ME Laboratory 1

Precious Arlene Villaroza-Melendrez

 VISION

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational

institution of choice providing holistically developed individuals
in the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION

Laguna University is committed to produce academically

prepared and technically skilled individuals who are socially
and morally upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna

University is committed to produce academically prepared and
technically skilled mechanical engineers who are socially and
morally upright citizens.

VISION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna

University is envisioned to be the provincial college of choice
producing well-equipped mechanical engineers who
specializes on energy management.
 Table of Contents

Module 1: Fluid 1
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. Density 1
Lesson 2. Density Measuring Instruments 4
Lesson 3. Specific Gravity 7
Lesson 4. Analysis 8
Assessment 1 10
Summary 10

Module 2: Viscosity 11
Introduction 11
Learning Objectives 11
Lesson 1. Principle of Viscosity 12
Lesson 2. Influences Flow Behavior 13
Lesson 3. Types of Viscosity 17
Assessment 2 20
Summary 22

Module 3: Measuring Humidity 23

Introduction 23
Learning Objectives 24
Lesson 1. The Analysis of Humidity 24
Lesson 2. Humidity Measuring Instrument 26
Assessment 3 28
Summary 28

Module 4: Determination of Calorific or Heating Values 29

Introduction 29
Learning Objectives 29
Lesson 1. Calorific or Heating Values of Fuels 30
Lesson 2. Determination of Calorific or Heating Values 30
Assessment 4 34
Summary 34
Course Code: ME 112

Course Description: The course involves the study and use of devices and
instruments to measure pressure, temperature level, flow, speed, weight, area,
volume, viscosity, steam quality, and products of combustion. It also includes the
study and analysis of fuels and lubricants

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Use measuring instruments in the performance of laboratory exercises.
2. Analyze the significance of the quantities determined by the use of
engineering measuring devices.
3. Analyze the properties of fuels and lubricants using different methods.
4. Design an experiment involving measurement of properties

Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Computation of Grades:

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 5-7) + 40% (Midterm xam)]

FINAL GRADE = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Activity 8-10) + 40% (Final exam)]
 MODULE 1
FLUIDS
Introduction

Density Explained. Each material has a different density; the difference depends on how
the materials particles are packed together. If the particles of a material are stored very neatly
and closer together, then more particles will be able to fit into the volume. Since particles have
mass, the more particles you can fit into the volume, the more the material will weigh (Evans,
2015).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Introduce the importance of density of materials;

2. Introduce the importance of density fluid; and
3. Introduce the density measuring instruments

Lesson 1. Density

Why do we need to know the density of materials?

Knowing the density of materials is very useful. Designers will estimate the weight of a
product by multiplying the volume by the density of a material; this is very useful if a product
had to be designed within a certain weight limit. You can also identify a material by measuring
its volume and mass (Evans, 2015).

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 Take a look at the two boxes below. Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the
same mass, which box would weigh more? Why?

Fig. 1.1 Two Identical Box with Different Number of Molecular Components
The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume. This property of matter is
called density. The density of a material helps to distinguish it from other materials. Since
mass is usually expressed in grams and volume in cubic centimeters, density is expressed in
grams/cubic centimeter (Evans, 2015).

Example scenario: Density Values of Different Construction Materials

Fig. 1.2 Constructional Steel

If two different materials are same in weight, but their density of both may be different.
Lower dense material occupies more volume than higher dense material (Evans, 2015).
Density also decides the sinking property of material. It is decided by knowing the density
of liquid. If the material has lower density than liquid, then it will float on the surface of liquid.
If it is more density than liquid, it will sink (Evans, 2015).

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 For example water has a density of 1000kg/m3 , if we place bamboo wood (350kg/m3) on
water it will float on water surface similarly if we drop a brick (1700 kg.m 3) it will sink into the
water.
Density value of construction material will also help to find out the quantity of material
needed for particular space (Evans, 2015).

Example. Distillation

Fig. 1.3 Steam Distillations

 Distillation is the process of separating components of a mixture based on different boiling

points (Evans, 2015).
 Examples of uses of distillation include purification of alcohol, desalination, crude oil
refining, and making liquefied gases from air (Evans, 2015).
 Humans have been using distillation since at least 3000 BC in the Indus valley (Evans,
2015).
Steam distillation is used to separate heat-sensitive components. Steam is added to the
mixture, causing some of it to vaporize. This vapor is cooled and condensed into two liquid
fractions. Sometimes the fractions are collected separately, or they may have different density
values, so they separate on their own. An example is steam distillation of flowers to yield
essential oil and a water-based distillate (Evans, 2015).

