LONDON DISTRICT SURVEYORS ASSOCIATION  

Foundations

Guidance Notes for the Design

of Straight Shafted Bored Piles
in London Clay

LONDON DISTRICT SURVEYORS ASSOCIATION PUBLICATIONS

2017
Foreword

This guidance note was first published in 1999 the purpose of which was to establish a
common approach to the design of piles founded in London clay. The guide has been adopted
by many designers over the past 18 years and has therefore become a valued document.

The publication of this guidance note comes when the London District Surveyors Association
[LDSA] celebrates its 30th Anniversary from formation.

The 2009 version of this guidance note indicated that the next evolution of this document
would be extended to be compatible with Eurocode 7. This revision incorporates guidance on
how to apply Eurocode 7 to the design of straight shafted piles in London Clay. It has been
written with reference to Eurocode 7 Parts 1 and 2 (BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1:2013 and BS EN
1997-2:2007) and the UK National Annexes to Eurocode 7 (NA+A1:2014 to BS EN 1997-
1:2004+A1:2013 and NA to BS EN 1997-2:2007). It is envisaged that future evolutions of
these guidance notes will omit the working stress approach in favour of the Eurocode 7 limit
state approach.

In common with the previous revision, these guidance notes set out a common approach to
the design of piles in London Clay. They set out the parameters and design criteria that
should, in normal circumstances, be acceptable to the checking authority when considering
calculations and details submitted under the Building Regulations with adequate levels of site
supervision performed by the designer/contractor. These notes do not preclude the use of
other parameters and design criteria, but such an approach may require more detailed
justification by the designer and greater consideration by the checking authority.

These guidance notes are now published for the convenience of Engineers involved in the
design of piled foundations in order that they may be aware of these criteria. These notes are
not a "design manual" and designers must use their own professional judgement as to the
suitability of the standards set out in these notes and should use more stringent criteria if they
consider it appropriate.

Anthony Oloyede, BSc (Hons) FRICS, C. Build E FCABE, MFPWS

President, London District Surveyors' Association

October 2017

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Acknowledgement

The London District Surveyor’s Association is very pleased to acknowledge the input of Ove
Arup & Partners Limited (Arup) working alongside members of the LDSA, in the production of
this updated guidance note. The assistance of members of the Federation of Piling Specialists
(FPS) is also acknowledged.

Authors

Dinesh Patel Arup

Stuart Pennington Arup

Reviewers

Paul Morrison Arup

Mark Pennington FPS

Stuart Norman FPS

Andrew Woods City of London

LDSA members

Mark Pundsack City of London

Siva Kumar London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham

Manmohan Seyan London Borough of Camden

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1. Purpose

1.1 The main purpose of the revision to the guide is:

 To bring the use of Eurocode 7 limit state design (by calculation) within the scope of the
guide, as an alternative to the existing working stress method.
 To review the shaft adhesion factor ‘alpha’.
 To offer further general guidance and background information.
 To offer good practice notes for pile construction which reduce vulnerability to
underperformance of piles.

1.2 The approach is intended to be a prudent yet economical basis for design.

1.3 These Guidance Notes describe the general approach recommended for the design of
straight-shafted rotary bored piles in London Clay, which if followed should satisfy the
requirements of A1 of Schedule 1 of The Building Regulations 2010. Approval for pile
designs not complying with this design approach will have to obtain the approval of the
Local authority on a project specific basis, rather than being "deemed to satisfy".

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2. Application

2.1 Table 1 below sets out the basis of the design approach and background to the guide.

Table 1 – Guidance Notes to pile design

Requirement Comment

1. A desk study and ground investigation in The consequence of not investigating the
accordance with BS EN 1997-2:2007 is ground properly is substantially increased
available for the site. It should include a ground risk. The safety factors presented in
sufficient amount of undrained shear this guide are not appropriate for such
strength data and other information for elevated risks.
the proper assessment of stratigraphy
Information on claystones may inform the
and groundwater seepage.
contractor of the suitability of his chosen
An appropriate level of site investigation piling system. The presence of claystones
should also provide data on claystones in can also increase the risk of groundwater
the London Clay and the amount of seepage.
chiseling time taken to overcome these.
Boreholes and soil parameters for design
should be planned so that they extend at
least {5 metres, 3x base diameter in metres
or 1x minor width of pile group in metres;
whichever is greater} below the final pile toe
level.
Seepage and water strike information from
the ground investigation form important
aspects of pile construction, particularly for
open bored piles in clay, and should be
recorded.

2. The clay is a substantial thickness and is Presence of sandy layers will potentially
a high plasticity material, e.g. not the result in seepages, lower alpha values and
lower sandy horizons. be detrimental to the pile base.

