Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

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Groundwater for Sustainable Development

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Research paper

A geo-spatial approach to perceive the groundwater regime of hard rock

terrain- a case study from Morappur area, Dharmapuri district, South India
P. Gopinathan a, *, C.V. Nandini b, S. Parthiban c, S. Sathish d, Ashok K. Singh e, Pradeep K. Singh e
a
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Govt of India, Ranchi, Jharkhand, 834010, India
b
College of Engineering, Anna University, Guindy, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600 025, India
c
Vignan’s Foundation for Science Technology& Research, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, 522 213, India
d
University of Ferrara, via Saragat, 1 - 44122, Ferrara, Italy
e
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Govt of India, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, 826015, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The goal of the present study is to identify the groundwater regime of Morappur area at Dharmapuri district,
Remote sensing India. The study area covers an area of 410 sqkm. The area belongs to a hard rock terrain where the primary
GIS porosity is feeble and the secondary porosity offered by fracture, joints and shear zones etc, contributes to the
Groundwater regime
groundwater regime. The availability of surface water resources is sparse and hence the groundwater repositories
Hard rock terrain
India
are intensely utilized. In the current study area, the availability of groundwater is limited due to scanty rainfall
and poor recharge. The entire study area underlain by hard crystalline rocks of Archaean age, Charnokite and
Hornblende epidote gneiss are the main rock types encountered in the area. The over exploitation of these re­
sources more than the adequate recharge has resulted to decrease in the groundwater level. In this context, it is
very much important to identify and understand the groundwater regime of this area for the better groundwater
monitoring and conservation of this precious resource. Remote Sensing and GIS are playing a vital role in the
advancement of hydro-geological studies. The use of conventional methods alone has its own limitations in
comprehending the groundwater regime of the area. The integrated study using remote sensing, field studies
together with GIS has helped to understand the role of structural, lithological and geomorphic units in con­
trolling the groundwater occurrence and movement in the present study area. Various thematic maps were
prepared from the satellite images and they were integrated and incorporated in a GIS platform along with
collateral information to study the groundwater regime of Morappur area. The outcome of this study clearly
shows the importance of the geospatial studies in identifying the role of satellite imageries and geospatial
techniques to understand the groundwater regime of a hard rock terrain.

1. Introduction future. Due to the tremendous growth of human population, the natural
resources suffer severe pressure to produce sufficient food and raw
The concept of the groundwater environment and regime is mainly materials (Sitender, 2015). Hence, the study of the groundwater regime
based on the combination of physical factors such as climate, topog­ is significant in this area. The conventional methods alone will not be
raphy and geology (PAEL, 1993). These factors and their components sufficient to carry out the current studies and also it will be
play a significant role in deciding the characters of the hydrogeological time-consuming. The remote sensing and GIS techniques are widely used
regime of an area. The present study area is a hard rock terrain with in hydro geological studies. But the geospatial approach will reduce the
limited groundwater resource and the recharge is also poor due to the cost and time of the study. Many of the previous studies proved the
scanty rainfall and poor replenishment. The study of the groundwater importance and acceptance of the use of geospatial approaches in
regime of an area is important for groundwater monitoring and man­ groundwater studies in hard rock terrain (Das et al., 2007; Vijith, 2007;
agement. Agriculture is the primary occupation of the residents in this Singh et al., 2013, Politi et al 2016) and most of the conventional field
area. The irrational and intense use of precious groundwater is a threat methods are typically site-specific (Kishel and Gerla, 2002). (see Fig. 1)
to the agriculture occupation and for other indispensable needs in Groundwater accounts for about 30% of the earth’s freshwater

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P. Gopinathan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100316
Received 6 June 2019; Received in revised form 23 September 2019; Accepted 6 December 2019
Available online 6 December 2019
2352-801X/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

Fig. 1. Location map of study area.

