Move Making

Neighborhoods
This More Walkable
Way and Bikeable

ChangeLabSolutions
Law & policy innovation for the common good.
Contents
2 Chapter 1 Introduction

6 Chapter 2 Common Local Codes & Barriers to Implementation

12 Chapter 3 Addressing Health Disparities

20 Chapter 4 Pedestrian & Bike-friendly Code Elements

73 Appendix A Resources

74 Endnotes

changelabsolutions.org 1
chapter 1: Introduction

Walking & Biking toward Healthy,

Vibrant Communities
Take a moment to think about the neighborhood where Declining rates of walking and bicycling linked
you live. Can you easily walk or bike to work? How about to increased obesity and other chronic diseases:
to essential services, like public transportation, parks, Chances are, the more you drive, the more you weigh. In
libraries, and grocery stores? Do you have well-maintained, an international survey, researchers found that the United
uninterrupted sidewalks and an accessible network of States has some of the lowest rates of walking, biking,
bicycle facilities, such as bike lanes and trails? Are your and public transportation ridership compared to other
streets clean and attractive, with landscaping, benches, industrialized countries, coupled with higher rates of car
lighting, and other features that make your journey more usage, and found that these factors are directly correlated
pleasant? If there are children in your household, do you with higher obesity rates.1 This trend holds within the U.S.
feel comfortable allowing them to walk or bike to school? too: for instance, one American study showed that every
additional hour spent in a car per day is associated with
If you answered “no” to many of these questions, you a 6 percent greater risk of being obese.2 More than two-
are not alone. Far too many communities lack the basic thirds of American adults, and almost one-third of children
amenities that make walking and biking safe, comfortable, and teens, are overweight or obese and thus at increased
and convenient. During the last half-century, urban risk for a range of health conditions, such as heart disease
development has largely focused on the construction and diabetes.3, 4, 5
of automobile-friendly suburban communities. Many
cities and towns built during this period have wide roads
meant to maximize car volume and speed, narrow or
absent sidewalks and hazardous street crossings, few
or discontinuous bicycle routes, and long distances
separating destinations such as home, work, shops, and
schools. Meanwhile, denser, more urban communities
also face barriers to walking and bicycling. In some
of these places, aging infrastructure and escalating
maintenance costs have left existing pedestrian, bicycle,
and public transportation amenities in bad repair, while the
suburbanization of many jobs and businesses has required
city residents to drive to work. These trends have a
profound influence on our health, economy, environment,
and overall quality of life. Among the risks to health:

