Chapter 11 – Prokaryotes › The process of endospore formation is called

sporulation
› Most numerous and diverse group of Reproduction of Prokaryotic Cells
cellular microbes › All prokaryotes reproduce asexually
› Thrive in every habitat: › Most common method of asexual
o from Antarctic glaciers to thermal hot reproduction is binary fission:
springs to the dry sands of deserts 1. The cell replicates by
o from the colons of animals to the semiconservative replication
cytoplasm of other prokaryotes 2. The cell grows, and as the cytoplasmic
o from distilled water to supersaturated membrane elongates, it moves the
brine daughter molecules of DNA apart
o from disinfectant solutions to basalt 3. The cell forms a cross wall
rocks thousands of meters below the 4. The cross wall completely divides the
Earth’s surface daughter cells
› Very few have enzymes, toxins, or cellular 5. The daughter cells may or may not
structures that enable them to colonize separate
humans or cause diseases › Methods of asexual reproduction:
 Binary fission
General Characteristics of Prokaryotic  Snapping division
Organisms  Variation of binary fission
 Occurs in some Gram-positive
Morphology of Prokaryotic Cells bacilli
› Three basic shapes:  Only the inner portion of a cell wall
 Coccus – spherical is deposited across the dividing cell
 Bacillus – rod-like  As the cell grows, the new cross
 Spiral – spiral-shaped wall thickens and puts tension on
o Spirilla – stiff spiral the outer layer of the old cell wall
o Spirochetes – flexible spiral  As the tension increases, the outer
› Other shapes: wall breaks
 Vibrios – curved rods  The daughter cells remain hanging
 Coccobacillus – intermediate between together, held at an angle by a small
cocci and bacilli remnant of the original outer wall
 Pleomorphic – vary in shape and size that acts like a hinge
 Reproductive spores
 Method of reproduction by
Actinomycetes
 Produces reproductive cells called
spores at the end of filamentous
cells
 The spore contains complete
genetic information and can
develop into a clone of the original
organism
 Fragmentation
Endospores  Fragmentation into small motile
› Produced by the Gram-positive bacteria filaments with a full complement of
Bacillus and Clostridium DNA that glide away from the
› Important for their durability and potential parental strand
pathogenicity  Budding
› Stable resting stages that barely metabolize  Method of reproduction by
Planctomyces
in hostile or unfavorable conditions
› Germinates when the environment improves  An outgrowth of the original cell (a
bud) receives a copy of DNA and
› A vegetative cell forms into only one
enlarges
endospore, which reactivates to grow into a
 The bud is cut off from the parental
single vegetative cell
cell
› A vegetative cell may form:
 Viviparity
o Centrally – center
 Method of reproduction by
o Subterminally – near one end
Epulopiscium
o Terminally – at one end
 Unique method of reproduction
  Live offspring emerge from the › Reproduce by binary fission, budding, or
body of the dead mother cell fragmentation
Arrangement of Prokaryotic Cells › Known cells are cocci, bacilli, spirals, or
 Results from two aspects of cell division pleomorphic
during binary fission: › Cell walls vary among taxa and are
a. The planes in which cells divide composed of a variety of compounds,
b. Whether or not daughter cells including proteins, glycoproteins,
remain attached to each other lipoproteins, and polysaccharides
 Arrangements of cocci can be: › Not known to cause a disease
a. Diplococci – cocci remain attached
in pairs Extremophiles
b. Streptococci – long chains of cocci  Microbes that require extreme conditions
c. Tetrads – divide in two planes and of temperature, pH, pressure, or salinity
remain attached to survive
d. Sarcinae – divide in three planes to
form cuboidal packets Thermophiles
e. Staphylococci – planes of cell  Prokaryotes whose DNA, RNA,
division are random cytoplasmic membranes, and proteins do
 Bacilli are less varied than cocci because not function properly at temperatures
bacilli divide transversely – across their lower than 45°C
long axis:  Prokaryotes that require temperatures
a. V-shapes – divide by snapping and over 80°C are called hyperthermophiles
the daughter cells remain attached  Most thermophilic archaea are in the
b. Palisades – side-by-side phylum Crenarchaeota
arrangement  Two representative genera are:
 Corynebacterium diphtheriae, causative a. Thermococcus
agent of diphtheria, divide by snapping, b. Pyrodictium – live in deep-sea
thus, form V-shapes or palisades hypothermal vents that are
irregular disks with elongated
Modern Prokaryotic Classification protein tubules that attach them to
› Previously, prokaryotes were based solely grains of sulfur that they use as the
on growth habits and the characteristics final electron acceptors
especially morphology and arrangement Halophiles
› More recently, the classification of living  Organisms that inhabit extremely saline
things has been based more on genetic habitats
similarities  Can also colonize and spoil such foods as
› Three domains: salted fish, sausages, and pork
o Archaea  Halophilic archaea are classified in the
o Bacteria phylum Euryarchaeota
o Eukarya  Depend on more than 9% salt
concentration to maintain the integrity of
› Modern classification scheme of
cell walls
prokaryotes is based primarily on the
 Most halophiles grow and reproduce
relative similarities of rRNA sequences
within 17% to 23% salt concentration
found in various prokaryotic groups
 Many can survive in a saturated saline
solution (35% sodium chloride)
Survey of Archaea  Many halophiles contain red to orange
› Originally identified as a distinct type of pigment that plays a role in protecting
prokaryotes on the basis of unique rRNA them from intense sunlight
sequences  A well-studied halophile is Halobacterium
› Lack true peptidoglycan in their cell walls salinarum
› Their cytoplasmic membrane has o A photoheterotroph
branched or ring-form hydrocarbon o Lacks photosynthetic pigments,
chains instead it synthesizes purple
› Initial amino acid is coded by the AUG proteins called bacteriorhodopsins
start codon (methionine) that absorbs light energy to pump
› Currently classified in two major phyla: protons across the cytoplasmic
1. Crenarchaeota membrane to establish proton
2. Euryarchaeota gradient
Methanogens
 Obligate anaerobes that convert CO 2, H 2,
and organic acids into methane gas (CH 4)
 Constitute the largest known group of
archaea in the phylum Euryarchaeota
 Methanopyrus
o Thermophilic methanogens
o Has an optimum growth
temperature of 98°C and grows
well in 100°C seawater around
submarine hydrothermal vents
 Plays a significant role in the environment
by converting organic wastes in pond,
lake, and ocean sediments into methane

Survey of Bacteria
I. Deeply Branching and Phototrophic
Bacteria
Deeply Branching Bacteria
Phototrophic Bacteria

II. Low G+C Gram-Positive Bacteria

III. High G+C Gram-Positive Bacteria

IV. Gram-Negative Proteobacteria