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Example:
Table 1.1 Densities of Common Fluids at 20 °C

ρ [g/cm³]

Air 0.00120
Ethanol (alcohol) 0.79
Water 0.99820
Fruit juice 1.042
Syrup 1.40

Fig.1.4 Multilayered Cocktail

Fluids of higher density such as juices or syrup will sink; they are heavier and have less
buoyancy. Fluids of lesser density such as alcohol or water have more buoyancy, they swim
on top (Evans, 2015).

Note
 The density of solids remains almost constant; however, the density of a fluid will
vary depending on pressure and temperature (Evans, 2015).
 If a fluid is heated, then its mass will remain constant but the volume will increase,
this means that the density will decrease (Evans, 2015).
 If a fluid is compressed, the mass remains the same but the volume decreases so
the density will increase (Evans, 2015).

Lesson 2. Density Measuring Instruments

According to Evans (2015) density is the measure of a material's mass per unit volume,
used in many aspects of science, engineering and industry. Density can be calculated by
dividing an object's mass by its volume. Since different materials have different densities,
measuring an object's density can help determine which materials are in it. Finding the density
of a metal sample can help to determine its purity.

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Hydrometers

Fig.1.5 Basic Hydrometer

A hydrometer is a floating glass body with a bulb filled with a metal weight and a cylindrical
stem with a scale. The hydrometer is immersed in the sample and the density of the sample
can be read directly from the scale: The deeper it sinks, the less dense is the sample. If a
hydrometer is immersed in a glass of water, it would sink deeper than it would in a glass of
syrup because syrup is denser than water (Evans, 2015).
This method is based on the Archimedes principle. There are many different hydrometers
available depending on the use. The number read off the scale is not always density but also
derived quantities. A lactometer is used for measuring the density (creaminess) of milk, a
saccharo meter for measuring the concentration of sugar in a liquid, or an alcohol meter for
measuring the ethanol content in spirits. Hydrometers are probably the most basic and
inexpensive density measurement tools, but they require good temperature control, which can
be quite complicated, and a large sample volume (up to 100 mL). Due to the small size of a
hydrometer’s scale, results can easily be misread. In comparison to these manual devices,
a digital hydrometer is a small, portable digital density meter based on the oscillating U-tube
principle (Evans, 2015).

Pycnometers

Fig.1.6 Pycnometers

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 A pycnometer consists of a glass flask and a stopper (sometimes with an integrated
thermometer). It is placed on a balance and after determining the weight of the empty
pycnometer you can calculate its volume by filling in a calibration liquid of known density (e.g.
water) using the corresponding definition of density (volume = weight / density) (Evans, 2015).
Afterwards, by weighing the pycnometer filled with sample the density of the sample can
be determined (density = weight / volume) (Evans, 2015).
Using a pycnometer can yield accurate and reliable results if the temperature control and
the balance are equally precise. Pycnometers are affordable, but can break easily. The
method is rather slow and time-consuming and a skilled operator is needed. Another
drawback is the large sample volume that is required, usually 10 mL to 100 mL (Evans, 2015).

Hydrostatic balances

Fig.1.7 Hydrostatic Balances

The hydrostatic balance is based on the Archimedes principle. It consists of a very precise
balance and a sinker (e.g. a sphere) of exactly known volume that is attached to one scale
pan. The sinker is immersed completely in the sample and the apparent weight loss of the
sinker is determined by weighing out. The apparent weight loss of the sinker equals the weight
of the fluid it displaces, so the precise volume and weight are known (Evans, 2015).
Hydrostatic balances are reliable and precise. However they are expensive and very time-
consuming. Another disadvantage is that installation (e.g. insulation on a concrete foundation)
is challenging and an accurate temperature control is essential (Evans, 2015).
Establishing adequate temperature control is only possible by means of highly
sophisticated air conditioning according to Evans (2015).