3. The piles are installed by rotary bored Most piles in London Clay are either dry or
piling or CFA technique. have slight seepage. Where there is an
issue with groundwater this is often related
Piles formed by displacement auger or
to aspects such as poorly sealed casing,
split auger techniques, or the use of any
claystone layers or inadequate ground
support fluids are not addressed in this
investigation.
guide. Diaphragm walls are also no
addressed. Piles formed under support fluids may have
lower adhesion parameters than those
presented in this guide.

4. This approach only applies to bored piles Capacities of piles outside these ranges are
with Diameter  0.35m and generally expected to be lower, so more conservative
Length/Diameter ratio  50. factors will generally be appropriate.
There is evidence that minipiles with L/D <
50 perform in a similar manner to bored
piles, provided they are constructed in a
similar way. However, this approach may be

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 invalid for different forms of minipile
construction that allow the London Clay to
be exposed to water.

5. Undrained shear strength (cu) testing has In some circumstances, the scatter in the cu
been carried out on samples recovered in data may be significant for unexplained
100mm diameter metal open-tube reasons and as a check, the designer
samplers to BS 5930; commonly referred should compare his choice of cu design line
to as U100’s. Inner plastic tubes within a with :
metal outer tube are not good practice
a) any SPT data correlated to cu, using
and such results are not compatible with
Stroud (1988); and /or
this guide.
b) Patel (1992) which shows examples of
It is recognised that the thick-walled
typical mean cu lines, for London.
100mm diameter open-tube samplers
(OS-TK/W type) traditionally used for Alternatively, there may be a need for
sampling London Clay do not meet the discussion with the ground investigation
quality class requirements of Eurocode 7 company about the procedures used for
for laboratory determination of shear taking these samples, storage on site, and
strength. However, until a sufficient preparation of the samples for testing in the
understanding of how Eurocode laboratory.
compliant sampling methods correlate to Under these conditions the need for pile
the extensive historical data obtained testing to inform the design will be
from thick-walled samplers, it is not increased.
proposed that the method of sampling be
changed to thin-walled samples. The results of tests on 38mm diameter
samples and of multi-stage tests are
significantly less reliable and should not be
used with this approach. Patel (1992) and
Marsland (1973) compared 38mm and
100mm cu strengths and showed that 38mm
samples significantly overestimated the
strengths obtained from 100mm samples.
Plastic liners have a larger cutting shoe area
than metal open tube samplers and
therefore cause greater soil disturbance; the
lack of rigidity of the plastic liner also results
in greater shearing and bending in the
samples; hence the reason for using metal
samplers with no inner plastic liners.

6. The piles are concreted within 12 hours of Piles should be completed as quickly as
the start of boring in the clay (the time possible. Smaller diameter piles should be
begins when boring below the casing completed more quickly. In sandier layers,
begins). shaft degradation will occur more rapidly
and either more rapid construction or lower
design parameters will be appropriate. In the
unusual event that a pile is left greater than
12hrs, lower shaft frictions are likely and
should be considered by the designer.

7. There are no major seepages in the clay The likelihood of seepages and rates of flow
during pile construction. can be determined from borehole
observations during the ground
In rare conditions, pebble layers with
investigation.
artesian water conditions can occur in the
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 London Clay. Major seepages are defined as those that
wet more that 20% of the pile shaft prior to
concreting. Wetter shafts may need reduced
design parameters, downgraded pile
capacities, additional pile testing to
investigate the impact of seepages, and/or a
possible change to the construction method
to prevent the shaft becoming excessively
wet.
Artesian pressures can, in addition to
wetting the shaft, have an effect on pile
integrity, particularly the pile base.

8. The pile design is dictated by permanent Large magnitude cyclical loading can result
vertical loads with no significant cyclical in reduced design parameters for vertical
or variable component of loading. loading. Cyclical horizontal loading can lead
to “post-holing”, which may lead to the
upper portion of the shaft length being
discounted.

9. The basement excavation is not more Where basement excavation (i.e. new
than 5m. excavation) is deeper than 5m, additional
analyses to those described in this guide will
be necessary.
For example, (i) piles may have a lower
capacity when assessed using an effective
stress approach, and (ii) piles will be
subjected to more significant tensile
stresses from heaving ground.

10. The Works are monitored on a full-time The observations should be independent of
basis by a knowledgeable and competent the piling foreman to ensure a proper check
person independent of the operational on the piling process.
piling crew.
In case of problems from unusual ground
This person should also be aware of the conditions or workmanship, the competent
design basis and associated ground risks person is to clearly identify these issues and
to the pile design; from discussions with immediately inform the designer for review/
the designer. action.

11. The works and any testing are carried out

in accordance with the ICE Specification
for Piling and Embedded Retaining Walls
(SPERW), 2016, 3rd edition.