(Shiklomanov, 1993). The over-exploitation of groundwater resources regime (topographical, hydrological, geological, landuse/landcover)
will lead to ecological problems such as fall off groundwater levels, which primarily governs the subsurface water conditions can be studied
water exhaustion, water pollution, deterioration of water quality and and mapped using remotely sensed image data. In the context of such
sea water intrusion (Yeh et al., 2014). The occurrence and movement of remote sensing for groundwater exploration, the various surface fea­
groundwater resource mainly depend on the aquifer characteristics of tures or indicators can be grouped into two categories viz. 1) first-order
the region which is directly or indirectly influenced by geology, or direct indicators and 2) Second-order or indirect indicators. The
geological structures, lithology, geomorphology, soil texture, drainage first-order indicators are directly related to the groundwater regime (viz.
patterns, lineament, land use/land cover, climate, extent of fractures, recharge zones, soil moisture and vegetation). The second order in­
depth of weathering, topography, primary porosity, secondary porosity, dicators are those hydro geological parameters which regionally indi­
slope, rate of precipitation and infiltration rate (Mukherjee, 1996; cate the groundwater regime for e.g., rock/soil types, structures, rock
Jaiswal et al., 2003; Shekhar and Pandey, 2014; Selvam et al., 2015; fractures, landforms, drainage characteristics etc (Anbazhagan et al.,
Sathish and Elango 2016). The groundwater occurrence in the hard rock 2005). Therefore, Remote Sensing plays a vital role and an efficient tool
region is dominantly controlled by secondary porosity such as fault, fold, for regional and local groundwater exploration (Elbeih, 2015). The
joints, etc. (Das, 2017), The distribution and migration of groundwater geospatial techniques can provide quick and cost-effective outputs with
in hard rock terrains are variable and are dependent on the character, different spatial and temporal resolution. The conventional methods
origin and size of secondary porosity either formed by weathering or demand a lot of money and energy but the geospatial studies are quick
tectonic activity. Irrelevant to the availability of secondary porosity and and cost effective. Remote sensing studies have been used as a major
its dimension, the groundwater replenishment in the hard rock terrain geospatial tool to map the various thematic maps of the Morappur re­
takes place by rainfall as well. Geomorphic controls are also a deciding gion. Geographical information system gives a platform for the inte­
factor of the groundwater occurrence. Geological structures such as gration of these thematic maps and other collateral data for this study.
fault, fold, joints in shear zones have a major bearing on the ground­ In a drought-prone area such as Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu
water aspects of any area (Elhag and Elzien, 2013; Mohamed, 2015), State of South India has poor groundwater resources due to the excess
especially in hard rock terrain. This is due to lack of primary porosity in use and poor recharge. This hard rock terrain is mostly fed by the sec­
these rocks, except in the top most weathered horizon. Most of the parts ondary porosity offered by the faults, fractures, joints etc., in such a
of South India are characterized by crystalline and metamorphic rocks scenario, it is essential to have a detailed understanding of the struc­
which are not rich in groundwater (Pullare, 2006). In such instance, they tural, lithological and geomorphic detailsof the area, to have a better
are the only secondary porosity which offered by joints, fractures and picture of the groundwater regime. The present study deals with map­
shear zones that contribute to the groundwater regime. ping of structural, lithological and geomorphic elements of the drought-
The Remote Sensing satellite data can provide information regarding prone hard rock terrain in Dharmapuri district.
numerous factors which directly and indirectly controlling the occur­
rence and movement of groundwater in the aquifer (Engman& Gurney, 2. Study area and data
1991; Meijerink, 1996; Jha et al., 2007; Machiwal et al., 2010). The GIS
provides a quick and efficient platform for managing the large database The study area (Fig. 1) lies between the latitude 11� 59ʹ32ʺ to
and complex spatial data and non spatial data for the sustainable natural 12� 15ʹ54ʺ North and longitude 78� 10ʹ 53ʺ to 78� 24ʹ 42ʺ East, covering
resource management (Machiwal et al., 2010; Stafford, 1991). The an area of 410 sqkm in the Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu. The study
Remote Sensing data alone cannot be sufficient to provide the infor­ area is an undulating terrain with elevations between 344 m in the East
mation of the groundwater regime of the area. However, the surface 470 m above mean sea level in the West. It is a drought prone semi-arid

2
P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

Fig. 2. Flowchart of methodology adopted.

