9SRAM or DRAM? EEPROM or flash?

What types of memory will you use in your next embedded

systems design?

Many types of memory devices are available for use in modern computer systems. As an embedded
software engineer, you must be aware of the differences between them and understand how to use each
type effectively. In our discussion, we will approach these devices from the software developer's
perspective. Keep in mind that the development of these devices took several decades and that their
underlying hardware differs significantly. The names of the memory types frequently reflect the historical
nature of the development process and are often more confusing than insightful. Figure 1 classifies the
memory devices we'll discuss as RAM, ROM, or a hybrid of the two.

Figure 1. Common memory types in embedded systems

Types of RAM
The RAM family includes two important memory devices: static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).
The primary difference between them is the lifetime of the data they store. SRAM retains its contents as
long as electrical power is applied to the chip. If the power is turned off or lost temporarily, its contents will
be lost forever. DRAM, on the other hand, has an extremely short data lifetime-typically about four
milliseconds. This is true even when power is applied constantly.

In short, SRAM has all the properties of the memory you think of when you hear the word RAM.
Compared to that, DRAM seems kind of useless. By itself, it is. However, a simple piece of hardware
called a DRAM controller can be used to make DRAM behave more like SRAM. The job of the DRAM
controller is to periodically refresh the data stored in the DRAM. By refreshing the data before it expires,
the contents of memory can be kept alive for as long as they are needed. So DRAM is as useful as SRAM
after all.
When deciding which type of RAM to use, a system designer must consider access time and cost. SRAM
devices offer extremely fast access times (approximately four times faster than DRAM) but are much
more expensive to produce. Generally, SRAM is used only where access speed is extremely important. A
lower cost-per-byte makes DRAM attractive whenever large amounts of RAM are required. Many
embedded systems include both types: a small block of SRAM (a few kilobytes) along a critical data path
and a much larger block of DRAM (perhaps even Megabytes) for everything else.

Types of ROM
Memories in the ROM family are distinguished by the methods used to write new data to them (usually
called programming), and the number of times they can be rewritten. This classification reflects the
evolution of ROM devices from hardwired to programmable to erasable-and-programmable. A common
feature of all these devices is their ability to retain data and programs forever, even during a power failure.

The very first ROMs were hardwired devices that contained a preprogrammed set of data or instructions.
The contents of the ROM had to be specified before chip production, so the actual data could be used to
arrange the transistors inside the chip. Hardwired memories are still used, though they are now called
"masked ROMs" to distinguish them from other types of ROM. The primary advantage of a masked ROM
is its low production cost. Unfortunately, the cost is low only when large quantities of the same ROM are
required.

One step up from the masked ROM is the PROM (programmable ROM), which is purchased in an
unprogrammed state. If you were to look at the contents of an unprogrammed PROM, you would see that
the data is made up entirely of 1's. The process of writing your data to the PROM involves a special piece
of equipment called a device programmer. The device programmer writes data to the device one word at
a time by applying an electrical charge to the input pins of the chip. Once a PROM has been programmed
in this way, its contents can never be changed. If the code or data stored in the PROM must be changed,
the current device must be discarded. As a result, PROMs are also known as one-time programmable
(OTP) devices.

An EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM) is programmed in exactly the same manner as a PROM.

However, EPROMs can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly. To erase an EPROM, you simply
expose the device to a strong source of ultraviolet light. (A window in the top of the device allows the light
to reach the silicon.) By doing this, you essentially reset the entire chip to its initial--unprogrammed--state.
Though more expensive than PROMs, their ability to be reprogrammed makes EPROMs an essential part
of the software development and testing process.
Hybrids
As memory technology has matured in recent years, the line between RAM and ROM has blurred. Now,
several types of memory combine features of both. These devices do not belong to either group and can
be collectively referred to as hybrid memory devices. Hybrid memories can be read and written as
desired, like RAM, but maintain their contents without electrical power, just like ROM. Two of the hybrid
devices, EEPROM and flash, are descendants of ROM devices. These are typically used to store code.
The third hybrid, NVRAM, is a modified version of SRAM. NVRAM usually holds persistent data.

EEPROMs are electrically-erasable-and-programmable. Internally, they are similar to EPROMs, but the
erase operation is accomplished electrically, rather than by exposure to ultraviolet light. Any byte within
an EEPROM may be erased and rewritten. Once written, the new data will remain in the device forever--
or at least until it is electrically erased. The primary tradeoff for this improved functionality is higher cost,
though write cycles are also significantly longer than writes to a RAM. So you wouldn't want to use an
EEPROM for your main system memory.

Flash memory combines the best features of the memory devices described thus far. Flash memory
devices are high density, low cost, nonvolatile, fast (to read, but not to write), and electrically
reprogrammable. These advantages are overwhelming and, as a direct result, the use of flash memory
has increased dramatically in embedded systems. From a software viewpoint, flash and EEPROM
technologies are very similar. The major difference is that flash devices can only be erased one sector at
a time, not byte-by-byte. Typical sector sizes are in the range 256 bytes to 16KB. Despite this
disadvantage, flash is much more popular than EEPROM and is rapidly displacing many of the ROM
devices as well.

The third member of the hybrid memory class is NVRAM (non-volatile RAM). Nonvolatility is also a
characteristic of the ROM and hybrid memories discussed previously. However, an NVRAM is physically
very different from those devices. An NVRAM is usually just an SRAM with a battery backup. When the
power is turned on, the NVRAM operates just like any other SRAM. When the power is turned off, the
NVRAM draws just enough power from the battery to retain its data. NVRAM is fairly common in
embedded systems. However, it is expensive--even more expensive than SRAM, because of the battery--
so its applications are typically limited to the storage of a few hundred bytes of system-critical information
that can't be stored in any better way.