12. The execution of the works (and A good desk study and ground investigation
construction monitoring) considers can sometimes highlight possible factors
material quality and pile integrity. that may allow defects to occur during the
pile construction e.g. voids in the fill.

13. For rotary bored piles, an inspection of The base should be clear of cuttings and of
the base of the pile should be carried out similar quality to that observed in any
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 at the end of boring, using a powerful light supporting pile tests.
or CCTV lowered to the bottom of the
It should be demonstrated by the piling
pile. The results should be reported in the
records that the base is in intact ground,
pile construction record.
that is, the last cut is the deepest cut, to
avoid a crumbly and/or remolded base.
There should not be water flowing at the
base though a small quantity of ponded
water is permissible. The limiting depth of
ponded water should be considered by the
designer; however, as a guide it should be
less than 75mm.

14. For CFA piles, the pile construction Experience shows that where this
record should include the complete monitoring has not been undertaken, the
record of the automatic monitoring risk of defects increases, and there is no
instrumentation. way of verifying that the pile was properly
formed.
Observations on concrete flow at the
surface is also an important feature of The immediate availability of these records
such piles and should be recorded as per after pile completion can provide
ICE SPERW, 2016. reassurance to the designer, particularly
where there is reason to suspect defects.

15. On completion, a “piling completion This is an environmental and sustainability

report” to the requirements of Clause issue to maximise the likelihood of pile
B1.12 of ICE SPERW, 2016 is provided. reuse in the future. It also provides the
owner with a record that may allow the load
on a pile to be increased if needed in future
building modifications.

16. Pile tests are Maintained Load (ML) tests Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) tests
to ICE SPERW, 2016. are not considered appropriate for building
loads because rate effects in clay can
enhance apparent pile capacity; and hence
alpha. Patel (1992) indicates an increase of
17-20% for these transient rate effects.
Previous factors of safety indicated in the
previous LDSA Guidance Note (issued Oct
2000) were also higher as they too
historically evolved from fast tests (CRP).
These are no longer applicable when
carrying out designs evolving from ML tests.
This change is reflected in the factors of
safety given in Table 2 – Pile Design.
Note that ICE SPERW presents a concept
of 10% safe working load (SWL) load steps
up to the pile failure load. The small steps
also allow interpretation of pile tests that are
close to failure (but not quite failed in the
test) by extrapolating the data to predict the
failure load, using conventional methods
such as Chin or Fleming (see References).
Use of instrumentation (e.g. strain gauges

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 and fibre optics within test piles) provides
significant insight into pile behavior and
designers should consider specifying them.

17. Where Working Pile tests are carried out, See Notes to Tables 2 and 3 for further
they should be on at least 1% of the total information.
number of each pile type (i.e. rotary bored
or CFA) and taken to:
 DVL+½Frep for Eurocode 7 design
 DVL+½SWL for working stress
design
where DVL = design verification load,
SWL = safe working load and Frep =
representative action.

18. Geotechnical pile failure should be The only valid load test points are those that
measured during a preliminary pile test meet the SPERW settlement rate criteria.
using loading apparatus that has a Higher loads where the settlement rate
capacity to load the test pile to a higher criteria are not met should be discounted.
load than the predicted pile failure load. Because of “rate effects” affecting shaft
Should geotechnical failure not be capacities in clay, ICE SPERW, 2016
reached during the test, because the pile advocates that preliminary pile tests should
performs better than expected, it may be be done by carrying out maintained load
determined by an extrapolation of the (ML) tests to failure using the rates of
load test data (using the methods of Chin settlement given in clause B17.13.1.
and/or Fleming) to an asymptotic value, Depending on the pile head movement the
using points which meet the ICE SPERW rate of settlement at each increment of ML
is not to exceed the range 0.1mm/hr to
rates of settlement criteria. However, it is
0.2mm/hr, measured over a minimum period
noted that if extrapolation were used, the
of 30minutes, before the next increment of
design would not be able to take
load is applied.
advantage of a lower model factor for
Eurocode 7 design. Some guidance on the settlement behaviour
of preliminary pile tests on rotary bored
piles, subjected to maintained and CRP
loads are presented in Patel (1992). This
gives guidance on the likely range of
movements that may be expected at SWL
for different pile length /diameter ratios. It
shows that the higher the slenderness ratio,
the greater is the settlement at SWL.
In situations where the pile base is not
constructed properly a test pile may show
signs of failing at lower load than predicted.
Under these circumstances a CRP stage
(after the ML stages) may be beneficial in
determining whether the end bearing is
mobilised at large displacements.