region with hottest summer and cool winters. The area experiences good employed for the comparison of topography with other DEMs. The
rainfall during the southwest monsoon (June–August) and northeast SRTM DEM has also been utilized for the study. The Shuttle Radar
monsoon (October–December) seasons. Temperature of the area varies Topography Mission (SRTM) is an international research effort that
from 20 � C to 38 � C and attains the maximum in the summer seasons. obtained digital elevation models on a near-global scale from 56 � S to 60
The economy of the study area mainly depends on the agricultural ac­ �
N to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic
tivities. The main crop types are paddy, sugarcane, groundnut, and database of Earth to date. The digital elevation model of SRTM is also
vegetables. The Ponnaiyar river and its tributaries play a major role in used in this study. SRTM consists of a specially modified radar system
the drainage system of the study area. The entire Study area is underlain that flew onboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour during the 11-day STS-
by hard crystalline rocks of Archaean age comprising of various rock 99 mission in February 2000. SRTM is an international project spear­
types such as Gneiss, Charnockite, etc. headed by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) and the
In the present study, various satellite data has been used for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The survey of
preparation of various thematic maps. ASTER (Advanced Space borne India toposheet of 1: 50,000 scales and Geology map of 1:250,000 scales
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an imaging instrument were also used in the study. The secondary data such as water level
flying on Terra, a satellite launched in December 1999 as part of NASA’s information and well location details had been collected from CGWB.
Earth Observing System (EOS), which is collected on 15th Feb 2010. In The field investigations have been carried out mapped the dykes and
this study ASTER-FCC (False Color Composite) has been used to generate verified the well locations.
various thematic maps. ASTER captures high spatial resolution data in
14 bands from the visible to the thermal infrared wave lengths and 3. Methodology
provides stereo viewing capability for digital elevation model creation.
ASTER obtains high spatial resolution (15–90 m) images of the Earth in The present study is an updation of a master project which has been
the visible near-infrared (VNIR), shortwave-infrared (SWIR) and ther­ carried out in the year 2010. In the current work all the maps and data
mal infrared (TIR) regions of the spectrum. The Landsat TM image was were updated using the recently available satellite images and collateral
also used to prepare the landuse/landcover map. The ASTER DEM has data. The methodology adopted in this study includes two major

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

components. First part includes a remote sensing-based studies and the

later includes hydrogeological field investigations and collateral/sec­
ondary data collection. The combined study of field investigations along
with remote sensing studies will give a better understanding of the
groundwater regime of the area. The downloaded raw satellite images
may contain variety of errors in the geometry and radiometry. The
geometric correction, radiometric correction, calibration and noise
removal have been carried out on the image. Image preprocessing
should be completed before the post processing.
As the part of post processing image enhancement techniques like
histogram equalization, contrast enhancement, principal component
analysis, normalized difference vegetation index, spatial filtering etc.,
have been carried out on the satellite images. The image enhancement
techniques were used to modify the brightness and contrast of the image
to remove the blurriness and to filter out the noise. Enhancement
technique intended to improve the visual quality of images. The satellite
images after preprocessing are subjected to various enhancement
methods for better interpretation. Certain manipulations can be per­
formed on the digital image so as to have better visual presentation or
for information extraction. From the enhanced images, various thematic
maps were produced. The SRTM DEM is also used to understand the
terrain information in detail. The height information from the DEM will
give a better outline about the topography of the area. The various
thematic information obtained from the image data using ENVI software
were integrated to the GIS platform.
To verify the accuracy of the generated maps using satellite images
and to add additional details in the maps and to collect data on
groundwater parameters, extensive field works have been carried out in
the study area. This field work included the following aspects:

� Traversing along and across the strike of formation in the study area
Fig. 3. Geology map.
� Mapping, location and extent of the dykes in the study area
� Observing different strike of the formation
� Examining sample of the rocks and noting down the co-ordinates
� Examining/noting down the position of the well location, ground­
water level and other detail in the entire study area
� Observing and noting down various geomorphic land use and land
cover in the study area
� Photography of geological features in the study area

The role of remote sensing is not only confined to the preparation of

thematic maps alone but also to study the detailed synthesis of geolog­
ical, structural, geomorphic maps and their integrated study with the
other baseline information to understand the groundwater regime of the
area.
The methodology(Fig. 2) adopted in the study has been given in the
following flowchart:

4. Results and discussion

The different thematic maps were prepared using the visual inter­
pretation/analysis of satellite images along with the hydrogeological
field investigations and available ancillary data for the study area. The
various thematic maps derived from the integrated data set include
Geology map, Geomorphology map, Structural map, Land use and Land
cover map, Drainge and Drainage density map, Water level contour
maps and the well location map. The geospatial techniques serve as an
effective and efficient tool for the better understanding of the ground­
Fig. 4. Satellite image of study area - ASTER.
water potential zones (Muralitharan and palanivel, 2015) of hard rock
terrain.
Charnockite, etc. The gneissic type of crystalline formation is found in
the north and north-eastern part of the District. Dharmapuri, Harur,
4.1. The various thematic maps and inferences
Gopinathampatti and Morappur areas are covered by epidote-
hornblende gneiss. Kadathur and kambainallur areas covered by char­
4.1.1. Geology map
nockite and gabbro-pyroxinite. Dolerite dyke varying from few feet to
The entire study area is underlain by hard crystalline rocks of
few miles in length and cuts across the country rock in this study area
Archaean age comprising of various rock types such as Gneiss,

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

Fig. 5. Geomorphology map.