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High rates of traffic crashes resulting in injury and Many communities are taking steps to retrofit their
death: Fast speeds, heavy car volumes, and unsafe streets to promote walking and biking. Diverse types of
infrastructure make our roads dangerous for everyone — places — urban, suburban, and rural — are addressing
drivers, bicyclists, and pedestrians alike. On average infrastructure gaps and working to build a continuous
each day, more than 90 people are killed and more than network of pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly facilities
6,000 people are injured in traffic crashes, the majority of between key destinations. They are ensuring that routes
whom are car drivers or passengers.6 For pedestrians and to transit stops, parks, schools, and neighborhood
bicyclists, the introduction of traffic safety measures (such commercial centers are safe and easily accessible. They
as traffic calming features, well-marked street crossings, are adding features such as lighting, landscape buffers,
and bike lanes) have been linked to a decreased risk of bicycle lanes, and well-marked crosswalks. And they are
injuries and fatalities.7, 8 starting to see real improvements to residents’ quality of
life. In addition to promoting physical activity and easier
Health risks related to air pollution: Higher driving access to neighborhood resources,16 these efforts can help
rates result in poorer air quality across the region, with strengthen the social fabric of communities. For instance,
various potential health consequences, such as increased studies have shown that residents living in walkable
risk of asthma and other respiratory diseases, coronary environments are more likely to know their neighbors and
heart disease, premature births, and cancer.9, 10, 11 Air get involved in local civic processes.17, 18 Small businesses
pollution can also prevent physical activity and exacerbate may also see a benefit, as pedestrians and cyclists are
chronic conditions (for example, by triggering asthma apt to spend more of their dollars locally.19, 20 Given
attacks).12 It is estimated that traffic-related air pollution these potential benefits, it is no surprise that increasing
in the U.S. results in 40,000 premature deaths annually.13 numbers of people want to live in walkable and bikeable
Perhaps even more critically, transportation-related places — recent consumer surveys show that more than
emissions contribute significantly to climate change, half of homebuyers want to live, work, and play in vibrant,
which could lead to major disruptions to our way of life, walkable places with easy access to a range of retail and
endangering our health through potential increases services, public transportation, and jobs.21
in extreme weather events, food and water shortages,
displacement of coastal communities, and other potential This guide explains how to use one set of tools – zoning
hazards.14 and subdivision codes — to make your community more
walkable and bikeable. It was designed to assist public
Difficulties accessing vital services and destinations: health department professionals and advocates in their
Sprawling development can make it harder to access the efforts to revise their local codes, but it may also be useful
resources essential to a healthy lifestyle. Car owners may to other stakeholders routinely involved with updating and
find themselves spending precious time and resources revising zoning and subdivision codes, including elected
driving to the edge of their community or even farther officials, planners, and local advocates.
afield to get to work, schools, grocery stores, hospitals,
and other community institutions.15 Meanwhile, households Zoning and subdivision codes specify requirements for
without cars may find themselves out of luck, especially the design of future development, so language requiring
in communities where there are few public transportation bike and pedestrian facilities can create a major shift in
alternatives. the way roads are built and maintained in your community.
The sample codes presented in this toolkit are meant to
complement and implement other strategies that may be
needed to improve bicycle and pedestrian conditions in
your community, such as comprehensive plans (also known
as general plans), bicycle and pedestrian master plans, and
complete streets policies.

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chapter 1: Introduction

Design Needs of Pedestrians & Cyclists

Streets designed only for cars are dangerous for everyone Safety from crime. Concern about safety is a major
else, and they contribute to the obesity epidemic by barrier to walking or bicycling.26 Studies have shown a
making it difficult for children and adults to get regular positive relationship between safe environments and
physical activity during their daily routine. In contrast, walking, especially for children and seniors.27 Urban design
“complete streets” are safer, convenient, and comfortable strategies that create opportunities for pedestrian activity —
not only for drivers but also for pedestrians, bicyclists, ground-floor retail, daytime and nighttime uses, landmarks,
children, and people with disabilities. All modes of travel — and pedestrian-scaled lighting — can create safer and more
from walking to bicycling to public transit — must offer enticing environments for pedestrians and bicyclists alike.
safety, access, and comfort to succeed.
Access
Safety Street connectivity and a supportive multi-modal
Streets should keep pedestrians and bicyclists safe from transportation network are central to pedestrian- and
potential physical harm or exposure to environmental bicycle-friendly neighborhoods.
hazards.
Compact and complete neighborhoods. Compact and
Complete Streets. Forty percent22 of our roads do not mixed-use neighborhoods bring destinations closer to
each other, reducing the need to travel long distances for
have sidewalks even though injuries and fatalities are more
basic needs such as food, jobs, and retail. A strong mix of
likely to happen in places without sidewalks or crosswalks.
land uses can attract pedestrian activity, and amenities
The risk of pedestrian fatalities significantly increases
such as outdoor dining and landscaping can enhance
to 45 percent when crosswalks are absent (compared to
the sense of place. Parks and open space can have
10 percent when crosswalks exist).23 Studies show that
significant positive impacts on health and well-being. In
streetlights and paved surfaces prevent injuries and
addition to promoting physical activity, access to a natural
crashes, enhancing safety for not only for bicyclists but
environment and green spaces can reduce stress, improve
also for pedestrians and motorists.24 Safety-related street
mental health, and increase longevity.28 A study conducted
components include sidewalks and bike lanes, pedestrian-
in Los Angeles showed that residents living within a mile of
scaled lighting, well-spaced trees and vegetation, and
a park are four times more likely to visit the park once per
the absence of automotive-oriented uses. Frequent and week or more.29 Zoning components that directly impact
well-marked pedestrian crossings are a key feature of safe connectivity include shorter block lengths, limited cul-
neighborhoods. de-sac use, ground-floor commercial uses, and standards
addressing parks and recreational spaces.
Reducing speeds. Collisions with cars traveling 30
miles per hour result in pedestrian deaths 40 percent A multi-modal transportation network. Improved
of the time, compared to 5 percent of the time for access to public and active transportation modes can lead
collisions with cars traveling 20 miles per hour.25 Specific to a higher quality of life through greater physical activity;
engineering features — narrower travel lanes, bulb-outs, increased access to jobs, services, and retail; and reduced
and roundabouts — calm traffic and enhance street transportation costs.30, 31, 32 A well-connected network of
crossings, which can alleviate fears about walking and streets, sidewalks, and paths improves transit accessibility
reduce the incidence of traffic-related pedestrian injuries and makes it more likely that public transit users will walk
and fatalities. or bicycle.

