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COAGULATION &
PRIMARY TREATMENT FLOCCULATION

Conditioning for treatment systems

that are designed to:
Remove infectious agents,
Remove toxic compounds that
have adsorbed to the surface of
the particles,
Remove precursors to the
formation of disinfection by-
products (DBPs),
Make the water palatable

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Objectives Objectives
 Colloidal particles and other  enhance the separation of
finely divided matter are particulate species in downstream
processes such as sedimentation
brought together and and filtration
agglomerated to form larger  preparatory stage in order to
size particles that can remove certain contaminants such
subsequently be removed in a as metals, toxic organic matter,
more efficient fashion viruses, humic materials, and
radionuclides

Coagulation is commonly
achieved by adding different
types of chemicals (coagulants)
to the wastewater to promote
destabilization of the colloid
COAGULATION dispersion and agglomeration of
the resulting individual colloidal
particles

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Agglomeration and eventual Colloids

removal of colloids (primarily  0.001 to 10 μm resulting in a very
responsible for wastewater small ratio of mass to surface area
turbidity)
 Colloidal suspensions:
Precipitation of some chemical
1. Gravitational effects are negligible,
species in solution such as
and
phosphate
2. Surface phenomena predominate
Entrapment of larger particles
in the flocs

Electrokinetic Property
Electrokinetic Properties  Ionization of groups within the
Hydration surface of particles
Brownian Movement  Adsorption of ions from water

Tyndall Effect
surrounding the particles
 Ionic deficit or replacement
Filterability
within the structure of particles

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Electrokinetic Property Electrokinetic Property

− → − + High pH = negatively charged
− → − + particles

The resulting charge on the Low pH = positively charged

surface of such particles is a particles
function of the pH

Hydration Brownian Movement

imparts kinetic energy to the
Colloidal particles that have particles that tends to cause an
water-soluble groups on their increase in the frequency of
surface such as hydroxyl, collisions, thus promoting
carboxyl, amino, and sulfonic coagulation
exhibit high affinity

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Tyndall Effect Filterability

Colloidal particles have an colloidal particles can be
index of refraction different readily removed by
from water, light passing ultrafiltration but require
through the dispersion medium coagulation prior to their
and hitting the particles will be efficient removal by ordinary
reflected resulting to a turbid filtration
appearance

1. Flash Mixing
 Lasts in a minute or less.
 If mixed for more than 60
THE COAGULATION PROCESS seconds, the mixer blades will
IN DETAIL shear the newly forming floc
back into small particles

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2. Coagulation 3. Flocculation
 Adsorption and charge  Gentle mixing for about 30-45
neutralization. minutes
 Entrapment of particles in  Compartments have decreasing
precipitate. mixing speeds as it advances
 Adsorption and bridging through the basin
between particles.

Characteristics
 They are non-toxic at the
working dosage
 They have a high charge
COMMON COAGULANTS density (usually trivalent
metallic cations)
 They are insoluble in the
neutral pH range

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ALUM Dissolution
 alums are double sulfate salts,  aquometal complex formation
with the general formula
Al2SO4·M2(SO4)3·24H2O
 30 – 40 ppm dosage for
househould WW and
considerably more for industrial
WW

Hydrolysis Polymerization
 further reactions with water formation of hydroxometal
polymers such as
Al6(OH)153+
Al7(OH)174+
Al8(OH)204+
Al13(OH)345+

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Precipitation Steps as dosage increases

Reaction with calcium and
magnesium bicarbonate
alkalinity:
Al2(SO4)3· xH2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 
Aluminum
Hydroxometal
Hydroxocomplexes hydroxide
polymers
precipitates

3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + 6CO2 +

xH2O

IRON SALTS Ferric Sulfate

 effective over a wider pH
range (pH 4-9)
 strong and heavy floc Fe(OH)3
is produced
 more effective in removing
color, taste and odor

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Ferrous Sulfate SODIUM ALUMINATE