Lesson 3. Specific Gravity

Table.1.2 Specific gravities of different chemical compounds

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 Aliphatics SG Aromatics SG
Pentane 0.626 4-Ethyltoluene 0.861
Hexane 0.66 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 0.864
Octane 0.703 Toluene 0.867
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 0.716 Ethylbenzene 0.867
Decane 0.73 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 0.867
Dodecane 0.749 Benzene 0.877
Tetradecane 0.763 o-Xylene 0.88
Methylcyclohexane 0.769 1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene 0.89
Octadecane 0.777 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene 0.894
Pristane 0.783 Styrene 0.906
Eicosane 0.789 4,7-Dimethylindane 0.949
Docosane 0.794 4-Methylindane 0.958
Tetracosane 0.799 Indane 0.964
Hexacosane 0.803 1,2,3,4Tetrahydronaphthalene 0.97
Octacosane 0.807 Indene 0.996
Nonacosane 0.808 2,3-Dimethylnaphthalene 1.003
Dotriacontane 0.812 1-Methylnaphthalene 1.02
d-Limonene 0.841 Naphthalene 1.162
Adamantane 1.07 Anthracene 1.283
Oxygenates SG Others SG
Diethyl ether 0.714 Carbon disulfide 1.263
Isopropanol 0.786 Dichloromethane 1.327
Ethanol 0.789 Chloroform 1.483
Acetone 0.79 Tetrachloromethane 1.594
Methanol 0.791 Tetrachloroethylene 1.623
Methyl isobutyl ketone 0.798
n-Propanol 0.804
Methyl ethyl ketone 0.805
n-Butanol 0.81
Cyclopentanone 0.949
Propylene glycol 1.036
Benzaldehyde 1.042
Dibutyl phthalate 1.047
Furfural 1.159
Dimethyl phthalate 1.191

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 Specific gravity is an important concept to know when mixtures of immiscible liquids, such
as gasoline and water, are present. It is possible that the particular location of a liquid within
a mixture is of interest in a case. Petroleum products, in general, have a low specific gravity,
and will float on water. With an increasing number of carbons, the specific gravity of petroleum
products increases. However, the specific gravity does not exceed one until products such
as asphalt are considered (Evans, 2015).
Table 4-3 shows a list of compounds with their particular specific gravities. Note
that the rule of the increasing carbon number works well with the n-alkanes; however it is
much more difficult to find a clear trend with other classes, such as the aromatics. Also, note
that aromatics exhibit a much greater specific gravity than their corresponding (in number of
carbon atoms) aliphatic. Finally, compounds with chlorine or sulfur typically exhibit a very high
specific gravity, despite a small number of atoms (Evans, 2015).

Table.1.2 Specific gravities of different chemical compounds

Lesson 4. Analysis

According to Boles and Cengel (2004) the density ρ (rho) refers to the mass of the fluid
kg
that is contained in a unit of volume. Usually water at 4°C, for which ρH2O = 1000 .
m3

m
ρ=
V
Where:
ρ = Density, m = mass, V= volume

Specific Weight
The specific weight (gamma) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume (Boles and Cengel,
2004).

W
γ=
V
Where:
γ = Specific Weight, m= mass, V= volume

Note: Density and Specific Weight Relation

8
 γ = ρg
Specific Volume
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit
mass (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
V 1
v= =
m ρ
Specific gravity/ Relative density
Specific gravity defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which
ρH2 O =1000 kg/m3) (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

ρLiquid γliquid
SG = =
ρH2 O γH2 O
Where:
ρ =Density
γ =Specific Wieght
V = Volume
v =Specific Volume
m =Mass
SG =Specific Gravity

9
 Assessment Task 1

1.What are the major density factors in the convection process? (Write it together in ess
ay form with necessary formula.)

2.Explain the principle of density, in condensing process? i.e. condenser and radiator, (
Write it in the form of an essay together with the desired formula.)

Note: it should be in engineering lettering.

Summary
m
Density is a measure of mass per volume (ρ = ). The density of a material helps to
V
distinguish it from other materials. Lower dense material occupies more volume than higher
dense material. Laboratory instruments used to measure the density are hydrometers,
pycnometers and hydrostatic balance. Specific gravity

ρLiquid γliquid
SG = =
ρH2 O γH2 O
is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard, usually water for a liquid
or solid, and air for a gas (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

References:

Boles, Michael A. and Cengel, Yunus A. (2004). Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach,

McGraw Hill Co.. New York . 5th ed.

Evans, P. (2015). Density Explained. Retrieved from https://theengineeringmindset.com/

density-explained/

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 MODULE 2
VISCOSITY

Introduction

Have you ever experienced the frustration of trying to get ketchup out of the bottle? You're
trying desperately to shake it, but to no avail. But, when you spill your water, it goes
everywhere. Why do different fluids move at different rates? The answer is a property of liquids
called viscosity. Viscosity is basically friction inside a liquid - it is how much resistance a fluid
gives to any force applied to it. The greater the viscosity, the slower an object will move
through the liquid (Evans, 2015).