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Public sidewalks and bicycle lanes or paths should also Cultivating a sense of safety and well-being for
connect key destinations throughout the neighborhoods, pedestrians and bicyclists means providing pedestrian-
such as schools, parks, and commercial areas. Bus shelters scaled streetscapes (e.g., lighting and signage), aesthetic
should be visible, shield transit riders from the elements, enhancements (e.g., public art or well-maintained
and provide transit information in the form of maps or landscape features), and amenities (e.g., abundant seating,
electronic “next bus” features. bus shelters, or water features). It is equally important to
eliminate elements that make streets feel less safe, such
Comfort as surface parking lots, abandoned lots, or excessively
long street walls.
Comfort often takes a back seat to safety and access when
designers consider pedestrians’ and bicyclists’ needs.
However, streets that create a comfortable and enticing
pedestrian realm increase the likelihood that people will
walk, bike, or take public transit when given the choice.
This is especially true for warmer or humid climates where
active forms of transportation can be more taxing.

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chapter 2: Common Local Codes & Barriers to
Implementation

Zoning Codes
What is zoning? How are zoning codes created?
Zoning is the mechanism by which cities and counties Zoning generally takes place at the local level. Zoning
regulate how parcels of land can be developed — both the codes are created legislatively, meaning that they have
types of uses allowed and the features of the physical to be voted on by the city council or county board of
structures that can be built. Zoning works by legally supervisors. Each jurisdiction has a zoning code within its
dividing a jurisdiction (a city or a county) into separate municipal code (for a city) or county code that creates the
geographic districts or “zones” and then applying different overall zoning map for the jurisdiction, as well as the rules
rules or regulations that govern the built environment that apply within each zoning district. To make changes
within each zone. Zoning codes generally determine what to the zoning district map or to the zoning regulations
types of structures can be located in each zoning district within a district, the legislative body has to vote to pass an
(e.g., how large or small a structure can be, how tall, etc.) ordinance to amend the zoning code. Once an ordinance
and how structures within the district can be used (e.g., is passed, it becomes law, and the zoning code is amended
residential, commercial, industrial, etc.). accordingly.

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In some states, such as California, ordinances that amend neighborhoods where grocery stores are not present or
the zoning code can be adopted through a ballot initiative easily accessible. On the other hand, restricting fast food
process. Under this process, a measure is placed on the restaurants ensures that unhealthy foods are prohibited
ballot in a local election, and if it garners a majority of in certain areas, especially around schools, parks, or day
votes, it becomes law, just as it would if a legislative body care centers. Many municipalities utilize incentives to
had passed the ordinance. A measure can be placed encourage developers to provide features that promote
on the ballot by the local legislative body or through a the public good. For example, a zoning code may allow a
petition process whereby the proponents of the measure reduction on the parking spaces a developer is required to
collect a specified number of signatures from voters in the provide in exchange for a park or community center.
jurisdiction.
What are the legal limitations and
How does zoning affect pedestrian- requirements for zoning to be valid?
and bicycle-oriented design? To be legally valid, zoning codes have to be reasonably
Zoning codes have a big influence on how pedestrian- related to the public welfare, they must comply with
friendly or bike-friendly a community is. Not only do all constitutional requirements such as due process,
zoning codes create rules about the size, location, and use and in many states (including California, Minnesota,
of buildings within a zoning district, but they also govern Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, among others) they must
the surrounding public spaces. For example, zoning codes be consistent with the comprehensive or general plan of
set standards for the width of sidewalks and streets, the the jurisdiction. In addition, zoning may run afoul of the
location and frequency of crosswalks, the placement of law when it has a disproportionately adverse impact on
pedestrian medians, the installment of bicycle lanes, or specific protected classes of people, such as minorities
the inclusion of traffic-calming devices such as speed or immigrant populations. In general, any ordinance to
bumps. Zoning codes can also create mixed-use districts amend a zoning code will include a series of “findings”
where structures can be used for both commercial and that outline the rationale for the proposed changes,
residential purposes, allowing more commerce to happen demonstrating that they are reasonably related to the
where people live and reducing the need for motor public welfare, consistent with the comprehensive plan,
vehicles. Zoning can even foster greater socioeconomic and not discriminatory or otherwise unconstitutional.
diversity in communities by requiring a proportion of all
newly constructed housing units to be affordable to low-
income residents. This is called “inclusionary zoning” or
“inclusionary housing.”