(see Fig. 3). geomorphometric properties like local slope angle and drainage density.
Geological map (Fig. 3) has prepared with help of published district From the groundwater point of view, the integration of geological,
resource map prepared by GSI on 1:250,000 scale, and has been updated structural and hydrogeological data with hydrogeomorphological data
using satellite data. The contact of the litho units can be accurately is very much useful to understand the better information about
marked and extended using the tonal characteristic in satellite imagery groundwater regime with fruitful results. Satellite remote sensing has
with limited ground checking. The structures like dyke, faults and the been found very useful in delineating geomorphic landform because of
extension can also be mapped from imagery because of the advantage of its synoptic view, quick and inexpensive techniques for getting infor­
synoptic view. However, this data is reliable only if it is used in mation. Various enhancement techniques also helped to identify the
conjunction with ground truth and other information to get the best different landforms.
output for geological information. Accordingly, adequate ground truth
verification was also done by carrying out field work. This study area 4.1.2.1. Residual hills. These are isolated low relief and irregular out­
consists of mainly charnockite and epidote/hornblende gneiss which lines standing out predominantly and appear as isolated hills or
have been intruded by dykes of varying composition. Epidote horn­ continuous chains of hillocks due to differential erosion. Thus, more
blende gneiss is the second dominant rocks in the study area. The gneiss resistance formation of rocks stands as residue like hills usually marked
which shows light yellowish green colour on the FCC image (Fig. 4) with structures such as joints and fractures etc. These are poor for
mainly consists of plagioclase and potash feldspar. Gneisses are the ground water prospecting due to steep gradient and the rain water is
oldest country rock in India (see Fig. 5). washed off immediately without much infiltration. On standard FCC
image, it shows brownish tone due to exposed outcrops and varied
4.1.2. Geomorphology map reddish tone in some area due to partial growth of vegetation.
The science of geomorphology is the study of topographic forms/
geomorphic units/landforms Fig. 5. The geomorphic characters of a 4.1.2.2. Pediments. Pediment is gently sloping area with erosional
region have a very strong control on the groundwater regime of the area. bedrocks situated between hills and plains consisting of a veneer of
The study area includes structural, denudational and fluvial landforms. detritus and broad undulating rock floor. These units generally act as run
The major geomorphic units seen in the study area are structural hills, off zones and as well as recharge zone whenever fracture and their
bajada, moderate and shallow buried pediments, valley fills and tanks. intersection are present. The groundwater potential in pediments is poor
Each geomorphic unit has varying effects on the groundwater regime. except along with the fractures where limited quantity of ground water
Applications of the principle of geomorphology provide information, can be obtained for the domestic purpose.
which will be of value in predicting the geometry of the aquifers. On the
weathering and erosion, many geological formations develop land forms 4.1.2.3. Shallow buried pediments. Flat and smooth buried pediment
that are distinctive in respect of slope continuity of outcrops. The surface with moderately thick (0–5 m) over burden. The groundwater potential
topographic features of bedrock can be sometimes extrapolated to in these geomorphic units is poor.
reasonable depths to predict the thickness of alluvium or aeolian sands
occurring as valley field deposits and by treating slope profile, those can 4.1.2.4. Moderately buried pediments. Flat and smooth buried pediment
be found. It is well known that hydrologic processes are influenced by

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Table 1
Score for attributes of various themes in the study area.
Geomorphic Characteristics No. of Hydrogeology Ground Remarks
Units Wells Water
Potential

Structural Hills: Valleys traversed by structural features 0 Run off zone. Poor SW of the study area
Linear Ridges/ Composed of composite ridges 15 Run off zone. Little infiltration along Poor Central part of the study area
Dykes secondary features.
Inselberg Very deep cervical hill 0 Run off zone. Poor Very few
Bazada Alluvial cones and fans, formed after 68 More infiltration Very good Bottom of the hills in WESTERN
composite slopes boundary Recharge zone composed of alluvial side
materials.
Pediments It forms outcrops with or without soil cover 37 Run off zone. Little infiltration along Moderate SE of the study area
secondary features.
Pediplain Sloping area with erosional bedrocks 171 More infiltration Very good Major part of the study area
Pediplain- Sloping area with erosional bedrock 146 More infiltration Very good Major part of the study area
Weathered weathered
Flood Plain It is a gentle plain adjacent to river and 0 High infiltration Very good Adjacent to the Ponnaiyar river,
comprises of river alluviam Recharge mainly from river and other hence no well
hydrogeological features
Valley fill Low lying depressions 144 High infiltration Very good Adjacent to dykes.

