current signals . .
.,,,_
;:~'nozzle and thus, a part or whole of water jet is directed to ~e ~race. The outward moti?n of
at is the function,ofgov ernor in speed regulation? .~ balls also raises in the piston in the relay valve, thus allow mg oil to flow to the left of the piston
ovcrnor and Speed Regulation: The function of the govern~r ~ to ~eep the speed. .'' in the servo-motor. The servo-.moior piston moves to the right and the spear moves forward to
~ n· nt when the load on the turbine increases or decreases. To m3:1ntam _the frequency ?f '"reduce.the nozzle outlet, thus reducing the rate of flow of water. ·
ectric supply constant, the speed of alternator, driven.of the hydraulic turbme, :must remam -~ With the motion·of piston, the cam also moves towards_right and causes the deflector to go
conotant. As the load changes, _the governor changes the rate of.flow of water to _brmg the speed ,\]back to original positi<in. When the load increases, the turbme speed decreases and the balls fly
back to normal speed and m a in ta ins a balance between the. power o~tput and mpu!. :i ~nwal'd. This Jowers the piston in the relay valve, thus .allowing oil to flow to the right of the
 n the servo motor. The servo-motor piston moves to tho left and the sponr withdraws :~ ~-e:ltlrection during t.imee of need is accomplished by reversing the process. Cold primary
pi&IOn ~e the nozzle outlet, thus increasing the rate of flow of waler. .
,, ; from fhe power plant is heated by the storage medium drawn from the lop of the tank to
~ L .
'i>wer system, and then returned to ~he botto~ of the tank..~ thermal gradient of hot at
, EJtp\ain the speed regulation of Reaction Turbines. '•~ ld t ·bottom maintains stratification, allowmg the hot 0u1d to remain afloat on the toll ,
6
Q. Speed regulation of Reaction Turbines: The governor, relay valve, eervo-motor nn ,i o. the tank thermal stability. In addition, a J!Olid storage medium of low thermal

[
i'
h s. action for control of a reaction turbine is exactly similar as in the caee of Pelton wheel. Th
An
t ~ regulating system 1s
double .
used'm th.1s case a\so . . .
~iv~e-t and high volumetric heat capacity, such ae rock. i1I used to help impede mixing of
uctiVl y di . . . .
1 ·d cold fluids. A solid storage me um 18 a necessity m case
th . l .
e pnmary coo ant 1s a gas
The guide vanes·of reaction turbines are capable of rotation about a hinge at the centre. Th S'88 air or helium) because of the lowfh,heeat <:3Palcitynkof gases. A_poro~ aolihid_mah kes a good 1
w t and fro motion of the servo-motor piston closes or opens the passage between the edjacen ..,, . . d' m for gases. A variation o t amg e ta syatem 18 one m w c a- separate
l ,~anes thus regulating the flow of water according t.o the load. ~e ff~ dlU0 thcr than the primary coolant, may be used. This would be a liquid oflow thermal
L In a Francis turbiuem a relief valve, known as pressure regulat.or, is provided in the penst.oc
When load decreases, the relief valve opens, diverting the water directly to the tailrace an
J _e ·. ~ty• d high volumetric heat capacity, usually an oil, 1t may be used alone ae a single
'UctiVl an h ck · dual d'
'"t m or be assisted by a solid st.orage medium, sue da.s. ro dm_a . . me 1Hum system ld abs
thus avoiding water ha~mer in the penstock. The function ofrelief valve in a Francis turbine i . ;,. e to ·reduce the volume of costly storage liquid an 1m~e e its mlXl.Ilg. eat wou e
1: similar to that of deflect.or i.n Pelton turbine.
I

·e: ~ and extracted from the primary coolant vi.a mte,rmediate heat exchangers.
~i'•
/ Connected to '--.... .;r Steam from Steam Turbine
~:. . t, relay valve ,t
,j:-: Central
~r'
i,t· Servo Molar
Waler quantity
regulating ring
recelv!!r

!f• Thermal
~
.t i~
)(
II• storage

t...:;~''
~15)~;
,ri1~· Pump

~
~w ,
l~·. Fig. 2. Guide vane control.ol a reaction turbine

I;'ft;
tl ·
Feed waler 10
~ \· l In a Kaplan turbine, the double regulation consists of motion of guide vanes and runne central receiver
,_ j 1• blade· adjustment. The motion of guide vanes controls the flow of water. An independent servo.

)!: \,
~
Fig. 3. Electric power generation using lherma_lstorage
'' h· motor adjusts the runner blade angle t.o achieve high efficiency operation even when the machine
'I
:.: , .
1·s operating at part load. · · ,/ The Solar one power plant uses a dual-medium thermocline storage system, shown in Fig.
The guide vane conti:o\ for the reaction turbine is. shown in Fig. 2. \J.~The liquid is oil. The solid is composed of 2.5 cm diameter gravel plus sand. The oil is uniformly
tt·# - ! llistributed over the rock'bed and extracted uniformly from it by diffuser manifolds. The tank ie
I}.
1
f Q.6. Explain the el_e ctric J>OWer generation using.thermal storage. . iffirge, being about ·15 m high.and more than that in diameter. . .

l1 i.·,:
t\
·;