Zoning codes can create active, vibrant, and compact

neighborhoods by allowing, requiring, restricting, and
incentivizing an array of uses. For example, allowing
community gardens, farmers’ markets, or edible
landscaping in residential, institutional, or open space
ensures access to healthy and nutritious food in

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chapter 2: Common Local Codes & Barriers to Implementation

Subdivision Codes
What are subdivision codes? How are subdivision codes created?
A subdivision is a tract of land that has been divided Just as with zoning codes, amendments to a municipality’s
into multiple parcels or lots, but which remain legally subdivision code are made legislatively, through an
grouped together for purposes of a specific development. ordinance passed by a city council or county board of
In contrast to zoning codes, which regulate the type and supervisors.
intensity of uses allowed on a parcel of land, subdivision
codes regulate how land is divided to accommodate uses What are the legal limitations and
permitted by the zoning code. Just as they have zoning requirements for subdivision codes?
codes, cities and counties also have subdivision codes that
govern the process for subdividing land and establish the Local subdivision codes must abide by all relevant state
types of infrastructure to be provided to new plots. For laws governing subdivisions. For example, California’s
example, subdivision codes can require residential lots to Map Act (which creates the rules for how land can be
have a minimum level of access to public roads and utilities subdivided) requires municipalities to have a subdivision
and can regulate how many residential or commercial code to regulate subdivisions in its jurisdiction, but the
units may be sited on one parcel. Subdivision codes can Map Act preempts local regulations that contradict the
also govern how land is developed; for example, they can provisions of the Map Act itself.33 Amendments to a
require buildings to be placed a certain distance from subdivision code that affect or change the way land or
the street or can regulate the amount of space between a subdivision can be used must also meet constitutional
buildings. This can determine the type of development a requirements of due process. This means that the changes
subdivision can be used for (for example, as a shopping to the code must not result in arbitrarily depriving
area, a tract of single family homes, office buildings, etc.). someone of a property interest without a sufficiently
legitimate reason. Furthermore, changes that substantially
alter the value of private property may constitute a
How do subdivision codes affect
“taking,” which requires the government to compensate
pedestrian- and bicycle-oriented design? property owners for their loss in value.
Because subdivision codes regulate the types of services
that must be available to units in a subdivision, there are
a number of ways that subdivision codes can facilitate
pedestrian- or bike-friendly design. For example, subdivision
codes can require that a percentage of lots within a
subdivision have access to a bike lane, or they can set
standards for sidewalk width on roads that abut residential
or commercial lots within a subdivision. Subdivision codes
can also foster greater density within subdivisions and can
determine the development of combined commercial and
residential structures within the same subdivision. Similar
to mixed-use zoning, this kind of development reduces the
distance that residents have to travel to access services,
decreasing their dependence on motor vehicles and making
walking and cycling more attractive.

