Lecture 2

Axial Loading
Deformations of Members Under Axial Loading:
Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and uniform cross
section of area A subjected to a centric axial load P.

If the resulting axial stress 𝞼 = P/A does not exceed the proportional
limit of the material, according to Hooke’s law,

or,

Again We know, 𝝐 = 𝜹/L or,

and, substituting for 𝝐, or, or,

Problem 1: Determine the deformation of the steel rod shown in Figure under the given
loads (E = 29 ✕ 106 psi).
Solution: We divide the rod into three component parts in free body diagram shown in
Figure,
Here, L1 = L2 = 12 in. ; L3 = 16 in.
A1 = A2 = 0.9 in2 ; A3 = 0.3 in2
To find the internal forces P1, P2, and P3, we must pass sections through each of the
component parts, drawing each time the free-body diagram of the portion of rod located to
the right of the section . Expressing that each of the free bodies is in equilibrium, we obtain
successively,
P1 = 60 kips = 60 ✕ 103 lb
P2 = 215 kips = 215 ✕ 103 lb
P3 = 30 kips = 30 ✕ 103 lb
Carrying the values obtained,
Problem 2: The rigid steel bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD. Link AB is
made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 ; link CD is
made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm2 . For the 30-kN
force shown, determine the deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, (c) of E.
Solution:
Free Body: Bar BDE:
a. Deflection of B: Since the internal force in link AB is compressive, we have P = -60 kN

The negative sign indicates a contraction of member AB, and, thus, an upward deflection
of end B:

b. Deflection of D: Since in rod CD, P = 90 kN, we write

c. Deflection of E:

We denote by B′ and D′ the displaced positions of points B and D. Since the bar BDE is
rigid, points B′, D′, and E′ lie in a straight line and we write from similar triangle,
Problem 3: A vertical steel bar ABC is pin-supported at its upper end and loaded by a force
P1 at its lower end. A horizontal beam BDE is pinned to the vertical bar at joint B and
supported at point D. The beam carries a load P2 at end E. The upper part of the vertical bar
(segment AB) has length L1 =20 in. and cross-sectional area A1 =0.25 in.2 ; the lower part
(segment BC) has length L2 =34.8 in. and area A2 =0.15 in.2 The modulus of elasticity E of
the steel is 29.0 ✕ 106 psi. The left- and right-hand parts of beam BDE have lengths a = 28
in. and b = 25 in., respectively. Calculate the vertical displacement 𝜹C at point C if the load
Pl = 2100 lb and the load P2 =5600 lb. (Disregard the weights of the bar and the beam.)
Solution:

Axial forces in bar ABC: The vertical displacement of point C is equal

to the change in length of bar ABC. Therefore, we must find the axial
forces in both segments of this bar.
The axial force N2 in the lower segment is equal to the load P1. The axial
force N1 in the upper segment can be found if we know either the vertical
reaction at A or the force applied to the bar by the beam. The force acting
on the beam (from the vertical bar) is denoted P3 and the vertical reaction
at support D is denoted RD. No horizontal force acts between the bar and
the beam, as can be seen from a free-body diagram. Therefore, there is no
horizontal reaction at support D of the beam.
Taking moments about point D for the free-body diagram of the beam gives,

This force acts downward on the beam and upward on the vertical bar. Now we can
determine the downward reaction at support A :

The upper part of the vertical bar (segment AB) is subjected to an axial compressive force
N1 equal to RA, or 2900 lb. The lower part (segment BC) carries an axial tensile force N2
equal to Pl, or 2100 lb.
Changes in length: With tension considered positive,

in which 𝛅 is the change in length of bar ABC. Since 𝛅 is positive, the bar elongates. The
displacement of point C is equal to the change in length of the bar,This displacement is
downward:
Problem 4:(Statically Indeterminate Problems):
A rod of length L, cross-sectional area A1, and modulus of elasticity E1, has been placed
inside a tube of the same length L, but of cross-sectional area A 2 and modulus of elasticity
E2 . What is the deformation of the rod and tube when a force P is exerted on a rigid end
plate as shown?
Denoting by P1 and P2, respectively, the axial forces in the rod and in the tube, we draw
free-body diagrams of all three elements. Only the last of the diagrams yields any
significant information, namely:

P1 + P 2 = P

Clearly, one equation is not sufficient to determine the two unknown internal forces P 1 and
P2. The problem is statically indeterminate.
The geometry of the problem shows that the deformations d1 and d2 of the rod and tube
must be equal.