19 Integrity Testing of piles – following ICE Where the risk of defects is higher, for
SPERW, 2016 specification. example where the ground is poor (fills/ soft
clays); where single piles are used; where

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 the pile sizes are small; and where sites are
congested, consideration should be given to
testing 100% of the piles.
Integrity testing of secant pile walls may not
be suitable as the signal is affected by the
pile interlock.
The designer should confirm the
applicability of the test method selected
based on aspects such as, the pile
diameter, pile length and ground conditions.

20 Pile designs using the Eurocode 7 design It is not the intention of this guide to
by calculation method shall satisfy all exhaustively present all requirements of
relevant requirements of Eurocode 7. Eurocode 7. The designer should refer to
Eurocode 7 when using this method of
The other Eurocode 7 methods of
design.
determining pile resistance are not part of
this guide.

21 Concrete is placed by a vertical and The use of a tremie pipe embedded in the
centrally located delivery tube, and concrete is a lower-energy placement
allowed to free-fall into the pile bore method and results in less force being
(though not by more than 10m through a delivered to the perimeter of the bore. This
reinforcement cage) potentially reduces alpha below the values
presented in Tables 2 and 3.

22 When employing underpowered drilling Underpowered drilling plant has the

plant and/or oversized cutting heads potential to create smoother pile bores
caution should be exercised in using the thereby reducing the achievable alpha
alpha values presented in Tables 2 and 3. value.
Oversized cutting heads have the potential
to create a smeared surface to the pile bore
thereby reducing the achievable alpha
value.

23 For piles specified by the Engineer and

designed by the Contractor, there should
be compatibility and continuity of design
assumptions between the Engineer and
Contractor.

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3. Design method

Two design methods (limit state and working stress) are presented below. Either method is
acceptable but the two methods should not be mixed or used together.

3.1 Eurocode 7 limit state approach, design by calculation

Ultimate limit state (ULS) verification

The design vertical resistance (Rd) of a bored pile in London Clay is given by the following
expressions:

(i) Rd = Rc;d = Rs;d + Rb;d for a compression pile

= Rs;k / s + Rb;k / b

Rd = Rt;d = Rt;k / s;t + W for a tension pile

where,
Rc;d = design value of compression resistance
Rs;d = design value of shaft resistance
Rb;d = design value of base resistance
Rt;d = design value of tension resistance
Rs;k = characteristic value of shaft resistance
Rb;k = characteristic value of base resistance
Rt;k = characteristic value of tension resistance
 s = partial factor for shaft resistance
 b = partial factor for base resistance
 s;t = partial factor for tension resistance
W = buoyant weight based on an inferior (i.e. lower) characteristic weight
density for concrete and a design water level

(ii) Rs;k = (d.L..cu;k) / R;d ….and similarly for Rt;k

where,

d = pile diameter (m)

L = pile penetration in London Clay (m)
  = adhesion factor over shaft length
 R;d = model factor

cu;k = characteristic undrained shear strength over length L determined

from unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial tests on 100mm diameter (OS-
TK/W sampler) undisturbed samples (kN/m2)

- the average value of (.cu;k) over the length of the pile shaft
should not exceed 110kN/m2 except where a higher limiting
value is proven by a pile load test.

(iii) Rb;k = (¼.d2.Nc.cub;k) / R;d

where,
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 d = pile diameter
Nc = bearing capacity factor = 9 for circular bearing piles in clay
 R;d = model factor

cub;k = characteristic undrained shear strength at the pile base measured in

UU triaxial tests on 100mm diameter (OS-TK/W sampler) undisturbed
samples.

The design vertical resistance (Rd) is sufficient if it equals or exceeds the design value of the
effects of actions (Ed), that is, Ed ≤ Rd. For the ultimate limit state using Design Approach 1
Combination 2, the basic form of the equation for Ed with a characteristic permanent action
(Gk) and one characteristic variable action (Qk) is: Ed = Gk + 1.3Qk.

Serviceability limit state (SLS) verification

Eurocode requires that vertical displacement (the design value of the effects of actions, Ed)
under serviceability limit state conditions is assessed and then checked against the limiting
design value of the relevant serviceability criterion (Cd), so that Ed ≤ Cd.

The manner for controlling settlement (for a pile in compression) presented in the working
stress approach below (i.e. Qw = Qs/1.2) is not part of Eurocode; however, a similar check
should be made to ensure that piles are shaft controlled under serviceability limit state
conditions. The basic form of the expression to be used where there is a characteristic
permanent action accompanied by one characteristic variable action is:

Rs;k / (Gk + Qk) ≥ 1.0

The requirement presented in the working stress approach below, to limit the pile capacity to
25% of the 28-day characteristic concrete cube strength is not contained with the Eurocode.
For structural design of concrete piles reference should be made to Eurocode 2 (BS EN 1992)
and BS EN 1536:2010+A1:2015.