~IL~i\ I .
'I :
Ans. Energy storage is required in sol.or-thermal electric power plants (and solar process heat,
application) because of normally variable solar insolation, non-solar periods, and abrupt ineolation
, changes in inclement weather. Conventional (fossil: fired) backup system may, of course be
used during such periods, as in hybrid systems but thermal storage is another option that m11St
\~\o\\ I . I be used in pure solar systems. There are two types of-thermal st.orage that are considered-with
~~1f solar systems. These aie:
a
The dual tank, or hot-cold, system uses two tanks. The fluid, liquid is , unlike the stratifieci
·ingle tank or thermocline system, at one temperature, hot in one tank, cold in the other. Th£
·.mount of sensible energy stored.varies ·by varying·the level of the fluids in a well instilatec
~!inks Fig. 4. Thus during storage, cold is drawn from the cold tank. heated and·added to' the ho1
tank. During extraction the operation i.s reversed, This dual-tank technology is borrowed frorr
refinery work. It is suitable only. for liquid coolants such as sodium and molten salt need ht
;~~}: · (a) Single-tank, or thermocline and ·' nde of high nll,oy material such as austenitic stainless steel.
n1·~·:•~[}'• 1 ' (b) Dual tank, or hot cold systems. ;,: Thermal energy st.orage densities vary widely among the different storage media. Som1
; ··i',. - 1 < The single-tank or thermocline is the storage system. The complete schematic of power ,. pical values for·the temperature range 5°C are given below: ' · .
._
1 '\\j ,. : < plant storage system is shown.in Fig. 3. ln which storage takes place by circulating some of the
t ,
1
\il: ,\1\ t' .. ~ hot primary coolant through the storage medium and returning the cooled 1>rimary coolant
·,
II , ,, l,F,.1 , from the bottom of the storage tank back to the receiver.for reheating.
II' :' ,
 Medium

Sodiitm
Energy Storage density
(MWhlm 3)
0.08
(115) - UNrT-V -

· i, D.C. excitation system

·1-2. A.G. excitation system
[UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE
I
Rock (25% void fraction)
Molten salt
0.15 fa/ Static excitation system . ,
0.22 (·~ch of the above three categories can be further classified into a number of sub-categories
bdi.ng on the components and the circuit employed. Wit hout going into minute detaila and
PIiot plant thermal
storage unit
¢'variations, we discuss the main.features of the above three categories in the following
..
-fons.
HotmanHold

Insulation

Gravel + sand +
heat lransler oU
l tfE~citation System
Jhie d.c excitation eyRtem consists of d .c. generators. for supplying field current to t he
~clironous m~chine. The system has two exciters the m a ~ d the pilot exciter. The
· exciterie a ifeparately excited d.c. generator anJ provides the field current to t?m a:Jtetnator.
fpilotexclter isVeiierally a compound would self excite d.c. genera for and supplies tlielie1d
.ent to the mainexciter. FlgUI'e 5, shows a d.c. excitati~ system-. - -
. The main and pilot exciter can be either driven by the main shaft (directly or through
' ,· g) or separately driven by a motor. Exciters driven from the main shaft preserve the unit
'1em of operation and the excitation is not affected by external disturbances. In view of this
•~ct driven exciters are preferred.
Ag. 4. Thermocline storage system· ij:'Since the.hydrogenerat.ors run at low speeds, the running speed rarely coincides with the
The solar one pilot plant has an oil-rock st.orage medium that operates at the 'much lower 'ost economic speed for the particular rating of the exciter. In view of this a large frame size
temperature range of 220 to 300°C and has an energy st.orag:e density of 0.05 MWhJm3. 1
~ -to be used for the exciter. The large frame sue, though costs slightly more. simplifies tJ}e
, !-' ·ter ventilatiol). and affords adequate access for brush gear and commutat.or maintenance
I