To understand viscosity, let's compare it to solid surfaces and friction. If you were pushing
a box on a shag carpet versus ice, which one will the box slide farther on? The ice has less
friction, so the box will slide further. Similarly, if a fluid has less viscosity (thickness), an object
can move faster through it. Fluids with high viscosity act the opposite; they are thick and it is
hard for objects to move through them (Evans, 2015).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define types of viscosity; and

2. Classify the factor influence viscosity.

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Lesson 1. Principle of viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear

stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for
example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water (Evans, 2015).

Fig. 2.1 Comparison of Fluid Viscosity

Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the frictional force that arises between two
adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a fluid is forced through
a tube, the fluid flows more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near its walls. In such
a case, experiments show that some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two
ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow through the tube. This is because a force is
required to overcome the friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion:
the strength of this force is proportional to the viscosity (Evans, 2015).

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or in viscid fluid. Zero
viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, the second law
of thermodynamics requires all fluids to have positive viscosity; such fluids are technically said
to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a relatively high viscosity, such as pitch, may appear to be
a solid. In order to give an idea of the viscosity of some conventional fluids some common
fluids presented in Table 2.1 (Evans, 2015).

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Table 2.1 Viscosities of Common Fluids
Fluid Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Temperature
Name [cP] [cSt] [℃]
Water 1 1 20
Water 0.894 0.894 25
Air 0.018 13.9 27
Honey 5000 3500 25
Mercury 1.526 0.11 25
Ethanol 1.074 1.36 25

Imagine all materials as classified on a virtual scale from solid to liquid. Scientists specify
solid materials as being elastic and liquids as being viscous. In everyday life, we mostly come
across viscoelastic materials. That is, substances which are neither completely elastic, nor
entirely viscous. According to a material’s properties, we either classify it as a viscoelastic
solid (like e.g. sweet jelly) or as a viscoelastic liquid (like e.g. a yoghurt drink or shower gel)
(Evans, 2015).
The specific field of viscometry covers ideally viscous fluids, and considering certain
restrictions – also viscoelastic liquids, i.e. viscous fluids that contain an elastic portion. Fluids
which flow easily show a low resistance to deformation. They are low-viscosity fluids. High-
viscosity fluids resist deformation. Consequently, they do not flow easily (Evans, 2015).

Lesson 2. Influences Flow Behavior

It describes the thickness or pump ability of the fluid, and is somewhat analogous to the
apparent viscosity.
1. The substance’s inner – molecular – structure. A highly viscous substance features tightly
linked molecules. It resists deformation (Evans, 2015).

2. The shear rate or the shear stress, respectively, as external force. This includes all kinds
of actions: wiping, or pushing, or pulling a substance, or – most commonly – gravity. The
influence further depends on the strength and on the duration of the external force (Evans,
2015).

13
3. The ambient conditions: temperature and pressure. These parameters determine under
which conditions a substance flows and which type of flow it develops. To measure
viscosity, laminar flow is required (Evans, 2015).

Laminar Turbulence

Fig. 2.2 Basic Types of Fluid Flow

Fig. 2.3 Three Factors are Responsible for a Substance’s Flow Behavior: Inner Molecular Structure,
Outside Forces Acting on the Material, and Current Ambient Conditions

14
4. Laminar or turbulent flow

Laminar flow means that the substance moves in imaginary thin layers see Fig. 2.2.
Molecules do not move from one layer to another, their movement forms a regular pattern
(Evans, 2015).

Turbulent flow is not structured because molecules move at random. This leads to eddies
and vortices and causes erroneous results during measurement. The viscosity appears higher
than it is, because the test device falsely registers the molecules’ random behavior as higher
flow resistance (Evans, 2015).

For example, submitting a fluid to a too high shear rate during the test can result in
turbulent flow. That could happen if a glass capillary viscometer is too wide for the tested
substance (i.e. the run times become too short) or if the spindle of a rotational viscometer turns
too fast (Evans, 2015).

5. Temperature

Figure 2.4 Relation of Temperature to Viscosity

Apart from the shear rate, temperature strongly influences a fluid’s viscosity. A
substance’s viscosity decreases with increasing temperature and vice versa. This inversely
proportional relation applies to all substances (Evans, 2015).

Any change in temperature always influences viscosity, but for different fluids, the size of
this influence varies. Certain fluids react with a 10 % increase in viscosity if temperature
decreases by 1 °C (Evans, 2015).

A fluid’s viscosity strongly depends on its temperature. Even a 1 K (1 °C) temperature

decrease can raise the viscosity by 10 % (Figure 2.4) (Evans, 2015).

15
6. Pressure

Figure 2.5 Pressure has Less Influence on Viscosity than Temperature. Raising the Pressure by a
Factor 300, Results in a Viscosity Increase of Approximately 10 %.