Equating the deformations d1 and d2, we obtain:

This equations can be solved simultaneously for P1 and P2,

Either of Equations can then be used to determine the common deformation of the rod
and tube.
Problem 5: A solid circular steel cylinder S is encased in a hollow circular copper tube C.
The cylinder and tube are compressed between the rigid plates of a testing machine by
compressive forces P. The steel cylinder has crosssectional area AS and modulus of
elasticity ES, the copper tube has area AC and modulus EC, and both parts have length L.
Determine the following quantities: (a) the compressive forces PS in the steel cylinder and
PC in the copper tube; (b) the corresponding compressive stresses 𝜎S and 𝜎C; and (c) the
shortening 𝛿 of the assembly.
 Solution:

(a) Compressive forces in the steel cylinder and copper tube: We begin by removing the
upper plate of the assembly in order to expose the compressive forces PS and PC acting on the
steel cylinder and copper tube, respectively. The force PS is the resultant of the uniformly
distributed stresses acting over the cross section of the steel cylinder, and the force P C is the
resultant of the stresses acting over the cross section of the copper tube.
Equation of equilibrium: The plate is subjected to the force P and to the unknown
compressive forces PS and PC ; thus, the equation of equilibrium is,

Equation of compatibility: Because the end plates are rigid, the steel cylinder and copper
tube must shorten by the same amount. Denoting the shortenings of the steel and copper
parts by 𝛅S and 𝛅C, respectively, we obtain the following equation of compatibility:

Force-displacement relations: The changes in lengths of the cylinder and tube can be
obtained from the general equation 𝛅 = PL/EA. Therefore, the force-displacement
relations are
Solution of equations: First, we substitute the force-displacement relations in the equation
of compatibility, which gives,

This equation expresses the compatibility condition in terms of the unknown forces.
Next, we solve simultaneously the equation of equilibrium and the preceding equation of
compatibility and obtain the axial forces in the steel cylinder and copper tube:

These equations show that the compressive forces in the steel and copper parts are directly
proportional to their respective axial rigidities and inversely proportional to the sum of
their rigidities
(b) Compressive stresses in the steel cylinder and copper tube: Knowing the axial
forces, we can now obtain the compressive stresses in the two materials:

(c) Shortening of the assembly: From equation of deformation:

Problem 6: Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel bar and loading shown in
Figure, assuming a close fit at both supports before the loads are applied.
Solution: We consider the reaction at B as redundant and release the bar from that support.
The reaction RB is now considered as an unknown load and will be determined from the
condition that the deformation 𝛅 of the rod must be equal to zero.
The deformation 𝛿L is obtained after the bar has been divided into four portions, here,
Considering now the deformation 𝛅R due to the redundant reaction RB, we divide the bar
into two portions,
Expressing that the total deformation 𝛅 of the bar must be zero, we write

and, substituting for 𝛅L and 𝛅R

Solving for RB, we have

The reaction RA at the upper support is obtained from the free body diagram of the bar,
Stress Concentrations: Saint-venant’s Principle
The basic formula of stress,
𝜎 = P/A,
in which P is the axial force in the bar and A is its cross-sectional area. This formula is
based upon the assumption that the stress distribution is uniform throughout the cross
section.
In reality, bars often have holes, grooves, notches, keyways, shoulders, threads, or other
abrupt changes in geometry that create a disruption in the otherwise uniform stress pattern.
These discontinuities in geometry cause high stresses in very small regions of the bar, and
these high stresses are known as stress concentrations.
Stress Concentrations: Saint-venant’s Principle
Stress Concentrations: Saint-venant’s Principle
The elements in the immediate vicinity of the points of application of the loads are
subjected to very large stresses, while other elements near the ends of the member are
unaffected by the loading.This may be verified by observing that strong deformations,
and thus large strains and large stresses, occur near the points of application of the
loads, while no deformation takes place at the corners.
Stress Concentrations: Saint-venant’s Principle
At a distance b from either end, where b is the width of the plate, the stress distribution is
nearly uniform across the section, and the value of the stress 𝜎y at any point of that section
can be assumed equal to the average value P/A.
Stress Concentrations: Saint-venant’s Principle
In other words, except in the immediate vicinity of the points of application of the loads,
the stress distribution may be assumed independent of the actual mode of application of
the loads. This statement, which applies not only to axial loadings, but to practically any
type of load, is known as Saint Venant’s principle,
Stress Concentrations
The stresses near the points of application of concentrated loads can reach values much
larger than the average value of the stress in the member. When a structural member
contains a discontinuity, such as a hole or a sudden change in cross section, high
localized stresses can also occur near the discontinuity.

