Dr Somashekhar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600 036
Email: [email protected]; Phone: 044-2257 4681
Recap Simple block diagram of
Microprocessor and Microcontroller
Microprocessor

Read-Only Memory Read-Write Memory

System Bus
Microprocessor Serial Interface

Timer I/O Port

Microcontroller Microcontroller Read-Only Memory Read-Write Memory

Timer I/O Port Serial Interface

Recap Microprocessor and Microcontroller
Sl. No. Microprocessor Microcontroller
1 Heart of the Computer System Heart of the Embedded system

2 IC has only CPU IC has a CPU+ RAM+ ROM + other peripherals

3 Need high amount of resources like RAM, ROM, No need high amount of resources
I/O ports etc.
4 the circuit becomes large  Not compact circuit becomes small  compact
5 Cost of the entire system increases Cost of the entire system low

6 Cannot be used in compact systems Can be used in compact system and hence efficient
7 Power consumption is high. Power consumption is less

8 Do not have power saving features Have power saving features

9 Each instruction will need external operation, all internal instruction, hence it is relatively faster
hence it is relatively slower
10 less number of registers, hence more more number of registers, hence the programs are
operations are memory based easier to write
11 based on von Neumann Harvard architecture
12 designed for unspecific tasks designed to perform specific tasks

13 cannot be used stand alone. can be used stand alone.

14 Clock Speed - 1GHz Clock Speed -few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz

15 Execute big and generic applications Execute a single and dedicated task
Recap Evolution of IC Technology
Year Technology No. of Devices Typical Products

1930 Mechanical relays (Mechanical

calculating devices)
Early 1947 Vacuum Tubes

1947-1950 Invention of Transistor

(William Shockley, Bardeen and
Brattain, Bell Lab)
1950-1960 Discrete Components Junction Diodes and
Transistors

1961-1965 Small Scale Integration (SSI) 1-10 Logic gates, FFs

1966-19670 Medium Scale Integration (MSI) 10-500 Counters, Multiplexors,

Decoders, Adders

1971-1979 Large Scale Integration (LSI) 500-20,000 4 & 8 bit µP, RAM, ROM

1980-1984 Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) 20,000-1,00,000 DSP, RISC, 16 & 32 bit µP

1985 onwards Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) Above 1,00,000 64 bit µP
Recap
Moore’s Law  No. of Transistors in the Processor
Sl. No Processor Data Year of No. of CPU Speed
Length Introduction Transistors
1 4004 4 bits 1971 2250 740 kHz

2 8008 8 bits 1972 2500 0.2-0.8 MHz

3 8080 8 bits 1974 5000 2 MHz

4 8085 8 bits 1975 6,500 3 MHz

5 8086 16 bits 1978 29,000 4 MHz

6 i286 16 bits 1982 1,20,000 6 MHz

7 i386 16/32 bits 1985 2,75,000 16 MHz

8 i486 16/32 bits 1989 11,80,000 33 MHz

9 Pentium 32 bits 1993 31,00,000 60 MHz

10 Pentium II 32 bits 1997 75,00,000 233-450 MHz

11 Pentium III 32 bits 1999 2, 40,00,000 450 MHz – 1 GHz

12 Pentium IV 32 bits 2000 42,000,000 1.4-2.2 GHz

13 Itanium 64 bits 2001 220,000,000 2.53 GHz

 Computer Architecture

• Microprocessor are referred to  Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a classical

computers and hence they are used in realizing the computers
• TOP LEVEL STRUCTURE of Computer

Computer

Memory
CPU Elements

Interconnections

I/O
Devices
 Computer Architecture

• There are basically two types of digital computer architectures

• The first one is called John von Neumann architecture and later Harvard
architecture was adopted for designing digital computers
• Carefully observe the Fig.

Program Memory
Processor Program Memory Processor Data Memory
&

Data Memory

Harvard Architecture
von Neumann Architecture
 von Neumann Computer Architecture

Program Memory
Processor
&

Data Memory

von Neumann Architecture

• Computer has single storage system (memory) for storing  data as well as
program to be executed.
• Processor needs two clock cycles to complete an instruction
• In the first clock cycle the processor gets the instruction from memory and
decodes it. In the next clock cycle the required data is taken from memory.
• For each instruction this cycle repeats and hence needs two cycles to complete
an instruction.
 Harvard Computer Architecture

Program Memory Processor Data Memory

Harvard Architecture

• The computer has two separate memories for storing data and program.
• Processor can complete an instruction in one cycle if appropriate pipelining
strategies are implemented.
• In the first stage of pipeline the instruction to be executed can be taken from
program memory. In the second stage of pipeline data is taken from the data
memory using the decoded instruction or address
• Most of the modern computing architectures are based on Harvard
architecture. But the number of stages in the pipeline varies from system to
system.
 John von Neumann Architecture of Computer
• Consists of : CPU; Memory and I/O Devices

R/W Memory Memory

Location
CPU
n

(a set of instructions)
Control DATA

STORED PROGRAM
Unit System Bus:
(Address bus; Data Bus and Control Bus)
& 4

PROGRAMME 3
Arithmetic and
Control Unit 2

I/O Devices
• Basic Characteristics of von-Neumann Architecture are
 Both Data and Instructions are stored in Read/Write (R/W) Memory
 Contents of the R/W memory are accessed by Location (0 to n)
 The instructions stored in memory are accessed and executed sequentially
 John von Neumann Architecture of Computer