Normally, an increase in pressure causes a fluid’s viscosity to increase too, However,

fluids are not dramatically affected if the applied pressure is low or medium: liquids are almost
non-compressible in this pressure range (Evans, 2015).

Most liquids react to a significantly altered pressure (from 0.1 MPa to 30 MPa) with a
viscosity change of about 10 %. For comparison: This same change in viscosity is usually
provoked by a minor temperature change of 1 K (1 °C) (Evans, 2015).

In case the pressure goes up from 0.1 MPa to 200 MPa, the viscosity can rise to 3 to 7
times the original value. This applies to most low-molecular liquids. Highly viscous mineral oils
react with a viscosity increase of times 20000 under identical circumstances (Evans, 2015).

For synthetic oil this pressure change can even result in a viscosity increase by a factor
of up to 8 million. For example, lubricants in cogwheels or gears can be submitted to pressures
of 1 GPa and higher (Evans, 2015).

Lesson 3. Types of Viscosity

16
Dynamic viscosity

The Greek symbol η (eta) represents the dynamic viscosity. Dynamic viscosity is also
known as shear viscosity. Dynamic viscosity is preferably used in the fields of life science and
research (Francisco, 2014).

η=τ/γ

where:

η = Dynamic viscosity

τ = Shearing stress

γ =Shear rate

Kinematic viscosity

The kinematic viscosity v (ny) is the dynamic viscosity divided by density ρ ( rho) when
both parameters of the material are taken at the same temperature and pressure. Kinematic
viscosity is widely used for all petrochemical fluids such as fuels or lube oils (Francisco, 2014).

ν=η/ρ

where:

ν = Kinematic viscosity

ρ = fluid density

η = Dynamic viscosity

Relative viscosity

Relative viscosity is a vital parameter when measuring dissolved polymers (Francisco,

2014).

Apparent viscosity

17
 Ideally viscous or Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity for all shear rate values. For
shear-dependent fluids, on the other hand, the viscosity varies. Therefore, you need to specify
at which shear rate a viscosity value was determined. This is the “apparent viscosity” or
“apparent shear viscosity”. Each apparent value is one point of the viscosity function (eta over
shear rate) (Francisco, 2014).

Example: Measurement of the viscosity of glycerol

Fig.2.5 Experimental Measurement Apparatus for Viscosity

The viscosity of a liquid can easily be measured in the laboratory with the apparatus shown
in Figure 2.5.

A one-litre measuring cylinder is filled with glycerol and two rubber bands are placed
around it a known distance apart (say 20 cm). The diameter of a small steel ball bearing is
measured with a micrometer and it is then released from just above the glycerol surface and
allowed to fall through the fluid, the time for it to pass from the level of one band to that of the
other being taken (Francisco, 2014).

2∆𝜌𝑟 2
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜂) =
9𝜗

18
∆𝜌 = difference in density between the sphere and liquid

G= acceleration due to gravity

R = radius of sphere

𝜗 = terminal velocity

If the bands are placed sufficiently far from the surface it can be assumed that the ball
bearing has reached its terminal velocity before passing between them. The velocity of the
ball bearing between the bands can then be found, and it is assumed that this is its terminal
velocity. From Stokes' Law the viscosity of the fluid may be found (Francisco, 2014).

The temperature of the glycerol should be recorded and the experiment should be
repeated with ball bearings of different radii.

For accurate work allowance should be made for the effects of the walls of the container
and for this reason the experiment should always be carried out with cylinders of large radii
compared with the ball-bearings (Francisco, 2014).

Assessment Task 2

19
Experiment

Directions

First, you need to measure the density of the fluid which can be done by the usual method
of finding the mass of a known volume of fluid. Motor oil works well, or washing up liquid, or
shampoo, leaving it to settle to get rid of the bubbles of air (Francisco, 2014).

Second you need to measure the density of the steel from which the ball bearings are
made (Francisco, 2014).

You need to use a micrometer (or use alternative measuring system) to measure the
average diameters of the (dry) ball bearings (Francisco, 2014).

You then pour our fluid into a long tube with a cap at the lower end, of minimum diameter
about 5cm and use a selection of steel ball bearings varying in diameter that fit inside the tube
with lots of room to spare on either side. This is important because what we really want is to
allow the balls to flow in the peak of the laminar flow parabola – if you have 5 or so that would
be good, so we can get a linear graph, which is a prime objective in physics if possible. Set
the apparatus up like this (Francisco, 2014).

Mark the tube as shown as a starting point and finishing point. The difference in height
needs to be as large as possible aim for at least a meter. Leave a bit at the end to avoid
slowing errors as the ball gets close to the bung at the bottom (Francisco, 2014).