3.2 Traditional working stress approach

The ultimate vertical capacity Q of a bored pile in London Clay is given by the following
expressions:

(i) Q = Qs + Qb for a compression pile

Q = Qs + W for a tension pile

where,
Qs = ultimate shaft capacity
Qb = ultimate base capacity
W = buoyant weight

(ii) Qs = d.L..cu

where,
d = pile diameter (m)
L = pile penetration in London Clay (m)

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  = adhesion factor over shaft length

cu = average undrained shear strength over length L determined from

unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial tests on 100mm diameter (OS-
TK/W sampler) undisturbed samples (kN/m2)

the average value of (.cu) over the length of the pile shaft should not exceed
110kN/m2 except where a higher limiting value is proven by a pile load test.

(iii) Qb =¼.d2.Nc.cub

where,
d = pile diameter
Nc = bearing capacity factor = 9 for circular bearing piles in clay

cub = undrained shear strength at the pile base measured in UU triaxial

tests on 100mm diameter (OS-TK/W sampler) undisturbed samples.

The working vertical capacity Qw of the pile is taken as the lower value from the following three
expressions:

(iv) Qw = (Qs + Qb)/F

where, F = Factor of Safety

(v) Qw = Qs/1.2

(vi) Qw = 25% of the characteristic concrete cube strength of pile at 28 days

calculated on the cross-sectional area of the pile (unless compression steel is
included) (ref. cl. 7.4.4.3.1 BS 8004:1986)

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4. Choice of undrained shear strength profile

4.1 Eurocode 7 limit state approach, design by calculation

4.1.1 The undrained shear strength profile with depth to be used in the design is to be a
characteristic line (that is, “a cautious estimate of the value affecting the occurrence of the limit
state”) through the cu data from the UU triaxial tests on samples from the site. This
characteristic cu profile can be obtained by “eyeballing” a line through the data or from
statistical methods. Figures 1 and 2 below present some guidance on selecting the position of
the characteristic line based on the quality and quantity of geotechnical data.

Figure 1 Figure 2

4.1.2 Characteristic line zones

Figure 1 provides an indication of where the characteristic line should lie in relation to the
mean line based on consideration of data quality and quantity. The figure is qualitative only
and should not be scaled; however, as a guide the extent of zones A to C is around 75% to
95% of the mean line (i.e. the lower bound of Zone C = 75% and the upper bound of Zone A =
95%).

4.1.3 Quality of data:

 Keeping in mind what has been said at Item 5 of Table 1 above in relation to the
ongoing applicability of U100 samples, further information on sampling methods
and quality classes is presented in Section 3.4 of Eurocode 7 Part 2.

 A qualitative commentary on data quality follows:

o ‘Good’ quality data is considered to comprise: (i) undrained shear

strength data obtained from properly collected, sealed, stored and tested
U100 samples (i.e. code compliant), (ii) supplementary data such as,
moisture content, plasticity index and particle size grading, obtained in a
similarly code compliant manner, (iii) a code compliant ground
investigation report, (iv) a good desk study, and (v) supervision, of the

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 ground investigation from which the data are collected, by a suitable
representative of the firm designing the piles. The latter aspect implies an
intimate understanding of the investigation, as compared with a more
limited understanding which would be obtained from only reading a
factual report.

o Data which only met (i), (ii), and (iii) above, and did not contain unusual
data (e.g. large scatter) could be considered to be ‘average’. A desk
study may help in the understanding of any geological anomalies.

o Data which only met (i), (ii) and (iii) above, and contained unusual data
(e.g. large scatter) could be considered to be ‘poor’.

Data not meeting (i), (ii) and (iii) above is not considered to be acceptable
within the context of this guide.

4.1.4 Quantity of data:

 Annex P of Eurocode 7 Part 2 presents recommendations for the minimum

number of undrained shear strength by triaxial testing. However, it is noted that
the number depends to a large extent on how one defines the thickness of a soil
stratum. Annex P of Eurocode 7 Part 2 presents recommendations for the
minimum number of exploratory holes (e.g. boreholes).

 Examples of good, average and poor data quantity are as follows:

o Good: UU triaxial tests at ≤ 2.0m spacing with depth, to at least a few

metres below the actual maximum pile toe level.

o Average: UU triaxial tests at > 2m spacing with depth, to at least a few

metres below the actual pile toe level.

o Poor: UU triaxial tests at > 5m spacing with depth, and/or laboratory

testing that does not extend to at least a few metres below the actual pile
toe level.

 Data not including UU triaxial testing is not considered to be acceptable within

the context of this guide.