•-~ Q.7. What is .t he. meaning or an "excitation system" (UTU: 2011-12) tldadjustment.
_,,
, Ans. The excitatio~ system pro,..des the necessary field cur.rent t.o the rot.or winding of the
. syn~nous machine. The amount of excitation depiiids on the power factor, speed of the' ..
~:-
'?,
-
Reid
Generator
.
.
~
ma~e and l~ad c~nt. For larger currents, lower speeds and lagging power fact.ors, the,
erotation reqwrement IS more.
. -An ex~tati~n system may be a centralised excitation system ol' individual ~xcitation sys~m.
In centralised system two or more exciters feed a bus bar t.o which the field systems of all
'
-"
·')°.
,.. ,:~..
"'"0 E~Cm~
~:t~~j~===
m
alternat.ora of the plant are connected.- In individual excitation system each alternator has its
separate exciter. A centralised system is a cheap~ arrangement. However a fault in a centralised· ~----'---- --, --~--'---
'--/Reid
I
--'
-PIiot
Pllo1 Main
excitation system affects all alternat.ors. As such all modern alternators have individual exciters. , Exciter discharge Exciter
exctter
The main requirement of-an excitation system is reliability under all conditions of service, - field resistor
simplicity of control, ease of maintenance, stability and high transient response. Fig. 5. D.C. excitation system
The initial coat of excitation equipment should only be a .secondary coiiaideration in the ·
~; _ ~:xciters for small si:r.ed turbo-alternato rs are .usually directly coupled to the shaft. For
selection of the sys~m. An outage in the excitation system means the same loes as the outage of
, im.edium and large size tutbo-alternat.o1:'a, the exciters are coupled t.o the main shaft through
the generator unit. In view of this ail excitation system with better reliability is preferable. -i gears and are usually driven at 1000 rpm.
even if the initial cost is more becaµse of the fact that·the cost of excitation system is very small
as compared to the cost of the alternat.or. Simplicity of control and ease of maintenance are ( '. The voltage rating of the main exciter, for both hydrogenerator s and turbo-alternato rs is
/ around~- The exciter capacity is around ~ alternator capacity. '
always preferable for any equipment and excitation system is no exception. The term stability
refers t.o the relative ·insensitivity of the exciter voltage to speed and field winding temperature1
~ . A ~udden ope.n~g of the excitation circuit may_ caµse T high vof ta~ to be induced in the
changes for a given setting. The operation ofmodem_interconnected systems calls foilow time ;' ~du~tive field winding due to sudden release of energy stored in it. As such ·the excitation
constants and high transient respons_e of the excitation systems. , Clrewt must not be opened suddenly. As the field breaker opens, it connects 8 · field discharge
Q.8. Give the classification o'r excitation system. (UTU 2011-12) ~;_ res1stor _acroa~ the .field_winding and the energy is dissipated in this resistor.
Ans. Classification: The excitation systems can be broadly classified into following types: ,':- euc Troubles m the .exciters of turbo-alternat.or s are quite frequent due. to the high speed. As
1\ h the ste am stations are generally equipped with separate motor driven standby exciters.
,,.'t,
·,
 (86.) - UNIT-V - [UTU) - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE {87] - UNIT-V - [UTU) - B.TECH. - · POWER STATION PRACTICE

In some cases the d.c ..excitation system is ~quipped with amplidyne control. The amplidync ,: ing the residual excii:er flux _. For convenie nce and to shortP-o the bui1d up time, flashing from
is a high response cro~s-field ~ .c. g~nerator energised from automatic voltage regulator. An "'tian battery supply 1s also mcorporated .
;lllP~as 8 very high amplification :actor and needs very small control power. In an ordinary The main alternator field rectifier generally consists of four paralle l t h yristors each having'
~nerator about 2_p~l" cent chan_g e in field energy is required to produce a 100% change _in e fo its crrcwt so that if t.h e thyristor fails, the fuse opens thereby allowing the system to
output energy. thu_s gi~g an amplification of around 60, A cross-field machine, on the other ):lt ~ue operation. The }hyristor assembly is so rated that wit_h loss of one thyristor u q.it, the
hand, bas an amplification factor of 10 6 or even more. The main application of amplidync ie in' k nator field requirement.8 are tnet with sufficient margm . The excrter r otor nrmcirles
the excitation system of turbo-generators. tfcbment and' suppoii fonhe,,Jotatmgthyris Wf f.J qsem bly w h:tcri overhangs the rotor diameter.
1

The main ~aw?acks ~f d.c. e":citation systems are; large time constant (about 3 seconds) t'~ e r supply and re~'ilier control, includ_ed a8 a pazt of I.he rotating portion, pr~uce
and comm~tation .difficulties. 1:°
view of this, d.c. excitation systems have been superseded by_ ·! ·necessary-pliase controlled tnggenng signals m response to a d .c. control level supplied by
a.c excitation systems and static systems. · '\. _I 2·,· voltage regulator.

A,C. Excitation System _-~--Generator field current measurement is obtained from current transformers located on the
An a.c. excitation syst;em consists of an a.c. generator and thyristor rectifier bridge directly .:; side of alternator field rectifier.
connected to t~e alternator s~af:t. This approach eliminates the commutator, the main alternator: > The system is equipped with automatic voltage regulator. The generator voltage signal
field collector rings and some other connections. The main exciter can either be self excited or b~t.he potential transformer) is averaged anacoijiparea'directly with the operators volt.age
separately excited .. A rotating "thyristor excitator system use!! a self excited main exciter. The' itjuatment (voltage reference) in · t6:e automatic mode of operation. In the manual mode of
•brushless excitation system is a typical example of a.c. excitation system using a separately' ieraTlon the generator field current is compared with a separate manual voltage adj ustment
· d main exciter , _ ~ , · : ference) and appliea to the rotating thyristor bridge through separate regulating element-3.
1) Rotating thyristor excitation system: Figure 6, shows a block diagram of a rotatin f,i; The exciter a.c. voltage .is averaged, compared against the .exciter voltage r eference and
st.or excitation system. The portion enclosed by dashed lines is the rotating p~rtion of th ·. a
-!' lied to rectifier contrQl and rectifier in suitable -manner to maintain the exciter term.inal
system. ~tage at the desired level. ·
\ Additional features (not sho.wn in the block diagram) include over voltage protection. over
Station
---------- ---------------,
I I
,:· ent protection in the exciter field controL lead-lag compensation to stabilize .voltage control
~t\ery Generator . ;~tt and var signals for voltage rl?gulation and field ~harge resistor. .
h-----f-4~-.I Aeld
Rectifier X (2) Brushle~s Excitation System: Figure 7 shows a simplified diagram of a brushless
I _:p tation system. The portion enclosed by dashe_d lines is •the rotating portion of the system .
I
Power Rectifier. 1
q.) Main axciter
f~::;-GeneraJ
I
supply control :
~
I