FCC image, it exhibits reddish tone due to the presence of vegetation.

Table 2
On screen visual interpretation of ASTER data has been carried out to
Relationship between the geomorphology and groundwater prospects in a hard
identify various landforms taking into consideration of various image
rock terrain (Babar, 2005).
and terrain elements. The landform which are more important in the
Land form Description Groundwater ground water prospects (Tables 1 and 2) are classified into various broad
prospects
categories and their distribution has been delineated from the remotely
Denudation hill Resistant hills resulting due to erosion Mainly act as runoff sensed data using standard image interpretation elements and the
zone
characters.
Pediment Gently undulating plain, dotted with Runoff and recharge
outcrops with or without veneer of zone
soil 4.1.3. Structural map
Buried pediment- Pediment covered with thick alluvial Good to moderate The structural map of the study area consists of lineaments, shear
Deep material (>20 m deep) or zone, faults and dykes. Remote sensing gives enormous facility in
unconsolidated weathered rock
Buried pediment- Flat and smooth buried pediment Moderate to poor
mapping the geological structures such as fold, faults, dykes and linea­
Moderate with moderately thick (5–20 m) over ments. The occurrence and movement of ground water in the hard rock
burden are limited to weathered, jointed, fractured and sheared zones. Linea­
Buried pediment- Flat and smooth surface of buried Acts as a runoff zone ments are defined as a large-scale linear feature, which expresses itself in
Shallow pediment with (0–5 m) shallow over
terms of topography and an expression of the underlying structural
burden
Pediment and Pediment dotted with isolated hills Acts as a runoff zone features. Lineaments or linear fractures are commonly associated with
inselberg displacements, deformations and prides pathways for groundwater
complex movements. These are important where secondary permeability and
Bajada Alluvial deposit of varying grain size Forms highly porosity dominate. The lineaments intersection areas are considered as
deposited along with the foothill productive shallow
zone. aquifers
good groundwater potential zones. A fault is a fracture or zone of frac­
Lineament Fractures on the land surface or Good tures between two blocks of rock. Faults may range in length from a few
buried millimeters to thousands of kilometers. The South Indian shield com­
prises of Precambrian granite-greenstone Dharwar craton in the north
bordered to the south by a mobile belt, the south Indian granulite
with moderately thick (5–20 m) over burden. The groundwater potential
terrain. Post Archaean mafic igneous activity is wide spread in the form
in these geomorphic units is moderate.
of dyke intrusions in the shield. The dyke intrusions are quite spectac­
ular in the immediate vicinity around the Cuddapah basin, the largest
4.1.2.5. Bajada. These are alluvial deposits of varying grain size Palaeoproterozoic sedimentary basin in the Indian shield. Clusters of
deposited along the foothill zones which forms highly productive dyke intrusions are pervasive throughout the Dharwar craton up to the
shallow aquifers. west coast and also in the granulite region of the south India. Beyond
which, to the south, the dyke intrusions are predominant only in the
4.1.2.6. Valley fills. These are low lying depressions and negative land west coast. The dykes are quite variable in lengths and thickness and
forms of varying size and shape occurring within the hills associated mostly are fresh dolerites (grading into gabbro in the interiors where the
with stream course. These are unconsolidated alluvial and colluvial dykes are thick).
materials partly or wholly filled in the valleys by streams and rivers. The The role of structural features at the study area is the WNW-ESE
material in this surface consists of mainly weathered products of the trending fractures that have been filled by fracture and the NNE-SSW
surrounding rocks; mostly comprised with moderately thick gravels, trending fracture system. These structural elements have barring on
pebbles, sand and silt. The prospect varies depending on the thickness of the groundwater regime as follows.
the fills. Valleys controlled by lineaments and fractures have good The dyke filled fracture system acts as the defined barrier of the
groundwater prospect and good potentials for agriculture also. Valley groundwater flow from northern region. This is clearly evident that the
fills act as good groundwater potential zones and water table is shallow lesser number of wells in the area of south of the dyke system compared
and they have very good groundwater prospects as they are being to large number of wells in the north of the dyke system.
recharged by surrounding hills as well as by the river water. Deep bore The NNE-SSW trending fracture systems are potential sources of
wells are preferable in these zones for intensive agriculture. On standard groundwater which are evidence by the presence of many wells along