4.1.5 Reference should be made to 4.2.2 to 4.2.5 below.

4.2 Traditional working stress approach

4.2.1 The undrained shear strength profile with depth to be used in the design is to be an
average line through the cu data from the UU triaxial tests on samples from the site. (It is
important to appreciate that the undrained shear strength profile for design is the average of
the data, as used by Skempton (1959) and Patel (1992), and not a “moderately conservative”,
“characteristic” or “lower bound” line). This average cu profile can be obtained from linear
regression methods (ignoring any exceptionally low or high values) or by “eyeballing” a line
through the data.

4.2.2 The choice of this line can also be aided by the Standard Penetration Test “N” value
profile with depth, using the relationship between N and cu proposed by Stroud (1988), which
often shows less scatter than the triaxial test results.

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4.2.3 Patel (1992 – see Figure 2) shows typical average cu lines (based on 100mm triaxial
tests) used in London and any design cu line used falling outside this range should be used
with caution.

4.2.4 The designer should consider the need for pile testing and/or further site investigation,
where appropriate.

4.2.5 Patel (1992 – see Figure 1) shows that undrained triaxial tests on 38mm samples taken
from U100 tubes overpredict the cu. This guidance note does not apply to these tests.

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5. Design parameters

5.1 Eurocode 7 limit state approach, design by calculation

The alpha values and partial factors shown in Table 2 below should be used:

Table 2 – Eurocode 7 Pile Design Factors

Partial Partial
factor for factor for Model
Direction of Load Test factor
Alpha () shaft base
loading requirements
resistance resistance (R;d)
(s, s;t) (b)

Compression none 0.5 1.6 2.0 1.4

working tests only 0.5 1.4 1.7 1.4

preliminary pile test(s)

and working tests 0.5 1.4 1.7 1.2
(see Note 8)

Tension none 0.5 2.0 - 1.4

Notes
1 The alpha values shown are based on back analysis of ML tests to failure, in
according with the rates of settlement given in ICE SPERW (2016), see Item 18
Table 1.
2 The partial factors shown also reflect ML tests (they should not be used with CRP
tests).
3 Limiting values of average (.cu) are explained in section 3.1(ii) when carrying out
pile designs.
4 Note also that to ensure that piles are always shaft controlled under serviceability
conditions, the designer should check that there is an appropriate factor on the
characteristic shaft resistance (see section 3.1). This may occur if for instance the
depth of penetration into the clay is shallow for a large diameter pile (e.g. in the
case where the base may be dominating)
5 Preliminary pile tests should be taken to the unfactored ultimate resistance.
Working pile tests should be taken to DVL+0.5Frep. The design verification load
(DVL) takes account of differences between test pile conditions and those during
the working life of the contract piles. It is further discussed in Clauses B1.18 and
C1.18 of ICE SPERW (2016). The representative action (Frep) should usually be
based on the highest loaded contract pile of the same dimension as the test pile.
Frep is discussed further in Clause C1.4, Table B1.2 and Table C1.2 of ICE
SPERW (2016).
6 In rare cases, piles can be subjected to a predominately permanent tension load
e.g. Pylon structures. Where this is the case the designer may need to consider
use of a higher partial factor on shaft resistance, up to say s;t = 2.5, unless there
is pile testing in tension.
7 The partial factors presented above are for Design Approach 1 Combination 2.
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 Combination 1 can typically be satisfied by observation rather than undertaking a
calculation.
8 The requirement to undertake a preliminary and working pile testing is more
onerous than the Eurocode (see Note ‘A’ to Tables A.NA.7 and A.NA.8 of the
National Annex).
9 Additional tensions cases for working and preliminary pile tests have not been
considered as there is little available data on ‘alpha’ in tension.

5.1 Traditional working stress approach

The alpha values and factors of safety shown in Table 3 below should be used:

Table 3 – Working Stress Pile Design Factors

Load Test
Direction of loading Alpha () Factor of Safety
requirements

Compression none 0.5 2.6

working tests only 0.5 2.2

preliminary pile test(s)

0.5 2.0
and working tests

Tension none 0.5 3.0

Notes
1 The alpha values shown are based on back analysis of ML tests to failure, in
according with the rates of settlement given in ICE SPERW (2016), see Item 18
Table 1.
2 The Factors of Safety shown also reflect ML tests (they should not be used with
CRP tests).
3 Limiting values of average (.cu) are explained in section 3.2(ii) when carrying out
pile designs.
4 Note also that to ensure that piles are always shaft controlled under serviceability
the design should check that there is a minimum factor of safety of 1.2 on the
ultimate shaft friction (see section 3.2). This may occur if for instance the depth of
penetration into the clay is shallow for a large diameter pile (e.g. in the case where
the base may be dominating)
5 Preliminary pile tests should be taken to at least 2.0xSWL and working pile tests
should be taken to DVL+0.5xSWL. The design verification load (DVL) takes
account of differences between test pile conditions and those during the working
life of the contract piles. It is further discussed in Clauses B1.18 and C1.18 of ICE
SPERW (2016).
6 In rare cases, piles can be subjected to a predominately permanent tension load
e.g. Pylon structures. Where this is the case the designer may need to consider
use of a higher factor of safety on shaft capacity, up to F=4, unless there is pile
testing in tension.