. ·---
I

_-3AuL L _ ~~stor __. :_s____ -- _J

~kJ

P•~
Power Summng ) . ..!'~~g~-. .
supply ao--.,lifler I-+---' I
I

a::-- L~ Regulator
Re,ator
on-off ~'J .
Exciter voltage Operators Fig. 7. Brushless exclt.Jltion system
Referenoo Voltage Adjustment Th · · · · ·
_:• e excitation system consists of an alternator rectifier, main exciter and a permanent
_ Fig. 6: Rotating_thyristor excitation system _ .. ~:gne~ generator CPM?) pil<:'t_exciter. Both the main and.pilot exctte.r- a.re driven directly from
•·
Th e system consists o f a· .c. exc1·t.er
having ·a rotating
- armature and stationary
ifi · · winding.
· field d fi d i'~ -mam shaft. The ~~m exc1t:er has a stationary field and a rotating armature which is directly
· f h · · tifi d by a full wave thyristor bridge rect er Cll'cwt an e to' _. nnected,
thr oug~ s~con rectifiers, to the main alternator field. Thus the com.mutator, collectors
Th e output o t e exciter LS rec 1e . • · ii d "fro 0
the field windin of the main alternator. Tbe field winding of the ~xcit.er 18 also e ~ the ,. d brushes ar_e e ~ t e d. The main exciter's field is fed from a shaft driven permanent magnet
accomplished ~nerator havmg routing permanent magnets attaclled to the shaft and a stationary 3 phase
·
exc1te1· output t hrgough_ ano ther rectifier circuit· Exciter voltage build up can be
)· : ature. The a .c. output of permanent magnet ~rierator is- rectified by 3 phase full wave·
 POWER STATION Pt'4A.c71Ce ....,
(88) - UNIT•V - fUTU) - 8 .TECH . -

phase controlled thyrie tor bridge s. The thyris tor oesem

POWER STATION PRACTICE

bly ie usually houead in removable drnwe r

- (89) - UNIT•V - (IJTUJ - 8 .TECH . -

irt step down l.l'aneformer, ~ceBR ive curren t in crowb er

by the excita tion circuit.
i:JfT:J.Jt:t o.d -
" ex~!li;J lVe 3 .c. C!Jrnnt Mir.it
I
drown
is provided to incrcn eo roliobility. Th
which con be taken out easily for repair . Rcdw1dancy ,
1
e ~ time (ob< • 20 ill
The thyris lor bridge s are controlled b -1; 'fh e static excita tlon system hae a very 11mnll r ~ ~~ } and .,
• t.hyris tors are forced cooled wit.b maiu and reeerv o fone . . ·: providee excell ent dynam i.c performance . Howev er the cil'Cliit rJ 18 rnu-~: 'IUI r
p -.;cca,r u~.z e•I
- -
a set of du;a.l finn.g circui ts opera ting in parall el. tor gating circuit s. Tiu .
~ maint enance 111 nee e
d tl.
~nput settin g to the thyris
The base excita tion is contro lled by an tic excita tion ~Mem t"!i:.auae• lru!j
et goocr otor via o regula ted d.c. B~ppl i., Silicon controJIP.d rectifi ers are ~deaUy suite~ for a sta
contro l signal is derive d from the perma nent magn ; have high speed of respon se, have h1gh power pm, and can be erunly po.rallel.ed..
tor contro ls excita tion.by supply mg
wluch also ·serrves the regula tor logic circui try. The regula tion circui ts can be !N.IIlm 9.Tl7P-d as under : :
the base settin g. The regula tor eleme nt '; . The advan tagee of static excita
buck-boost contro l signal which adds algebr aically to benrin g a nd windin g mainte nance
·· 1. Elimi nation ofexc iter winda g~ 10&s and comm utator
also compr ise of solid state circui ts. in reduc ed opera tmg costs.
utator , c~ilector and brushe~. I All these factor s result
The brush less excita tion system elimin ates the use of comm nafa. The ei:cit:ervoltage 18, therefo re
of lees than 0.1 second. The short tim 2. The excita tion energ y is taken from machi ne tef'11.i
has a short time time consta nt and a respon se time band for shaft excitet'9 the excite i
signal dynam ic perfor inaoce and facilit ates th propo rtiona l to the first powe r of speed . On the other
consta nt afford s advan tage in impro ved small in static excita tion the voltagi
signals. voltag e is propo rtiona f to squar e of speed. The fact that
· applic ation of suppl ement ary power system stabili zing in load rejection.
· is propo rtiona l to speed , affOTda a major advan tage
speed .
Static Excit ation Syste m I 3. Static excita tion system respo nds with electr onic
tion power from the main altern ator termin als throug
A static excitation sysr.em draws excita ator? Also expl.a in the quali tiH o
silicon contro lled rectifi . A stati
ers' .~Q.9. What are the dutie s of autom atic volta ge regul
a step down transf ormer and a rectifi er system using
r.a utom atic volta ge regul ator.
excitation syst.em using SCR is shown in Fig. 8. altern ator in mode m power plants i
'Ans. Dutie s of Auto matic Volta ge Regu lator . Every .
functi ons are: ··
11 kV
-:!equip ped with an autom atic volt~ regulator whose
1. Contr ol of~st em voltag e betwe en prescr ibed limits .
'·
erat ing in paral lel
2. Prope r divisio n o~ct ive power b e t ~the ~op
3. rncrea se or'exc itation under syste ~faul t condi tions
so that maiim wiisi 'llchr o:n~
of syncliiiJ'rusm.
power exisfs wnen thela ult 1s clearect,:to preve nt loss
occur rence o7·~ loss of. load o~ th
. 4.. Preve ntion of dange rous ove~ tage s on the
-
system .
Voltage nce even more thnn I pu. The amoun t
regulator The presen t day altern ators have high inher ent reacta
condi tions are very differ ent. In view {
•,ofexci tation for differ ent load CWTent and powe r factor