The stress concentrations depend only upon the ratios of the geometric parameters
involved, i.e., upon the ratio r/d in the case of a circular hole, and upon the ratios r/d
and D/d in the case of fillets.
Stress Concentrations
The main concern is to determine whether the allowable stress will be exceeded under a
given loading, and not where this value will be exceeded. For this reason, the stress
concentration factor:
Problem 7: Two holes have been drilled through a long steel bar that is subjected to a
centric axial load as shown. For P = 6.5 kips, determine the maximum value of the stress
(a) at A, (b) at B.
Solution:

a) At hole A , rA = 0.25 in.

Width of the bar , d = (3 - 0.5)in. = 2.5 in.
So, area, Aavg = dt = 1.25 in.2
And, 𝜎avg = (P/Aavg) = 5.2 ksi
Now, (r/D) = (0.25/2.50) = 0.10 From stress concentration factor for circular, K = 2.7
So, 𝜎max = K 𝜎avg = 14.04 ksi
b) At hole B , rB = 0.75 in.
Width of the bar , d = (3 - 1.5)in. = 1.5 in.
So, area, Aavg = dt = 0.75 in.2
And, 𝜎avg = (P/Aavg) = 8.667 ksi
Now, (r/D) = (0.75/1.50) = 0.50 From stress concentration factor for circular, K = 2.1
So, 𝜎max = K 𝜎avg = 18.2 ksi
Problem 8: For P = 100 kN, determine the minimum plate thickness t required if the
allowable stress is 125 MPa.

Try yourself.
Thermal Effects: Problems Involving Temperature Changes
Changes in temperature produce expansion or contraction of structural materials, resulting
in thermal strains and thermal stresses.

Let us first consider a homogeneous rod AB of uniform cross section, which rests freely on
a smooth horizontal surface ,

Before elongation After elongation

Thermal Effects: Problems Involving Temperature Changes
If the temperature of the rod is raised by ΔT, we observe that the rod elongates by an
amount 𝛿T which is proportional to both the temperature change ΔT and the length L
of the rod.

Where 𝛼 is a constant characteristic of the material, called the coefficient of thermal

expansion.

With the deformation 𝛿T must be associated a strain 𝝐T = 𝛿T/L.

The strain 𝝐T is referred to as a thermal strain, since it is caused by the change in

temperature of the rod. And the stress, 𝞼T = E 𝝐T = E 𝛼(ΔT).
Thermal Effects: Within fixed supports
Let us now assume that the same rod AB of length L is placed
between two fixed supports at a distance L from each other.

If the raise of temperature by ΔT, the rod cannot elongate

because of the restraints imposed on its ends; the elongation
𝛿T of the rod is thus zero. This elongation is nullified by the
strain i.e. stress caused by reaction force generated due to
thermal strain.
Thermal Effects: Within fixed supports
Let us now assume that the same rod AB of length L is placed between two fixed supports
at a distance L from each other.

If the raise of temperature by ΔT, the rod cannot elongate because of the restraints
imposed on its ends; the elongation 𝛿T of the rod is thus zero. This elongation is nullified
by the strain i.e. stress caused by reaction force generated due to thermal strain.

from which we conclude that,

and that the stress in the rod due to the temperature change ΔT is ,
Problem 9: Determine the values of the stress in portions AC and CB of the steel bar
shown in figure when the temperature of the bar is -500F, knowing that a close fit exists at
both of the rigid supports when the temperature is +750F. Use the values E = 29 ✕ 106 psi
and 𝛼 = 6.5 ✕ 106 /0F for steel.
Solution: Since the problem is statically indeterminate, detach the bar from its support at
B and let it undergo the temperature change,

The corresponding deformation is,

Applying now the unknown force RB at end B, the corresponding deformation 𝛅R,
Substituting given values,
Expressing that the total deformation of the bar must be zero as a result of the imposed
constraints,
from which,

The reaction at A is equal and opposite. Noting that the forces in the two portions of the bar
are P1 = P2 = RB = 18.85 kips, the values of the stress in portions AC and CB of the bar:

The strain 𝟄AC can be divided into two component parts; one is the thermal strain 𝟄T
produced in the unrestrained bar by the temperature change ΔT,
The other component of 𝟄AC is associated with the stress 𝞼1 due to the force RB applied to
the bar,

𝟄AC =

Adding the two components of the strain in AC,

A similar computation yields the strain in portion CB of the bar:

The deformations 𝛿AC and 𝛿CB of the two portions of the bar are expressed respectively as,