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6. Example calculations

The following example calculations are provided to illustrate how a traditional working stress
design compares to a Eurocode 7 limit state design for a common site.

Problem to solve:

 Calculate the pile length needed for the loads given.

Parameters:

 Pile diameter: 0.9m

 Unfactored loads: D = 1000kN, L = 250kN

 Characteristic actions: Gk = 1000kN, Qk = 250kN

 Working pile tests: 1%, Preliminary pile tests: none.

 Stratigraphy: Made ground 0 to 1 mbgl

Terrace gravel 2 to 3 mbgl

London Clay 3 to 50 mbgl

 Site investigation:
o Site investigation not supervised by the Engineer/Designer
o Quantity of data judged as ‘good’
o Quality of data judged as ‘average’
o Characteristic line zone: B.

 Undrained shear strength:

Average (by statistical best fit) = 70+6.3z
Characteristic (by eye through Zone B) = 60+5.5z

where, z is depth below top of London Clay

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- 19 -
Working stress calculation Eurocode 7 calculation

Symbols:

D = dead load Ed = design value of the effect of actions

L = live load Gd = design value of the permanent action
Qw = working capacity Qd = design value of the variable action
Qs = ultimate shaft capacity Rd = design value of the pile resistance
Qb = ultimate base capacity G = partial factor for permanent action
 = pi Q = partial factor for variable action
d = pile diameter Gk = characteristic value of the permanent
L = shaft length in London Clay action
Qk = characteristic value of the variable action
 = alpha
cu = average undrained shear strength over  = pi
length L d = pile diameter
cub = undrained shear strength at pile base L = shaft length in London Clay
Nc = bearing capacity factor  = alpha
cu;k = characteristic undrained shear strength
over length L
cub;k = characteristic undrained shear strength
at pile base
R;d = model factor
s = partial factor for shaft resistance
b = partial factor for base resistance
Nc = bearing capacity factor
Rs;d = design value of shaft resistance
Rb;d = design value of base resistance

Criteria:

D + L ≤ Qw Ed ≤ Rd
where Ed = Gd + Qd

Parameters:

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 = 3.142  = 3.142
d = 0.9m d = 0.9m
 = 0.5  = 0.5
Average cu line = 70+6.3z Characteristic cu line = 60+5.5z
Nc = 9 Nc = 9
F = 2.2 ..(working tests only) G = 1.0, Q = 1.3 (ULS), 1.0 (SLS)
R;d = 1.4 ..(no preliminary tests)
s = 1.4 (ULS), 1.0 (SLS) ..(working tests only)
b = 1.7 ..(working tests only)

Equations:

Qs = d.L..cu Ed = G.Gk + Q.Qk

Qb =¼.d2.Nc.cub Rs;k = d.L..cu;k / R;d
Qw = min [ (Qs + Qb)/F , Qs/1.2 ] Rs;d = Rs;k / s
Rb;d = ¼.d2.Nc.cub;k / R;d / b
Rd = Rs;d + Rb;d ….. ULS
Rs;k / (Gk + Qk) ≥ 1.0 …… SLS

Calculations:

D + L = 1000 + 250 = 1250 Ultimate limit state

cu = 70+6.3(L/2) = 70+3.1L Ed = 1 x 1000 + 1.3 x 250 = 1325
cub = 70+6.3L cu;k = 60+5.5(L/2) = 60+2.75L
Qs = 3.142 x 0.9 x L x 0.5 x (70+3.1L) cub;k = 60+5.5L
Qb = 0.25 x 3.142 x 0.92 x 9 x (70+6.3L) Rd = 3.142 x 0.9 x L x 0.5 x (60+2.75L) / 1.4 /
1.4 + 0.25 x 3.142 x 0.92 x 9 x (60+5.5L) / 1.4
Qw = the lesser of (Qs + Qb) / 2.2 and Qs / 1.2
/ 1.7
After reduction the equation for Qw becomes
After reduction the equation for Rd becomes:
the lesser of 2.02L2+61.4L+182 and
3.71L2+82.5L 1.98L2+56.5L+144
Taking Qw as 1250kN and solving for L yields Taking Ed as 1325kN and solving for L yields
12.4m or a total pile length of 12.4+3=15.4m. 14.0m or a total pile length of 14+3=17.0m
In this example (Qs + Qb) / 2.2 dominates.
Serviceability limit state
Gk + Qk = 1000 + 250 = 1250
Rs;k = 3.142 x 0.9 x L x 0.5 x (60+2.75L) / 1.4
= 1392
Therefore, Rs;k / (Gk + Qk) ≥ 1.0

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7. General Commentary

7.1 Achieving a good alpha value in clay needs good site construction processes.

Alpha reduces where:

 The bore is left open for longer.