' i&-I__ _._

Field :-'I&

r -...
___,.-4-__,,..__s_hu_n_t- ~

.
~
L 1 -}
Fleld flashing
contactor
·•· this the autom atic voltag e regula tors for prese nt
l ~arac terist ics. .
,;,Qua lities of Auto matic Volta ge Regu lators
day altern ators requi re string ent desig

Crowbar ' ' - + 125 V battery ~

atic voltag e regula tors have followin
Fleld
dischar ge circuit for field flashing To accom plishi ng the above task, the mode rn autom
resistan ce . ~ .qualit ies:
1. ,High gain: To keep . the opera tional voltag e
variat ions within presc ribed limits ,
Fig. 8. Static excitation system using silicon-controlled rectifiers l
bus witho ut break ers or fuse. Thi '· suffic iently high value of gain is neede d.
The rectifi er transf ormer 1.e connected to main aitern ator the regula tor shoul d be such th;
mmer sedm oil with forced air cooling. The star connecte 2. Good open circu it respo nse: The behav iour of
transf or~er is 3 phase indoo r type-i ed and not prone to oscilla tior
cted secondary feeds the rectifier system under open circui t condi tions t.he respo nse is well damp
prima ry is conne cted to altern ator bus. The delta conne ng insula tion.
lE_1r ~l!!Ji!.~th~ a~ar y eql!lpmen which may place high voltag e on the stater windi
The delta connected tertiar y supp!Tos-p-ower fr1_gnd.confro ility even at relative
e suffici ent_~urren t carryi nJ capaci ty. ,Each le 8. Good stead y state stabil ity: Too high a gain can leai to instab
The rectifi.er!t11l'e-cOIIfiectedTnparall el ·to provid
faultin dicati ng )Jg~!· The re~-t~~r: e t.he opera tion of altern ator ;
ofrect:ifier--is protec ted with series fuses, surlJIC protecti_?n ang
. low load angles . A good voltag e regul ator.s hould enabl
are forcetl air cooled. _, -- high load angle s.
vic!~ Jal a.lterna !_,Or fiel 4: ~inim um dead b~nd: Dead band is the voltag e range over which no regula tor respo a:
----, ..liesfartup i~ a;com plishe d ·u sing the statio n batter y· to pi:_oat0L aga11ist the effect oI a
wbar circui t i.s to rotect the rectifiers nd altfil:Il as little dea·d band as possib le.
curren t. The ar · 18 _expected. A good voltag e regula tor shoul d have
excess i~; ~egaf ave VO tage wnTch c;a1C occTi rif altern ator oses ~ync!ii'.omsm : Prot_ecti?ns 5. High speed of respo nse: The respo nse time is the time requir ed for the regula tor
crrcu1 t m rect!fi er crrcu1 t, fau]
provided t.o shut down the altern ator unit in the event of.a short tor shoul d have high sensit ivi
take actio~ following a voltag e chang e. A good regula ·
and very high speed of respo nse.
 (91) - UNrT•V - (UTUJ - B.TECH. - POWER STATJOl4 PRACTICE
(90) - UNIT-V - [UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STATION PRACTICE