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Unified Development Codes
Increasingly, jurisdictions have begun to combine their those provisions, as discussed in the previous sections.
zoning and subdivision codes (and in some cases, other Combining the relevant codes in one place makes it easier
codes such as the building code) into a unified land to work within the framework of the comprehensive plan.
development code. In jurisdictions where zoning and subdivision codes are
legally required to be consistent with the comprehensive
Unified development codes are enacted through the plan, consolidation helps ensure that the codes comply
same legislative process described above for zoning with that law.
and subdivision codes. Consolidating local zoning and
subdivision codes into one unified development code
does not change the legal requirements for adopting
zoning or subdivision provisions, nor does it change
the legal limitations and requirements that apply to

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chapter 2: Common Local Codes & Barriers to Implementation

Common Implementation Barriers

Strategies to create pedestrian- and bike-friendly design Glendale, California, showed 80 percent public opposition
can sometimes be controversial, encountering strong to the implementation of a road diet, on the grounds that
political opposition at the local level. Opponents of it would increase congestion.36 A 2004 report from the
pedestrian- and bike-friendly design commonly express U.S. Department of Transportation found that road diets
three chief concerns: increased traffic congestion, on roads that carry 20,000 or more vehicles per day did
decreased safety, and the economic cost of the result in greater congestion, which resulted in diverting
improvements. traffic to alternate routes.37

However, other studies have shown that adding bike lanes

Traffic Congestion
and reducing car lanes can and do result in smoother
Some argue that pedestrian- and bike-friendly design traffic flow, particularly for roadways that carry less than
changes worsen traffic conditions. The argument is 20,000 vehicles per day. A report by the City of Pasadena
that adding bike lanes or reducing the number of motor notes that “in a 3-lane system [as opposed to 4 or more
vehicle lanes (resulting from “road diets”) increases lanes] there is always one lane for driving, and one lane for
traffic congestion and impedes flow, resulting in increased turning, making driving safer and more reliable, with fewer
commute times for drivers and transit riders without crashes and frustrations.” Other reports have found that
actually reducing the total number of vehicles on the on roads that have gone on road diets, capacity remains
road.34, 35 For example, in 2012, a poll of residents in the same.38, 39

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Safety
Opponents to pedestrian- and bike-oriented development
sometimes argue that such strategies decrease overall
safety for pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers alike and that
bike lanes in some cases actually make cyclists less safe.
One article from 2008, for example, argues that locating
bike lanes on the right side of the road creates a hazard
for cyclists, increasing the likelihood that they will be cut
off by cars attempting to turn.40

Proponents point to studies that contradict this argument,

showing overall increased safety with bike lanes and
pedestrian improvements. For example, one 2012 study
found that the installation of bicycle lanes in New York
City did not lead to higher rates of collisions and theorized
that the slowing of traffic increases safety.41 Another study
from 2009 concluded that improvements such as bike
lanes, increased street lighting, paved surfaces, and low-
angled grades contribute to overall safety.42

Cost
Opponents of pedestrian- and bike-friendly design argue by the city’s bike-friendly design.45 By 2040, Portland will
that it’s too expensive to be a priority. They claim that have invested $138 million to $605 million in bike-friendly
because the majority of people drive, transportation design yet saved $388 million to $594 million in health
funds are best spent on projects that primarily benefit care costs and $143 million to $218 million in fuel costs, a
drivers, such as highway improvements.43 Such opponents benefit-cost ratio of up to 4 to 1.46
also assert that pedestrian- and bike-friendly design is
ineffective at facilitating walking and biking and that There is also evidence that pedestrian- and bicycle-
places that have made such improvements have not oriented improvements do actually result in more
seen increases in pedestrianism or bicycling in their pedestrianism, more bicycling, and less driving.47 One
communities.44 study of cities across the country estimated that for every
1 percent increase in the length of designated bicycle
On the other hand, there is evidence that the cost of lanes, there was a 0.31 percent increase in the number of
pedestrian- and bike-oriented improvements is more than bicycle commuters.48 Other studies have concluded that
made up for by overall savings in health care costs and those who live near walking or hiking trails are 50 percent
fuel savings. In Portland, Oregon, alone, it is estimated more likely to meet physical activity guidelines and that
that city residents will have saved $64 million in health those who live near bike lanes are 73 percent to 80
care costs by 2017 because of increased bicycling spurred percent more likely to bicycle.49, 50, 51, 52

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chapter 3: Addressing Health Disparities