 Major seepages leading to “wet” shafts (20% threshold on wetted shaft area taken
as an acceptable limit, provided this doesn’t occur disproportionately towards the
higher strength lower section of the pile). It is important to concrete piles quickly to
reduce risk of lower capacities.

 Length / Diameter ratio increases as progressive failure of shaft can then occur.

 There are excessive auger revolutions per unit penetration when CFA rigs are used.

 Underpowered CFA rigs are used.

Alpha potentially reduces where:

 Piles penetrate the sandier layers of the lower units of the London Clay.

 The tremie is left embedded in the concrete during concrete placement instead of
allowing the concrete to free-fall (in rotary bored piles).

 Smearing / polishing of the pile bore surface is observed during pile inspection.

 Seepages are high and water collects at base in significant quantities

7.2 For tension piles, a higher factor of safety is appropriate because of:

 A possibly reduced stiffness of the structural element.

 Creep.

 The consequences of a progressive failure.

 Lack of case data on pile tests in tension.

7.3 Where the information on a site does not comply with the requirements of this note, it is
suggested that the factor of safety / partial factors are appropriately adjusted to reflect
the higher risk level.

7.4 When a preliminary pile test is carried out, it may be possible to alter the design based
on the actual result. This should generally be done by using the result to re-evaluate the
undrained shear strength profile (either up or down). It is generally not prudent to take
advantage of a good result that implies parameters that are better than those in these
Guidance Notes. Some test results will always exceed the alpha results in this note;
however, there is no guarantee that all other piles will be as good and some may be
worse than the suggested parameter.

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7.5 A typical straight shafted London Clay pile will have some 15% of the total capacity from
the base component, with most from the shaft. A lower-bound alpha of 0.35 even with
the intended parameters of F=2 and alpha = 0.5 would have a real F of 1.5 overall or 1.2
on shaft. At this level, it is still unlikely that a failure would occur and it is likely that this
pile in this stratigraphy would still perform safely.

7.6 Where building columns are supported on single piles or small pile groups (less than 4),
the building performance is more vulnerable to defects (or settlements) in individual piles
compared with larger pile groups. The designer should carefully consider the risks
associated with such piles, see Cameron and Chapman (2004).

7.7 For larger pile groups (number greater than 15); block failure of the whole pile group
should also be considered in design.

7.8 It is good practice for the piling works to be supervised by competent and appropriately
qualified engineer with relevant experience in the construction of London Clay piles.

7.9 For basement piles, geotechnical engineers should carry out an effective stress design
and to compare this with the design approach described in this guide (a total stress
design). Sometimes the capacity from the effective stress design may be the governing
design. This also applies to piled basement walls embedded in London Clay and
carrying vertical load.

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References

Patel, D. (1992) Interpretation of pile tests in London Clay. Piling Europe Conference, ICE
Thomas Telford publication, 1992.

Stroud, M. (1988) The Standard Penetration Test – its application and interpretation, ICE
Geotechnical Conference on penetration testing in the UK.

Marsland, A. (1973) Insitu plate tests in lined and unlined boreholes in highly fissured London
Clay at Wraysbury, BRE paper CP5/73.

ICE Specification for piling and embedded retaining walls (SPERW), 3rd Edition, 2016,
Thomas Telford.

Fleming, W. (1992) A new method for single settlement prediction and analysis, Geotechnique
Vol.42, Iss.3, pp.411-425.

Chin, F. (1970) Estimation of the ultimate load of piles from tests not carried to failure, Proc
2nd SE Asian Conf. Soil Engineering, Singapore, p81-92.

BS 8004:1986 Foundations, BSI

Cameron, G. and Chapman, T. (2004) Quality assurance of bored pile foundations, Ground
Engineering, February, pp.35-40.

Skempton, A. (1959) Cast In-Situ Bored Piles in London Clay, Geotechnique Vol.9 Iss.4,
pp.153-173.

BS 5930:2015 Code of practice for ground investigations, BSI.

BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1:2013, Eurocode 7 - Part 1, BSI.

BS EN 1997-2:2007, Eurocode 7 - Part 2, BSI.

NA+A1:2014 to BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1:2013, UK National Annex to Eurocode 7 - Part 1,

BSI.

NA to BS EN 1997-2:2007, UK National Annex to Eurocode 7 - Part 2, BSI.

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© LONDON DISTRICT SURVEYORS ASSOCIATION 2017

First Published 1999

2nd edition 2009
This edition 2017