j '- Jtcrnntor voltage inc.reosejl tho motor C8U81l8 a okickwillo mrJtioo of sectors. The Tl!ll'll.ltinu"
Q.10. Exp loin tho principle o f operation of nutomntio voltngo regulator (AVR). · tJ,C II . . • d •h ' fi Id
(UTU: 2011-12) 1 crease in the field e1rcu1t rcaliltance re ure11, c exciter 1.c current which finally results m
~Oduction in alternator voltage. A revcmc action takee place :"hen alt.erruitor volt.age drape.
Ans. Principle of Operation: The aut.omotic voltage reguloto~s work on the principle of error P- ingis providod by the eddy currents. Current compoun.d mg can aJ110 be introduced.
dct.cction. The alternator lhrea phase voltage obtained through a ~~ntiaJ tran11for,norie d ed ::.'°riie response of th.is ~cgula~r is quite sl_ow. This regula~or iB still being u.eed on old. 8 mal1
fil tered and compared with a r eference. The difference between the octunl and reference voltage · d medium sized machines. Jt 1s not used m modern machines. . .
n .
is the voltage error. The volt.age error is amplified through an a ~ (rotary, m11gne~ic or
stnt.ic) a nd fed to the field circu1t of main exciter or pilot" exciter. Thus the amplilled signal . ,2. Describe the rotatlng amplifier replator.
controls the excitation of the main exciter or pilot exciter through a buck or boost action. A r~ R tating Amplifier Re~lator: Figure 10, showe a simplified diagram giving the main
control of exciter output leads to the control of the main alternator voltage. , :- ; of a servo type regulator using amplidyne. The system (X)ll&.8t.8 of a direct driven coruilant
The actual performance of a regulator is largely dependent on the compounding that ia ]: e main exciter and a motor driven auxiliary exciter whose field ia controlled by amplidyoo .
introduced from the loud circuit. It ia done by circulating the load current (uaing a current \h ~~e auxiliary exciter and amplidyne are driven by a d.c. motor fed from main exciter.
transformer) through a resistor, The voltage across the resistor ia added to or subtracted from i The main exciter is designed with a magnetic circuit euch that cba_nge offlu.x_with 1Jpe~d ia
the· error signal. ln modern regulators, watt and var compensation is used in place of ~rrent · -,/ all and its output_voltage is_roug~y co~t._The e-r:znatures of ma~ a_nd auxiliary exciters
/. • nnected in acnes end th1e series combmatlon exotee the field wmding of the alternat.or .
compensation . e co . .
l~rnator by a b uck-boost_act1on.
It has been found that a system which has only above features has a dynamic respon:s~ that "· us the auxiliary exciter controls the eitc:itation current of a
is prone to excessive overshoot and stability problems. Thie can be corrected by th~ addibon of '\. The potential transformer provides a s ~ proportional to alte~tor voltage. ~s signal
a stabilizing transformer whose input is the exciter output voltage ~nd whose output 18 eubtra~d • compared with a reference and the error 18 amplifie~ by ~ sem1-condu~r amplifier. !he
from the error signa l before the error signal is fed to the ampfi?er. In fact some regulatmg -' ent tra nsformer provides the load current compounding mgnal. The a.mplilier outpu t feeds
syat.ems are provided with two stabilizing loops one fed from amplifier output and the other fed ~ amplidyne' control field. The a.mplidyne outp·ut alters the aiwliary exciter field.
) .
from exciter output and both feeding the amplifier input. ~ Ham coo1rol field.
r--Ae/efsnce
Q.11. Write a short note of Electro-mechanical regulator._ _ . n-or '>1:lltage
D.C. Molor
'Ans. Electro-mechanical Regulator: A rolling sector rheostatlc regulator 18_a typ1~ examp_le · element
.of electro-mechanical regulators. The measuring device of a rolling sec\or rheoela:bc regulator, , and
(Fig: 9) is 11 Ferraris motor fed from potential transformer connected acros~ m~m alterna_tor ·
terminals. The motor field is produced by either a split phase or a two phase wmdrng depending
;_ on arrangement of potential transformer.

-:,
f, Fig. 10. Servo type regulator using amplidyne
Excl!sr /: Any change in alternator voltage creates an error signal which ia amplified and fed to thE
Field ,1.-'emplidyne control field. The emplidyne further amplifies this signal and feeds it to the field o!
Winding
l::,auxiliary·exciter. This causes a change in the output voltage of auxiliary exciter. A change ir
~; ewc:ifuuy exciter output causes o change in the a lternator field current. ·
Fig. 9. A rolling sector rheostatlc regulator f · The several time legs in the circuit nceesitate ·negative feed back for stabilization of th1
The motor exerts 8 rotating torque on drum M. A eprin~ provides the restraining torque. '·· system reepoDBe. The feedback signals ore taken from the outputs of em·plidyne and the auxiliarJ
The drum controls the movement of pivots P 1, and P2• Two rolling sectors Si, end S 2 are arranged exciter and fed to the semi-conductor amplifier. · ·
· pivots P1• and P..• cause each of. them to
•·· of thou roll over a bank· of
so thal the movemen... . d ·
... ~ Tl contact.a ere connected to resietonce elements which are, lll turn, connecte m 'i. Q.12. Explain tho block diagram _o f e:xcit~tion system.
con·t.a"""·'th th
IC • (
• ·ter field circuit. A clockwise mot10n o ro mg Id
.
11· sectors increases . tance
the reelB /" Ans. Block Diagram of Excitation System (IEEE Type 1): Figure 11, shows the blocl
senes w1 e excr · · · · Wh
in the field circuit and an anticlockwise motion reduces Lhe fie cucwt rce1stance. enever ~- diagram of automatic excitation control of synchronous generator. Thll automatic excitatio1
 UNIT-V - [UTUJ _ B TECH · - satur a tion is T" db .
[92} - POWER STATION PRACTICE due to satur ation of,ma gnetic circuit. The effect of
.
. ·
ance a nd Af1 repre sents the - increm ; resebn
:tal te ~ 8
8lgnal
. rl M (Rf is excite r field resist
Itage V ,. c angei nexc1te r
ry to keep react ive powe r balan ce in th e syete . If I'. '
1 '/ · f h
control is ne. cessa m. reacti ve power drawn 1rom I'.
field curre nt) ,rom t e vo 0
· l ·
e tends to decre ase . The autom atic voltage he _verbose a stabilising loop coll8isting
altegulrnator termm t~ s 1~ more.' the te~m inal voltag o. Stab ilisin g trans ~orm er_: Todidmpdr:'vehthe_rcs~ons
re ato~ salensels e be ange m termi nal voltag e and adjus ts the altern ator excitation so that of stabil ising trans 1orm er is a e mt e c1rCU1t.
1 1s tra nsfor mer feeds back a fraction
the termm vo tage ecom es equal to the rated value . transfer . fun~t ion of the stabilising
of deriv ative (henc e_s m the nume rator of t~e
atic excitation control system s into 4 The, cucu it model of st-abiliaing
IEEf work.in~gro_u p ~n excite s has categ orised autom
stand ar types . e circu it show n in Fig. 11, is called lEEE type r. · trans form er) of exc1~er ~utpu t to the
trans forme r is show n m Fig. 12.
ampl ifie r.