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out on land. It describes how a parcel of land is used as agriculture,

settlement or industry. Landcover refers to natural vegetation, water
bodies, rocks/soils, artificial cover and other resulting due to land
transformation. The term landuse/landcover is closely related and
interchangeable per the purpose of which land is being used. They are
commonly associated with different types of cover such as forest, agri­
culture, waste land or water bodies. Landuse/landcover exerts consid­
erable influence on the various hydrological phenomenon’s such as
interception, infiltration, evaporation and surface flow. Applications of
satellite remote sensing for land use surveys and mapping is gaining
importance because of its ability to provide rapid and reliable data
within a given time of framework. Realizing the relationship between
landuse and hydro geomorphology is important for planning and man­
agement activities (Sajith, 2005).
The landuse/landcover map was prepared using satellite image in
conjunction with SOI top maps on 1:50,000 scales. Visual interpretation
of landsat TM FCC was used to delineate various landuse/landcover
categories (Fig. 7). Landuse/landcover categorization is envisaged based
on the classification scheme developed by National Remote Sensing
Agency. The landuse/landcover characteristics were delineated based
on the image characteristics like tone, texture, shape, association etc.
During the interpretation wherever doubtful units are encountered the
ground trouth survey was under taken to verify the same. Fig. 7 de­
scribes the landuse/landcover map of the study area. The characteristics
of landuse/landcover classification are depicted in Table 3.
The landuse/landcover classes, identified in the study area are Built-
up land, cropland, fallow land, land with scrub, land without scrub
barren/sheet rock/stony waste area and tanks.
Fig. 6. Structural map.
4.1.4.1. Built up land. It is defined as an area of human habitation
with the fracture system (Fig. 6). developed due to non-agricultural use and that which has a cover of
buildings, transport, communication, utilities in association with water,
4.1.4. Landuse and land cover map vegetation and vacant lands. Land used for human settlement in rural
Landuse refers to man activities and various uses which are carried villages is comparatively less size than urban settlement.

Fig. 7. Landuse/landcover map.

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

Table 3 4.1.4.2. Agricultural land. It is defined as the land primarily used for
Image characteristics of landuse/landcover category of the study. farming and for production of food, fiber and other commercial and
Landuse/ Tone/ Size Shape Texture Pattern horticultural crops. It includes crops fallow lands and plantations.
landcover Colour
Category 4.1.4.3. Croplands. It includes those lands with standing crops as on the
Built-up Dark Small to Irregular Coarse Clustered to date of satellite imagery. The area under crops have been identified and
land bluish big scattered mapped.
green
Crop land Bright Varying Regular to Medium Contiguous
red to red in size irregular to to non 4.1.4.4. Fallow land. It is described as agricultural land which is taken
smooth contiguous for cultivation but is temporarily allowed to rest, uncropped for one
Fallow Yellow to Small to Regular to Medium Contiguous more season but less than one year. At the time of the imagery taken of
land greenish big irregular to to non
both seasons these lands are seen particularly devoid of crops. On the
blue smooth contiguous
Plantation Dark red Small to Regular to Coarse Dispersed FCC, fallow land shows yellow to greenish blue tone, irregular shape
to red large irregular to contiguous with varying size associated with crop land or harvested agriculture
medium field.
Forest Dark red Varying Irregular Smooth Contiguous
in size discontinuous to to non
medium contiguous 4.1.4.5. Forest. It is an area baring an association predominantly of tree
Scrub Light red Varying Irregular Coarse Contiguous and other vegetation types, capable of producing timer and other forest
forest to brown in size discontinuous to to non produce. Satellite data has been used for mapping different forest types
mottled contiguous and density classes with reliable accuracy through visual as well as
Gullied Light Varying Regular Very Dentritic to
land yellow to in size broken coarse to sub-
digital techniques. Forest exerts influence on climate and water regime
light coarse dentritic and also provides shelter for wildlife and livestock.
green
Land with Light Varying Irregular Coarse Contiguous 4.1.4.6. Land with scrub. Scrublands are seen along with the ridge and
scrub yellow to in size discontinuous to dispersed
brown to mottled
valley complex, linear ridges and deep slope areas. Most of these areas
greenish are identified by the presence of thorny scrub and herb species; many
blue hillocks of steep and dumbbell shaped are associated with poor vegetal
Land Light Varying Irregular Coarse Dispersed cover. As a consequence, severe soil erosion frequently occurs during
without yellow to in size discontinuous to contiguous
rainy seasons, resulting most of the hilltops become barren/rocky.
scrub brown mottled
Stony Greenish Varying Irregular Coarse Linear to
waster blue to in size discontinuous to contiguous, 4.1.4.7. Land without scrub. Land under these classes is generally prone
brownish medium dispersed to degradation/deterioration. It is confined to the higher topography
Water Light Small Irregular Smooth Non-
like uplands or high ground etc., and excludes hills and mountain ter­
bodies blue to medium discontinuous to contiguous
dark blue large mottled dispersed rains. On FCC, it shows light yellow to brown to greenish blue, varying
in size associated with gentle relief and moderate slope in plain and
surrounded by agriculture lands.