(copperas)
 cannot be used alone as  it is alkaline rather than acidic
precipitant in solution
 Fe(HCO3)2 is formed  reacts with the natural carbon
 reaction with limewater forms dioxide acidity
a more stable floc Fe(OH)2 used in combination with alum
which needs to b oxidized in the treatment of boiler
further to Fe(OH)3 water

SODIUM ALUMINATE POLYMERIC INORGANIC SALTS

2NaAlO2 + CO2 + 3H2O  2Al(OH)3  Polyaluminum chloride (PACl) is

+ Na2CO3 used on a large scale in the
treatment of potable water in
6NaAlO2 + Al2(SO4)3 ·14.3H2O Japan, France, and Germany.
8Al(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4 + 2.3H2O

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ORGANIC POLYMERS ORGANIC POLYMERS

 contain ionizable groups such as Anionic and nonionic polymers -
carboxyl, amino, or sulfonic destabilize negatively charged
groups are called polyelectrolytes. colloidal particles through their
 be cationic, anionic or ampholytic bridging effect
destabilize particles by charge  Cationic polymers - charge
neutralization, inter-particle neutralization and inter-particle
bridging, or both. bridging.

COAGULANT AIDS COAGULANT AIDS

 add density  Alkalinity addition (lime, soda
 makes floc tough (denser & ash)
stronger)
 pH adjustment (sulfuric acid,
 fast floc formation
phosphoric acid, lime, soda ash)
 decrease coagulant dosage
 Particulate addition (bentonite
 broaden effective pH
clays, activated silica)
 improve performance of
coagulants  Polymers

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Limewater Limewater reactions

 When natural alkalinity is not Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3  CaCO3 + 2H2O
sufficient to react with the alum Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2  2CaCO3 +
dosage 2H2O
Soda ash
 Advantage over lime in that it Ca(OH)2  CaO + H2O
does not increase water hardness. Ca(HCO3)2  CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Type I: High colloidal

concentration, low
alkalinity
 ample opportunity for contact
COAGULATION CONTROL and building of good flocs.
 one variable—the optimum
coagulant dosage.

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Type II: High colloidal Type III: Low colloidal

concentration, high concentration, high
alkalinity alkalinity.
 sweep coagulation by feeding a
 Feed a high coagulant dosage that is
sufficient to consume the excess alkalinity high coagulant dosage
 positively charged hydroxometal polymers  add a coagulant aid that will
for neutralization increase particle concentration
 the optimum coagulant dosage and
and hence the rate of inter-
optimum pH particle contact

Type IV: Low colloidal JAR TEST

concentration, low
alkalinity.
 do not allow effective coagulation by
adsorption and charge neutralization
 do not enable rapid and effective
destabilization by sweep coagulation
 add coagulant aid and/or lime

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JAR TEST JAR TEST

1. Type of coagulants.
2. Dosage of coagulants.
3. Coagulant aid and its dosage.
4. Optimum operating pH.
5. Sequence of chemical addition.
6. Optimum energy and mixing time
for rapid mixing.
7. Optimum energy and mixing time
for slow mixing.

JAR TEST Evaluation for: PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

Rate of Floc Formation Poor floc Inadequate Run jar test; determine
Type of Floc Particles
formation coagulant dose. optimum dose and
increase coagulant as
Clarity of the Water required.

Size of the Floc Improper Apply needed

Amount of Floc detention time. detention time, if
possible, by adjusting
Volume of Floc flocculators’ speed or
changing flow rate.

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PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

Flakey- Excess lime. Run jar test; Poor Improper Check rapid
feathery floc Lime has a lower lime flocculation mixing. mix and
low dose as when mixer speed;
solubility; required. optimum adjust as
formation of dose of needed.
light floc coagulant is
Inadequate used
coagulant
dose.

PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

Inadequate Color of water Provide low pH

Poor floc Not enough Try some flocculation is due to and high dose of
formation turbidity for anweighting of yellowish decomposition coagulant. Alum
under winter effective coagulant aid like water of natural lowers pH.
conditions flocculation. clay or sodium organic
with low water silicate. substances
turbidity Determine like leaves.
Improper optimum
detention time. detention time
and apply it.