gh a poten tial transf orme r is rectified

The altern ator outpu t v~lta ge VT as obtai ned throu 11 A1 M

·~ E,
as a negat ive :', ed back. It is compared with a
and .filtered. The outpu t of mput fil.ter acts
a power. ampli fier. The powe r amplifier may 1

reference v_oltage VI and t~e erro~ signa l is fed to

ampli fier. The outpu t of ampli fier is fed to
be an ~p~d yne, ~ magn etic ampl ifier or a trans istor
curre nt by a buck or boost action. A control
field cll'Cwt of excite r Rnd contr ols the excite r field
tion curre nt of altern ator.· Fig. 12. Stabilising transformer
of exciter field curre nt mean s a contr ol of excita

Voltage
Limiter
i; = 11 ( R1 + Li 1)
Regulator
input filter Vjs) = I 1(s)[R1 +sLiJ
K, or,.
_1_ ~ -~
1 + sT, 1 + sT8 1 + sT9 1ttT, _ sMVr (s)
Exciter Alternator V,/s) - sMl1 (s) = R +sLi
Power field 1
amplifi er
M
. sRVr (s) k
or, . V,:,(s) = I = s st ur(s)
SlablHslng · l + s7'., 1 + s7'_ 1
Transformer M
K 51 = Ri = gain of stabil ising trans form er
control for alternators
Fig. 11 .- Block diagra m of automatic excitation
r.
· Components show n in Fig. 11, are as under: .· T51 =· Li. =tim.e const ant of stabil ising trans forme
lt voltage VT obtain ed throu gh a poten tial R1
1. Regu lator inpu t filter : The altern ator outp'\
filtered. The regul ator input filter can :: For open circu it condi tion
throu gh a poten tial trans forme r is rectif ied and
cted. 6. The final black in Fig. 12, is the trans fer funct ion of altern ator.
is very .small and can be negle kr and time const ant T
be repre sente d by a time const ant Tr. Generally Tr instan taneo us. The· the altern ator respo nse can be repre sente d by gain r
assum ed to be Fig. 13, is given by
Thus the respo nse of regul ator-i nput filter can be nce V; and the error · The open loop trans fer funct ion of the block diagr am in
stand ard refere
outpu t of regul ator input filter is c_ompared with a
signal fed to powe r ampli fier. KG(s) H(s) = KaKf l(e
l is very small and is amplified by a . (1 + sT,) (1 + sT0 ) (1 + sT.,)(1 + sT1 )
2. Powe r ampl ifier: The magn itude of error signa
cteris ed _by a gain Ka and time .' I. '
power amplifier. The respo nse of power amplifier chara nse can be found and the stabil ity of the
constant Ta. If ampli fier is ampli dyne the time const
ant Ta may be about 0.2 seconds . t From the open loop respo nse the closed loop respo ·
(0.02 seconds or so). Its outpu t I system.can be studie d. ·
but if it is a trans istor ampli fier Ta would be very small
r, for the exci ter.
voltage is V'a· ii. The following voltag e rating s are gener ally speci fied
too high, a voltage limite r is added . of excit er volta ge which produ ces such a
Rate d ~ i , Gap Vol~ gc: This is the magn itude
; ,
3. Volta ge Limi ter: It ensur es that voltage Va is not
1
·'. ator ~tato r volta ge on the air gap line. Let
in the circuit. The voltage limite r acts euch that ~d curre nt m ~tern ator as to produ ce rated altern
voltag e rating s can be appre ciated.
Vmu volta. ge be wnt~ n as 100 V so that relati ve value s of other
Vmin s Va s _ t ed Lo~d Field Volta ge: This is the magn itude of excite r volta ge which produ ces such
nt in the circui t Va may be too high. Thie may cauee . a fi ~a
If the voltage lii:p,ite r is not prese r volta ge unde r full load condi tion ·
ator outpu t voltag e to be too high and may cause the altern ator to lose synchronism·. e I c~rre nt m ~tern a tor as to produ ce rated altern ator stato
altern Its re attve va1ue 1s 220 V.
ie repre sente d by a gain K, and time . ,
4. Excit er: For a de excite r the response of exciter r field curre nt :
' .
function of excite
· constant T,. The exciter outpu t volt_age is a non linear iJ.
t1·
._
 ,
.
•
l
.
[94] - UNIT•V - [UTU] - B.TECH. - POWER STAIIUN