Fig. 8. Drainage map and Drainage density map.

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

Fig. 9. Water level contour map of pre-post monsoon 2007 to 2008.

4.1.4.8. Barren rock/stony waste. These are the lands characterized by network of tributaries of various orders and magnitudes joints the
exposed massive rocks, sheet rocks, stony pavements or land with master stream and resembles like the branches of a tree. The develop­
excessive surface accumulation of stones that render them unsuitable for ment of dentritic drainage is associated with the areas of homogenous
production of any green biomass. Such lands are easily discriminated lithology and gently sloping to almost horizontal or flat topographical
from other categories of wastelands because of their characteristic surface having extremely low relief. Sub-dentritic patterns differ from
spectral responds. On FCC it shows greenish blue to yellow to brownish the dentritic only in the lack of perfection of development of streams.
in tone with varying size association with steep isolated hillocks hill Dentritic and sub-dentritic patterns are governed by regional slope,
slopes and eroded plains. homogenous lithology and relief (Babar and Kaplay, 1999). Trellis
drainage pattern tends to develop where there is strong structural con­
4.1.5. Drainage and drainage density map trol upon streams exist because of geology. In such situations, channels
The drainage system of the study area belongs to the Ponnaiyar River align themselves parallel to structures in the bedrock with minor trib­
basin and its tributaries. From the study, it is seen that the drainage is utaries coming at right angles. Fig. 8 deals with the drainage and
mostly of dentritic and sub dentritic pattern. The spatial arrangement of drainage density map of the study area.
streams giving rise to a particular design is called as drainage pattern.
The drainage pattern reflects original slope, structures like folds, faults, 4.1.6. Water level contour map
joints and wrapping. In the study area, dentritic, sub-dentritic and trellis The understanding of spatial and seasonal changes in the ground­
type of drainage patterns are observed. In dentritic drainage pattern, the water level is significant in the understanding of groundwater regime of

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

wells in the area of south of the dykes, compared to the area of north of
the dykes. Since there is no sedimentary litho unit in the study area, it
may be concluded that the structural, geomorphic and Lithological as­
pects play a major role in groundwater regime of the area.
From the Table-1 it is evident that the fluvial geomorphic units are
the most promising groundwater regions followed by denudational
landforms (Bajada, deep pediments, peniplain). These units are followed
by structural landforms (structural hills, linear ridges). The above
inference is a result of analyzing the number of wells present in each
landforms. It should be noted that the absence of wells in the NNE part of
the study area doesn’t indicate poor groundwater condition, but only
suggests that the agriculture fields and villagers derive the water
requirement from the Ponnaiyar river and not from the subsurface.
In general, the area can be divided into three units with regard to its
groundwater occurrence. They are.

1. In northern and north-eastern flood plain dominated groundwater

regime.
2. Pedimentous, low to moderate potential regime.
3. The moderate to high potential regime in the valley fills and Bajada
regions.