• In this von Neuman architecture, the CPU fetches instructions from the
memory, decodes it (i.e. Interprets the nature of the instruction/command and
develops clock-synchronized steps for execution), generates appropriate
control signals and finally executes it
• The program is stored in consecutive memory locations
• The execution steps are repeated for all the instructions of the program until
the execution is terminated by hardware or software
• The data required may be taken either from memory or from input ports; the
results of the program may be either stored in the memory or transferred out
through the output ports
 Origin of
Microprocessors or Micro Processing Unit (MPU)

• MPU is an IC, designed to fetch instructions and execute the

predefined arithmetic and logic functions.
• First MPU produced by Intel and has been holding a large share of
the world market for this product.
• Evolution of microprocessors is categorized into FIVE Generations:
1. First Generation (1971-1973)

2. Second Generation (1974-1978)

3. Third Generation (1978-1980)

4. Fourth Generation (1981 to 1995)

5. Fifth Generation (1995-till date)

 Origin of Microprocessors or Micro Processing Unit (MPU)
• First Generation (1971-1973)
– 4-bit processor in 1971 : 4004: 108 kHZ and contained 2,300
transistors
– Fabricated using PMOS Technology (p-channel metal-oxide
semiconductor  low cost, slow speed and low output currents
– Not compatible with TTL Ckts (Transistor–transistor logic Ckts- both
the logic gating function (e.g., AND) and the amplifying function are
performed by transistors)
– Serial instruction processing: fetch the instructions, decode it and
then execute it
– In 1972, Intel made 8-bit Processor: 8008 and 8080  slow speed
 Origin of Microprocessors or Micro Processing Unit (MPU)
• Second Generation (1974-1978)
– 8-bit processor (around 6,500 transistors) Motorola’s 6800 and
6809, Intel’s 8085 and Zilog’s Z80
– Fabricated using NMOS Technology (n-channel metal-oxide
semiconductor  faster speed and high chip density  5 fold increase
in instruction execution speed and higher chip density
• Third Generation (1978-1980)
– 16-bit processor with minicomputer-like performance (2,50,000
transistor counts)  Intel’s 8086 and Zilog’s Z8000
– Seen the technology of 16-bit arithmetic and pipelined instruction
processing
– Fabricated using HMOS Technology (high density metal-oxide
semiconductor  faster speed and high chip density than NMOS 4
fold increase in instruction execution speed and 2 fold higher chip
density
 Origin of Microprocessors or Micro Processing Unit (MPU)
• Fourth Generation (1981-1995)
– 32-bit processor (design contains million of transistors in a single
package)  Motorola’s 68020 / 68030 and 6809, Intel’s 80386
– Fabricated using HCMOS (High density/high speed complementary
metal-oxide-semiconductor), a low-power version of the HMOS
technology

• Fifth Generation (1995-till date)

– 64-bit processor (design contains 10 million transistors in a single
package)  Intel’s Pentium, Celeron, dual-core and quad-core
processors working with up to 3.5 GHz speed and Zilog’s Z8000
– Employ DSSP (decoupled super scalar processing)
 Evolution Tree of Microprocessors
Main Branch in the Tree shows the  Development in Computers
General Purpose Processors : Data Length - 4 bit  8 bit 16 bit 32 bit  64 bit
Performance also increased using Pipelining, Superscalar Processors , Cache

Pentium 4F, 4D, Xeon, core i3-7

(Intel 64 bit µP)
Itanium I, II (Intel 64 bit µP)
RISC (Reduced Instruction
Set Computer)
Pentium 4EE, 4E, 4F
Xeon
Pentium Pro, II, III, IV
80486
(i486)
80386
(i386)

80286 (i286)
80286
80186
8088
8086

8085

8080

8008
4004 (1971)

Pipelining  technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution.

Superscalar Processors  more than one instruction at a time to be executed during a single clock cycle.
Cache  Special high-speed storage mechanism.
 Digital Fundamentals  Digital Concepts or Digital Circuits
• The term Digital in Digital Circuits is derived from the way the circuits perform operation
by counting digits.
• A digital circuit operates with binary numbers i.e. only in two states.
• The output of the circuit is either LOW (0) or HIGH (1) in Positive Logic System while it is
reverse in Negative Logic System
• LOW (0) represents 0 volts and HIGH (1) represents 5 Volts
• So in digital systems, the data is usually in binary states ( 0 & 1) and is processed and
stored electronically to prevent errors due to noise and interfering signals
• At Present digital technology has progressed remarkably from
– Vacuum tubes to Integrated circuits-Microprocessor-Microcontrollers

• Digital Circuits find wide applications in

– Computers
– Telephony
– Data Processing
– Radar Navigation
– Military System
– Medical Instruments and
– Many Consumer Products  TV, Dish Washers, Washing machine, Air Conditioners etc
 Digital Fundamentals  Digital Circuits
• The General Properties of
– Number System
– Methods of Conversion from one to another
– Arithmetic and Boolean Operation
– Weighted and Non-weighted Codes
– Error Detecting and Correcting codes
– Logic Gates
– Flip flops
are very much essential in Digital Circuits
 Number Systems and their Symbols

Sl. No. Number System Radix or Symbols

Base
1 Binary Number 2 0, 1
2 Octal Number 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
3 Decimal Number 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
4 Hexadecimal Number 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
A, B, C, D, E, F
Next Class :
11th August 2016: Thursday
(10:00 am to 10: 50 am)