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 𝑘𝑔
Density of steel = 7000
𝑚3

𝑘𝑔
Density of oil = 920
𝑚3

 Find the average velocity of each ball.

 Find the viscosity of oil based from the data. (show your solution)

Distance (m) Time (s) Velocity (m/s) Diameter Radius (m)

Note: If you're having trouble timing the marble, which moves pretty fast, record the trial on
your phone in a video. Then slow it down to count the seconds it took for the marble to fall.

Summary

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 Viscosity is the capacity of the fluid to flow. Types of viscosity are dynamic viscosity (η = τ / γ) ,
kinematic viscosity (ν = η / ρ) , relative viscosity and apparent viscosity. Factors influences flow
behavior; the substance’s inner – molecular – structure, the shear rate or the shear stress,
respectively, as external force, the ambient conditions: temperature and pressure, Laminar or
turbulent flow, temperature and pressure (Francisco, 2014).

References:

Francisco, Jose R., PME, CME. (2014). Power Plant Design. Halang, Calamba City,
Philippines.

Evans, P. (2015). Density Explained. Retrieved from https://theengineeringmindset.com/

density-explained/

MODULE 3
MEASURING HUMIDITY
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 Introduction

Have you ever visited a place that just made you feel hot and sticky the entire time, no
matter what you did to cool off? You can thank humidity for that unpleasant feeling (Bradley,
2015).

Humidity is blamed for all kinds of negative things, including mold in your house (usually
the bathroom, where its wet a lot of the time), as well as malfunctions in regular household
electronics. Moisture from humid air settles, or condenses, on electronics. This can interrupt
the electric current, causing a loss of power. Computers and television sets can lose power
like this if not protected from the effects of humidity. Living with humidity is easier with the aid
of a dehumidifier, which sucks moisture out of the air (Bradley, 2015).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Introduce the effects of humidity in a system; and

2. Define the principle of humidity

Lesson 1. The Analysis of Humidity

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 Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water vapor in the air,
the humidity will be high. The higher the humidity, the wetter it feels outside (Bradley, 2015).

Why does humidity happen?

Fig. 3.1 High Humidity Effects

When water evaporates, it rises and disperses into the surrounding air as the
gaseous water vapor (Bradley, 2015).

According to Bradley (2015) humidity is the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere.
The more water evaporates in a given area, the more water vapor rises into the air, and the
higher the humidity of that area is. Hot places tend to be more humid than cool places because
heat causes water to evaporate faster.

It might sound like water evaporation is a bad thing. Liquid water is useful, plus, you know,
essential for all life. Water vapor doesn’t seem like it’s useful for much of anything–other than
making you uncomfortable. Believe it or not, though, water evaporation and humidity serve a
critical function of the natural world (Bradley, 2015).
When liquid water evaporates into gaseous water vapor, it has completed one third of the
all-important water cycle. The water cycle is nature’s way of distributing water to things that
need it (Bradley, 2015).

How do we measure humidity?

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 Fig. 3.2 Humidity Factors

There are a couple different means of calculating humidity in both absolute and relative
terms. Each method has its own uses:

Absolute Humidity
Absolute humidity is simply the total mass of water vapor in a given volume of air,
regardless of the temperature of that air. In scientific terms, it’s the most “accurate”
measurement of humidity, since the amount of water vapor in air directly determines humidity
(Bradley, 2015).

As “accurate” as absolute humidity may be, it’s expressed in grams of moisture per cubic
meter of air. “5 grams per cubic meter of air” probably doesn’t give you a great idea of how
humid it “feels” outside (unless you’re a lot smarter than we are). That’s where relative
humidity and the “dew point” come in (Bradley, 2015).

Dew Point
Condensation only occurs when there’s enough water vapor in the air for the molecules
inside the vapor to coalescence into water droplets. The only way that happens is if water
vapor condenses faster than it can evaporate (Bradley, 2015).
The dew point is the temperature the air must be for water to condense and evaporate at
the same rate. If the air temperature matches the dew point, then the air is exactly as saturated
as it can be without condensation forming. Condensation forms when the air temperature falls
lower than the dew point. If the air temperature is higher, water evaporates faster and
condensation doesn’t form (Bradley, 2015).