We thus check that, while the sum 𝛿 = 𝛿AC + 𝛿CB of the two deformations is zero,
neither of the deformations is zero.
Problem 10: The rigid bar CDE is attached to a pin support at E and rests on the 30-mm
diameter brass cylinder BD. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod AC passes through a hole in the
bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the temperature of the entire
assembly is 200C. The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised to 500C while the
steel rod remains at 200C. Assuming that no stresses were present before the temperature
change, determine the stress in the cylinder BD.
Rod AC: Steel Cylinder BD: Brass
E = 200 GPa E = 105 GPa
𝜶 = 11.7 ✕ 10-6 /°C 𝜶 = 20.9 ✕ 10-6 /°C
Solution:
Statics: Considering the free body of the entire assembly,

Deformations: Considering RB as redundant, With the support

at B removed, the temperature rise of the cylinder causes point B
to move down through 𝛅T. The reaction RB must cause a
deflection 𝛅1 equal to 𝛅T so that the final deflection of B will be
zero
Deflection 𝛅T: Because of a temperature rise of 500 - 200 = 300C, the length of the brass
cylinder increases by 𝛅T.
Deflection 𝛅1:
Stress in Cylinder:
Strain energy
The amount of work done for the elongation of the given load i.e. the amount of energy
stored in the body is called strain energy.

To illustrate the basic ideas, consider a prismatic bar of length L subjected to a tensile force
P,

During the loading process, the load P moves slowly through the distance 𝛅 and does a
certain amount of work. To find the work done by the load under these conditions, the
information is supplied by a load-displacement diagram.
Consider P1, any value of the load between zero and the maximum
value P, and consider corresponding elongation of the bar by 𝛅1.
Then an increment dP1 in the load will produce an increment d𝛅1
in the elongation. The work done by the load during this
incremental elongation is the product of the load and the distance
through which it moves, that is, the work equals P1d𝛅1.
This work is represented in the figure by the area of the shaded
strip below the load-displacement curve. The total work done by
the load as it increases from zero to the maximum value P is the
summation of all such elemental strips, the work done by the load
is equal to the area below the load-displacement curve.
Strain energy
When the load stretches the bar, strains are produced. The presence of these strains
increases the energy level of the bar itself. Therefore, a new quantity, called strain energy,
is defined as the energy absorbed by the bar during the loading process.

Linearly Elastic Behavior:

If the material of the bar follows Hooke’s law, so that the load-displacement curve is a
straight line, so, the the area of the shaded triangle OAB,
The relationship between the load P and the elongation 𝛅 for a bar of linearly elastic
material is given by the equation,

Combining the equations, the strain energy of a linearly elastic bar in either of the
following forms:

Strain-energy equations can be written for a linearly elastic spring by replacing the
stiffness EA/L of the prismatic bar by the stiffness k of the spring. Thus,
Stiffness of Prismatic Bar: EA/L Flexibility of Prismatic Bar, f = L/EA

Stiffness of Spring : k Flexibility of Prismatic Bar, f = 1/k

Nonuniform Bars: Total Strain Energy = Sum of the uniform section energies.
Strain-Energy Density
Strain-energy density defined as the strain energy per unit volume of material. The
strain-energy density can be formulized by dividing the total strain energy U by the
volume AL of the bar.

Thus, the strain-energy density, denoted by the symbol u, can be expressed in either of
these forms:

If we replace P/A by the stress 𝞼 and 𝛅/L by the strain 𝟄, we get

Problem 11: Three round bars having the same length L but different shapes are shown in
Figure. The first bar has diameter d over its entire length, the second has diameter d over
one-fifth of its length, and the third has diameter d over one-fifteenth of its length.
Elsewhere, the second and third bars have diameter 2d. All three bars are subjected to the
same axial load P. Compare the amounts of strain energy stored in the bars, assuming
linearly elastic behavior. (Disregard the effects of stress concentrations and the weights of
the bars.)
Solution:
(a) Strain energy U1 of the first bar: The strain energy of the first bar is,

(b) Strain energy U2 of the second bar: The strain energy is found by summing the
strain energies in the three segments of the bar,

which is only 40% of the strain energy of the first bar. Thus, increasing the
crosssectional area over part of the length has greatly reduced the amount of strain energy
that can be stored in the bar.
(c) Strain energy U3 of the third bar: Again using the strain energy equation,

The strain energy has now decreased to 30% of the strain energy of the first bar.
Problem 12: Determine the strain energy of a prismatic bar suspended from its upper end.
Consider the following loads: (a) the weight of the bar itself, and (b) the weight of the bar
plus a load P at the lower end. (Assume linearly elastic behavior.)
Solution:
(a) Strain energy due to the weight of the bar itself: The bar is subjected to a varying
axial force, the internal force being zero at the lower end and maximum at the upper end.
To determine the axial force, we consider an element of length dx at distance x from the
upper end. The internal axial force N(x) acting on this element is equal to the weight of the
bar below the element:

in which 𝛾 is the weight density of the material and A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
The total strain energy:
(b) Strain energy due to the weight of the bar plus the load P: In this case the axial
force N(x) acting on the element is
Impact Loading:
A dynamic load may take many forms—some loads are applied and removed suddenly
(impact loads), others persist for long periods of time and continuously vary in
intensity (fluctuating loads).