}tated Volt~e : The highest voltage under which

t'HA1.., 11\.C

c -~g~r-
-~F=i_g_u-re-1~4~.~eh~o~w~e~t~b~e~b~lo=k~dia~ so~li~
am:__o:f-a- gu)a_________
on_l.c__
-d~e-ta_te_e_le_ctr_ l.

the exciter can operate and deliver full field current Colling Voltage ~ circUit responds to average 3 phase voltage output of the main:~t.e ~ The regulator sen!Jing
1{tom poten tial transform er is rectified, f.a.lte with. ma r. The 3_phase voltage
. r ed and compared
to alternato r field without overheat ing of exciter. Its , ted diod . a COO Blant reference deri d
. ve ·
from a tempera ture compens a zener I! at the summing point of 8 .
relative value is 280 V. . aJ . Ad'Juetment of regulatednvolta
. vo Itage error sign
' The output of amp] i'fi er 1a operationa
.
l amplifier ·
.
Ceiling Voltage: The highest de voltage which J d· hi h · ge 18 provided by a
circuit ;
the exciter can sustain for short time. Its relative value motor operated vo ta_g e a hJ';18hter w b'c sderves to vary the reference. The entire sensing I
J' is frequency insensitiv e w 1c is a 1g a vantage.
is 350V. '
, Current intelligen ce for reactive current compensa tion and minimum excitation limiter is I
Another term used in excite r s pecificat ion· is phase current transform er. This current signal is converted into a volta e
1 derived from a single
response ratio. It is the open circuit voltage response i. signal compatible with solid state circuitry. The compensation signal is vectorially added~
ohixciter to a step input of a magnitud e necessary to ·, voltage sensing signal. .
drive the response to ceiling voltage starting 'f rom rated Tlme, seconds • T,
,. · · The minimum excitation limiter draws· its input from potential and current transform er, it
load field voltage. Fig.13. ~prevents the regulator from decre~sin g regulatio n below the set character istic value so that the
In Fig. 13, . ·,.alternato r may not lose synchron1 Sm.
1'
\ The signal mixer amplifier module combines the outputs of various sensing and limiter
area= j(v1 -VFL)dt ~~odules and amplifies the resultant signal. The ~pl.ified signal controls the firing of the
thyristor
0 bridge which supplies excitation to the machine The signal mi,:er contains logic circuitE
; ectifier
effect of input signal
2(area) 1vhich allow signals to be mi.,:ed or limited dependin g on the desi,red
Response ratio = : upplemen tary controls can be added. The control of firing of the rectifier bridge provides the
T/(VFi) ~ 1ecessary control of the excitation . The firing circuit, base adjuster, thyristor brldge etc lll'E
A higher value of response ratio indicates that the exciter is in more response. If Ts=
0.1 _ fo1
· 'fovided with redundan cy to improve reliability . A feed-back signal feeds the stabilizer
. . . response.
seco1id it indicates a very fast response . .~: bilizing the
The transient response of excitatio n circuit response can also be described in terms of rise_
•~The power and control·el ements areusually housed in removabl e drawers which can bE
• n out of the regulator assembly cabinet for repair. Each logic function is contained on s
time and setting time.
1 . . i draw out printed circuit card module. Various modules can be plugged in to form an}
Q.13. Describe the Electron ic Re~ulato r. . · . . close inspection be tweer
used for desi~n and fabncatio n •, d regulatin g system. The compone nts of the 'logic circuits need
Ans. Electron ic Regulat or: Electroni c compone nts have been •', :tiol! of equipmen t.
valves for this pur_po~ adve11:t·
of automatic voltage regulator s. The early types used electronic
regulators . ;Explain the·Bu·s Bar.Arr ange~en ts.
; of semiconductors made the valve type regulator s obsolete. The present day electroruc
• invariably use integrate d circuits. Bus Bar Arrange ments: The switching equipme nt in a generatin g station can bt
_9ted in a variety of ways. The considera tions governin g the selection of a bus ba1
/
Voltage : )ement include simplicity , initial c~t of equipmen t. flexibility of operation , possibility o
build up ;; ··mexpansion and ease of maintena nce. .
element
K-:==~ ==~--=:::=i:::~
Excitation Power
::-1 power'
Excllation
P.T. r::f?> ·· Generator
Gate Base potential
clrcultr adjuster @ transformer
(Mannul regulator. .
Control!_ ~~~--- - ___ _
r------ ---·~-=-=-=':.':.-::_::,-,
Reference
Regulator Stabilizer & voltage
Off-On sensing

Signal Limiter
Isolator
H.V. Bus I 1
mixing sensing
1
am litler

Rectifier
current
Other
sensing
Regulating system
element Other
Inputs
Isolator
Circuit Breaker t
?.

t
limit Transmission Lines
•---------------------------------- Fig. 1S. Single bus bar scheme
Fi~- 14. Solid state electronic regulator