25
Relative Humidity
Dew point is used to calculate relative humidity. Relative humidity is a percentage
measurement of water vapor saturation relative to maximum saturation. In other words,
relative humidity measures how close the air temperature is to the dew point. 100% relative
humidity means the air temperature has reached the dew point.
This method of reporting humidity is considered “relative” because it isn’t actually
measuring how much water vapor is in the air. Instead, it’s measuring how much water vapor
is in the air relative to how much that volume of air is capable of holding. The closer to 100%
the dew point is, the more humid the air feels.
Well, our brains have just about reached their “dew point,” information processing-wise. It
was worth it, because now we can make great atmospheric science jokes like that one.
Anyway, now that you understand humidity, you’re ready to control your home’s environment
absolutely (Bradley, 2015).

Lesson 2. Humidity Measuring Instrument

Hygrometer

(A) (B)
Fig. 3.3 (A) Analogue Hygrometers, (B) Concept of Hygrometer

A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure relative humidity. Humidity is the measure

of the amount of moisture in the air. A psychrometer is an example of a hygrometer. A
psychrometer uses two thermometers to measure relative humidity; one measures the dry-
bulb temperature and the other measures the wet-bulb temperature. (When you come out of
your shower in the morning, your skin cools to the wet-bulb temperature and you feel a chill
until the water evaporates.) The wet-bulb thermometer contains water in the base that
evaporates and absorbs heat which decreases the temperature reading. To determine the
relative humidity, the temperatures are taken from the dry-bulb thermometer and the
temperature difference between the wet and dry bulb thermometers. From these

26
measurements, a table is used to find the relative humidity at a certain location. A sling
psychrometer is a common instrument used by meteorologists to determine the relative
humidity. This instrument is swung around while being held. There are also a variety of other
humidity sensors which work automatically to measure the water content and relative humidity
of the atmosphere (Bradley, 2015).

Assessment Task 3

1. Does relative humidity and density have a relation? Why?

2. Why are most windmills near in water (ocean)? And what effect does it have on humidity?

Note: Use engineering lettering

Summary

Humidity is the amount of airborne water vapor. The more water in a given area evapora
tes, the more water vapor flows into the air, and the higher the humidity in that area. Moistr c
an be measured by absolute moisture, dew point and relative humidity. Instrument for meas
uring the humidity is a hygrometer. Another example of a hygrometer is a psychrometer
(Bradley, 2015).

Reference:
Bradley, E.F. (2015). Boundary Layer (Atmospheric) And Air Pollution . Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/atmospheric-
humidity

MODULE 4
DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC OR HEATING
VALUES

27
 Introduction

Heating value refers to the heat content of the fuel in a unit mass. The heating value of a
liquid fuel is ranging from 18000 to 19500 Btu/lb. an instrument or apparatus used to
determine the heating value of a fuel is known as bomb or Sergeant calorimeter. Heating
value is also called as Calorific Value (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define the Calorific Value; and

2. Solve and test the colorific value of a fuel

Lesson 1. Calorific or Heating Values of Fuels

The “calorific value or heating value” of the fuel is defined as the energy liberated by the
complete oxidation of a unit mass or volume of a fuel. It is expressed in kJ/kg for solid and
𝑘𝐽
liquid fuels and for gases (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
𝑚3

If a fuel contains hydrogen water will be formed as one of the products of combustion. If
this water is condensed, a large amount of heat will be released than if the water exists in the
vapor phase. For this reason two heating values are defined the higher or gross heating value
and the lower or net heating value (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
The higher heating value, HHV, is obtained when the water formed by combustion is
completely condensed (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
The lower heating value, LHV, is obtained when the water formed by combustion exists
completely in the vapor phase (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
Thus :
(𝐻𝐻𝑉)𝑝 = (𝐿𝐻𝑉)𝑝 + 𝑚 ℎ𝑓𝑔

28
 (𝐻𝐻𝑉)𝑣 = (𝐿𝐻𝑉)𝑣 + 𝑚(𝑢𝑔 – 𝑢𝑓 )
where
m = Mass of water formed by combustion,
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = Enthalpy of vaporisation of water, kJ/kg
𝑢𝑔 = Specific internal energy of vapor, kJ/kg
𝑢𝑓 = Specific internal energy of liquid, kJ/kg
In almost all practical cases, the water vapor in the products is vapor, the lower value is the
one which usually applies.