The correlation of groundwater table at various seasons confirming

the groundwater table is shallow during the period of post monsoon.
Due to nonuniformity in the number of wells used for the preparation of
spatial groundwater map, the minor variations also noticed in the spatial
variation in the groundwater table among various seasons. Overall, the
groundwater flow system is controlled by structural features that are
clearly evident by spatial variation of groundwater table irrespective of
various season. Two sets of fractures are present in the study area which
are WNW-ESE trending fracture systems, filled by dykes and the NNE-
SSW trending fracture system which induces water permeability. How­
Fig. 10. Water well location map. ever, the dykes filled fracture system act as definite barrier of the
groundwater flow from northern region. This is due to the presence of
the study area. Field investigations have been carried out to measure the deeper groundwater table towards south west part of the fracture system
groundwater level in the pre and post monsoon seasons. The spatial occupied by dykes. The geometry of dykes represents that the dykes are
variation of the measured groundwater level below ground surface for comparatively younger than the period of shear zone occurrence. The
2007 and 2008 has been given by the following Fig. 9. comparison of groundwater table across the shear zone also representing
the barrier effect of dykes in the groundwater control. The wells located
4.1.7. The well location map towards western part of the shear zone represent deeper groundwater
The groundwater is the main source of water and the presence of table than the depth of groundwater table towards Eastern part of the
surface water is scanty. The agriculture sector depended mainly on the shear zone. The shallow groundwater table at the northern part is also
groundwater resource. A total of 780 number of wells (both tube wells evident by the presence of lineaments. The lineaments are trending in
and dug wells) are available in the study area. From the well location radial direction at northern part with high number of intersections.
map it is observed that, around 450 wells were present at the northern Towards south and south western part of the study area, two set of
side of the dykes, above 220 wells are existing at the southern side of the lineaments are noticed with minimal number of intersections. Hence the
dykes and about 110 wells are observed between the dykes, the well shallow occurrence of groundwater table in the north and north eastern
location map has given in the Fig. 10. part of the study area is dominantly controlled by the presence of dyke.
Towards south and south eastern part of the study area, the NNE-SSW
trending fracture systems are potential sources of groundwater which
4.2. Inferences are evident by the presence of many wells along with the fracture
system.
This study aims at mapping of geological, geomorphic units, struc­
tural unit’s landuse and landcover and relates them with the ground­ 5. Conclusion
water resources of part of Morappur region of Dharmapuri district,
South India. The study of Remote Sensing evaluated the groundwater The present study evaluated the use of remote sensing integrated
regime of the Morappur area and identified the various factors which are with field investigations along with collateral data to study the various
influencing the groundwater in this hard rock terrain of Dharmapuri factors influencing the groundwater regime in the hard rock terrain of
district of Tamil Nadu. It is essential to relate the lithology/geology of Morappur area. The study area ‘Morappur’ is a typical hard rock terrain
the terrain and the groundwater regime. Charnockite and hornblende and sedimentary litho units are absent, hence it is difficult to identify the
epidote gneiss are the main rock types encountered in this area. The potential groundwater resources. Agriculture is the primary occupation
dykes traversing the entire study area along WNW-ESE direction are the and groundwater is exploited to a maximum extent due to limited sur­
other litho units that control the groundwater regime. To support the face water resources. Wells (both tube and dug wells) and Tanks are the
above fact, it can be observed that there are above 450 wells north of the main sources for irrigation. Unscientific ways of exploiting the
dykes, above 220 wells south of the dykes and 110 wells between the groundwater may cause degradation of the valuable land, lowering of
dykes. Thus, it is observed that there are less than 50% of the number of groundwater table and also financial loss to the farmers. Hence a

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P. Gopinathan et al. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (2020) 100316

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RG.2.1.3252.2409. India.
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The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-Central Institute of lens in a coastal aquifer of Southern India. Arab. J. Geosci. 9, 643. https://doi.org/
Mining & Fuel Research (CSIR-CIMFR), Dhanbad for his constant 10.1007/s12517-016-2656-7.
Selvam, S., Dar, F.A., Magesh, N.S., Singaraja, C., Venkatramanan, S., Chung, S.Y., 2015.
encouragement and support to publish this paper. The authors are
Application of remote sensing and GIS for delineating groundwater recharge
grateful to the college of Engineering, Anna University, Guindy, Chen­ potential zones of Kovilpatti Municipality, Tamil Nadu using IF technique. Earth Sci.
nai, Tamil Nadu and Common wealth Scientific and Industrial Research India 9 (2), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-015-0242-2.
Organization-CSIRO for open sources information for this research and Shekhar, S., Pandey, A.C., 2014. Delineation of groundwater potential zone in hard rock
terrain of India using remote sensing, geographical information system (GIS) and
also thank the authors whose papers have been cited/referred here. analytic hierarchy process (AHP) techniques. Geocarto Int. 30 (4), 402–421. https://
doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2014.894584.
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