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PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS PROCESS PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

Floc settles Excessive coagulant Run jar test to check
Inadequate Drought Run jar test by in dose forms heavy coagulant dose and lower as
coagulation floc. required.
flocculation condition. A using alum and basins Weighting Run jar test with and
of summer lack of proper a weighting coagulant aid dose without coagulant aid to
water with dilution coagulant aid is too high. determine if coagulant aid is
needed. Lower or stop
low turbidity factor and that will feeding coagulant aid.
high increase floc Velocity in basin is Check velocity and
concentration density and rate too low. flocculator’s speed. Increase
velocity as needed since too
of minerals of coagulation low velocity allows
cause poor by providing sedimentation of floc in
flocculation nuclei. basins.
conditions.

Alkalinity= sum of all the titratable

bases down to about pH 4.5

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PROBLEMS ALUM ADDITION

 1.A water contains 100.0 mg/L CO3^2- and [Al 2( SO 4) 3 · 14H 2O ].
75.0 mg/L HCO3 at a pH of 10. Calculate the OPTIMUM PH RANGE=5.5-7.7
alkalinity exactly at 25°C. Approximate the
alkalinity by ignoring [OH^- ] and [H^+ ].
Compute the % error if OH and H were
considered.
 Answer: 228 mg/L as CaCO3, 2.2 %

 2.
Estimate the amount of alkalinity (in Iron
mg/L) consumed from the addition of 100 >sulfate salt (Fe2(SO4)3·xH2O) or the
mg/L of alum. chloride salt (FeCl3·xH2O)
 Answer: 61.6 mg/L HCO3^- >have wider pH range (4-9) for effective
coagulation than aluminum

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JAR TEST
 3. In the example set of data below, two sets of such jar tests
were conducted on a raw water containing 15 NTU and a HCO3
alkalinity concentration of 50 mg/L expressed as CaCO3 . The
turbidity was measured after the mixture was allowed to settle
for 30 minutes.
 The objective is to find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and
the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at
the optimal dose

ASSG.

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MIXING
Assg.

G = velocity gradient
P = power input
V = volume of water
μ = absolute dynamic viscosity of
water

Rapid Mixing
Sample Problem
A rapid-mix tank is designed to treat 26 MGD of
turbid water. If the detention time is 30 s and
the water operating temperature is 60°F, find
a) The required volume of tank, b) The required
mixing power in hp

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Design a cylindrical flash mixing basin by determining

the basin volume, tank diameter, dimensions, required
input power, impeller diameter from manufacturers
data provided below, and its rotational speed using the
following parameters:
Design flow rate = 11.5x103 m3/d
Rapid mix t = 5s
Rapid mix G = 600/s
Water temperature = 5°C
Place impeller at 1/3 the water depth.

From manufacturer’s data, the following Tank and Impeller Geometries For Mixing
impellers are available:

Impeller Impeller Diameters Power

Type Number
Radial 0.3 0.4 0.6 5.7
Axial 0.8 1.4 2.0 0.31

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Comments:
Design a flocculation basin by determining the basin
1. Tomeet redundancy requirements, two rapid mix basins volume, tank dimensions, required input power, impeller
with this design are provided. diameter, and its rotational speed using the following
2. Because the average day and minimum flow rates will be parameters and the manufacturer’s data:
less, the detention time at these flows will be longer Design flow rate = 11.5x103 m3/d
than 5s. Flocculation t = 30 min
3. Toaccount for variations in water height and wave Three flocculator compartments with G = 70, 50, 30 s-1
action, as well as adding a factor of safety in the design
Water temperature = 5°C
volume, the tank is made deeper than the design water
depth. This additional depth is called freeboard. The Place impeller at one-third the water depth.
freeboard may vary from 0.45 to 0.6 m.

From manufacturer’s data the Comments:

following impellers are available:
1. The provision of two flocculation basin
Impeller Type Impeller Power meets redundancy requirements.
Diameters (m) number
2. An additional 0.60 m is added to the
(Np)
water depth as freeboard so the tank
Radial 0.3 0.4 0.6 5.7
depth is 4.6 m.
Axial 0.8 1.4 2.0 0.31

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