Lesson 2. Determination of Calorific or Heating Values

The calorific value of fuels can be determined either from chemical analysis or in the
laboratory (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Solid and Liquid Fuels

Dulong’s formula.
Dulong suggested a formula for the calculation of the calorific value of the solid or liquid
fuels from their chemical composition which is as given below (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

1 𝑂
𝐻. 𝐻. 𝑉. = [33800𝐶 + 144000 (𝐻 − ) + 9270 𝑆} → 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
100 8

where C, H, O and S are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur in percentages respectively in
100 kg of fuel. In the above formula the oxygen is assumed to be in combination with hydrogen
and only extra surplus hydrogen supplies the necessary heat (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Laboratory method (Bomb calorimeter)

29
 Fig. 4.1 Bomb Calorimeter

The calorimeter is made of austenitic steel which provides considerable resistance to

corrosion and enables it to withstand high pressure. In the calorimeter is a strong cylindrical
bomb in which combustion occurs. The bomb has two valves at the top. One supplies oxygen
to the bomb and other releases the exhaust gases. A crucible in which a weighted quantity of
fuel sample is burnt is arranged between the two electrodes as shown in Fig.4.1 (Boles and
Cengel, 2004).

The calorimeter is fitted with water jacket which surrounds the bomb. To reduce the losses
due to radiation, calorimeter is further provided with a jacket of water and air. A stirrer for
keeping the temperature of water uniform and a thermometer to measure the temperature up
to accuracy of 0.001°C is fitted through the lid of the calorimeter (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
Procedure. To start with, about 1 gm of fuel sample is accurately weighed into the crucible
and a fuse wire (whose weight is known) is stretched between the electrodes. It should be
ensured that wire is in close contact with the fuel. To absorb the combustion products of sulfur
and nitrogen 2 ml of water is poured in the bomb. Bomb is then supplied with pure oxygen
through the valve to an amount of 25 atmospheres. The bomb is then placed in the weighed
quantity of water, in the calorimeter. The stirring is started after making necessary electrical

30
connections, and when the thermometer indicates a steady temperature fuel is fired and
temperature readings are recorded after 1/2 minute intervals until maximum temperature is
attained. The bomb is then removed; the pressure slowly released through the exhaust valve
and the contents of the bomb are carefully weighed for further analysis. The heat released by
the fuel on combustion is absorbed by the surrounding water and the calorimeter. From the
above data the calorific value of the fuel can be found in the following way (Boles and Cengel,
2004).

The heat released by the fuel on combustion is absorbed by the surrounding water and
the calorimeter. From the above data the calorific value of the fuel can be found in the following
way:

Let
𝑤𝑓 = Weight of fuel sample (kg),
w = Weight of water (kg),
C = Calorific value (higher) of the fuel (kJ/kg),
𝑤𝑒 = Water equivalent of calorimeter (kg),
𝑡1 = Initial temperature of water and calorimeter,
𝑡2 = Final temperature of water and calorimeter,
𝑡𝑐 = Radiation corrections,
c = Specific heat of water.

Heat released by the fuel sample = 𝑤𝑓 × C

Heat received by water and calorimeter

= e{ (ww + we )[(t 2 – t1 ) + t c ]}

Heat lost = Heat gained

wf (C) = (w + we ) c [(t 2 – t1 ) + t c

c(w − we )(t 2 − t1 ) + t c
C=
Wf

31
[Value of c is 4.18 in SI units and unity in MKS units.]
Bomb calorimeter measures the higher or gross calorific value because the fuel sample is
burnt at a constant volume in the bomb (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

32
 Assessment Task 4

1. The ultimate analysis of coal is given below:

C=68.5%
H=2.5 %
S=1.5 %
O=3.5 %
Ash = 12.0
Calculate the higher heating value of coal.
2. Calculate the calorific value of coal which has following analysis:
C = 81 %
H =5 %
O= 5.6 %
S =1 %

Summary

The “calorific value or heating value” of the fuel is defined as the energy liberated by the
complete oxidation of a unit mass or volume of a fuel. It is expressed in kJ/kg for solid and
liquid fuels and kJ/m3 for gases (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Higher heating value, HHV,

Lower heating value, LHV

(𝐻𝐻𝑉)𝑝 = (𝐿𝐻𝑉)𝑝 + 𝑚 ℎ𝑓𝑔

(𝐻𝐻𝑉)𝑣 = (𝐿𝐻𝑉)𝑣 + 𝑚(𝑢𝑔 – 𝑢𝑓 )

The calorific value of fuels can be determined either from chemical analysis or in the
laboratory (Boles and Cengel, 2004).
Dulong’s formula

33
 1 𝑂
𝐻. 𝐻. 𝑉. = [33800𝐶 + 144000 (𝐻 − ) + 9270 𝑆} → 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
100 8

Bomb calorimeter measures the higher or gross calorific value because the fuel sample is
burnt at a constant volume in the bomb (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Reference:

Boles, Michael A. and Cengel, Yunus A. (2004). Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach,

McGraw Hill Co.. New York . 5th ed.

34