Impact loads are produced when two objects collide or when a falling object strikes a
structure.

Fluctuating loads are produced by rotating machinery, traffic, wind gusts, water waves,
earthquakes, and manufacturing processes.
Impact Loading:
The impact of an object falling onto the lower end of
a prismatic bar. A collar of mass M, initially at rest,
falls from a height h onto a flange at the end of bar
AB. When the collar strikes the flange, the bar begins
to elongate, creating axial stresses within the bar.

Thereafter, the bar shortens, then lengthens, then

shortens again as the bar vibrates longitudinally and
the end of the bar moves up and down. The
vibrations are analogous to those that occur when a
spring is stretched and then released, or when a
person makes a bungee jump.
Let us begin by considering the energy of the system just before the collar is released. The
potential energy of the collar with respect to the elevation of the flange is Mgh, where g is
the acceleration of gravity.
This potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as the collar falls. At the instant the
collar strikes the flange, its potential energy with respect to the elevation of the flange is
zero and its kinetic energy is Mv2 /2, where v = √(2gh) is its velocity.
The behavior of the bar is simplified by making the following assumptions. (1) Assume
that the collar and flange are so constructed that the collar “sticks” to the flange and moves
downward with it. (2) Disregard all energy losses and assume that the kinetic energy of the
falling mass is transformed entirely into strain energy of the bar. (3) Disregard any change
in the potential energy of the bar itself, and we ignore the existence of strain energy in the
bar due to its own weight. (4) Assume that the stresses in the bar remain within the linearly
elastic range. (5) Assume that the stress distribution throughout the bar is the same as when
the bar is loaded statically by a force at the lower end, that is, we assume the stresses are
uniform throughout the volume of the bar.
Maximum Elongation of the Bar: The maximum elongation 𝛅max can be obtained from
the principle of conservation of energy by equating the potential energy lost by the falling
mass to the maximum strain energy acquired by the bar.

The potential energy lost is W(h + 𝛅max), where W = Mg is the weight of the collar and
h+𝛅max is the distance through which it moves. The strain energy of the bar is EA𝛅2max/2L,
where EA is the axial rigidity and L is the length of the bar.

This equation is quadratic in 𝛅max and can be solved for the positive root; the result is,
The preceding equation can be written in simpler form by introducing the notation,

in which 𝛅st is the elongation of the bar due to the weight of the collar under static loading
conditions.

or,

When the height h is large compared to the static elongation, we can disregard the “ones”
on the right-hand side,

in which M = W/g and v = √(2gh) is the velocity of the falling mass when it strikes the
flange.
Maximum Stress in the Bar: The maximum stress can be calculated easily from the
maximum elongation

The following equation for the maximum tensile stress:

Introducing the notation,

in which 𝛔st is the stress when the load acts statically,

or,
Again considering the case where the height h is large compared to the elongation of the
bar,

Impact Factor: The ratio of the dynamic response of a structure to the static response (for
the same load) is known as an impact factor.
Problem 13: A round, prismatic steel bar (E = 210 GPa) of length L = 2.0 m and diameter
d = 15 mm hangs vertically from a support at its upper end. A sliding collar of mass M =
20 kg drops from a height h1 = 50 mm onto the flange at the lower end of the bar without
rebounding.
(a) Calculate the maximum elongation of the bar due to the impact and determine the
corresponding impact factor.
(b) Calculate the maximum tensile stress in the bar and determine the corresponding
impact factor.
Solution: (a) Maximum elongation: The first step is to determine the static elongation of
the bar due to the weight of the collar. Since the weight of the collar is Mg, we calculate as
follows:

From this result,

From the maximum elongation equation:

This can also be calculated,

The impact factor is equal to the ratio of the maximum elongation to the static
elongation:

(b) Maximum tensile stress: The maximum stress produced by the falling collar is
obtained:

This stress may be compared with the static stress, which is

Problem 14: A horizontal bar AB of length L is struck at its free end by a heavy block of
mass M moving horizontally with velocity v.
(a) Determine the maximum shortening 𝛅max of the bar due to the impact and determine the
corresponding impact factor.
(b) Determine the maximum compressive stress 𝞂max and the corresponding impact factor.
(Let EA represent the axial rigidity of the bar.)

Try yourself.