Health & Equity

Our built, social, and economic environments have a Residents may face difficult choices if these resources
tremendous impact on our health, and increasingly are too far away to access by biking and walking and
we must grapple with the reality that health risks and there are no convenient transit routes. For instance, only
resources are not distributed evenly. Communities with about one-quarter of low- and middle-skilled jobs are
higher concentrations of low-income people and people within a 90-minute ride on public transit for commuters in
of color are more likely to face unhealthy conditions, such metropolitan areas, meaning that low-income people may
as environmental pollution, dangerous traffic patterns, have to spend significant amounts of time and money to
neighborhood crime, low-quality housing, and high reach appropriate jobs.58 In communities without grocery
numbers of fast food outlets and liquor stores.53 These stores or other places to buy healthy food, residents may
communities typically have less access to good schools, rely on poor-quality, unhealthy food at local convenience
stable employment, affordable health care, safe parks stores and restaurants, or they may have to take a difficult
and recreational spaces, places to buy healthy food, and journey on transit to get to farther-flung stores.59 For
meaningful opportunities for civic engagement.54 Such many, these transportation barriers are prohibitive: for
discrepancies in resources can amount to staggering example, it’s estimated that more than half a million
differences in health; for instance, a child born into Americans with disabilities almost never leave their
poverty is seven times more likely to report poor health homes because they do not have access to reliable public
than a child born to a wealthier family, and can expect to transportation options.60
die 6.5 years sooner on average.55
Lower-quality and unsafe bicycle and pedestrian
Although it is important to improve walking and biking infrastructure: Low-income communities are more
amenities in all communities, to ensure lasting progress likely to lack amenities that make biking and walking
in tackling our chronic disease epidemic, we must pay comfortable and safe.61 For example, 89 percent of
special attention to the communities where health needs high-income neighborhoods have adequate sidewalks,
are greatest. Low-income people, rural communities, compared to 59 percent of middle-income neighborhoods
seniors, people with limited mobility, and other vulnerable and 49 percent of low-income neighborhoods. The
populations face particular challenges to living a healthy same pattern holds for other types of infrastructure:
lifestyle, including the following: 13 percent of high-income communities have marked
crosswalks versus 7 percent of low-income communities,
Neighborhoods without access to healthy resources: while 8 percent of high-income communities have traffic-
Low-income households and people with limited mobility calming features, compared to 3 percent of low-income
are less likely than others to own a private vehicle and communities.62 Low-income communities may also see
more likely to use “active transportation” modes such greater delays in maintenance and upgrades relative to
as walking, biking, and public transportation.56 While this more wealthy communities.63
may promote increased physical activity, such potential
benefits are offset by the lack of healthy options within These conditions contribute to the higher rates of traffic
the immediate community. Low-income neighborhoods crashes and fatalities in lower-income communities.
often lack the resources essential to health, such as Nationally, the number of pedestrians injured in the
employment centers, grocery stores, recreational facilities, poorest census tracts is more than six times higher than
healthcare providers, and other civic institutions.57 in the richest census tracts.64 The story is similar for

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cyclists — the number of injuries is almost four times higher and acute diseases.71 With large distances separating
in poor areas than in rich ones.65 Neighborhoods that feel destinations, lower population densities, and fewer
unsafe — because of dangerous traffic conditions or high resources to invest in infrastructure, rural towns may
crime rates, both of which are more prevalent in low- struggle to provide even the most basic pedestrian and
income communities — also discourage residents from biking, bicycle facilities, and public transportation service may be
walking, and other outdoor physical activities, preventing meager or nonexistent. About 40 percent of people living
people from making all but the most essential trips.66 in rural areas — over 12 million people — live in counties
without public transportation.72 Low-income people,
Unsupportive land use policies and fewer seniors, and those with limited mobility are especially
opportunities to get involved: Many of the communities vulnerable in rural areas; they face a higher risk of social
that experience the greatest health disparities also tend isolation and even less access to health-promoting goods
to have lower rates of participation in political and civic and services than residents in denser communities.73
processes, which can be exacerbated by linguistic, cultural,
and educational barriers. Thus, residents may have fewer Pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly infrastructure alone
opportunities to voice concerns about transportation cannot solve these persistent health disparities; helping
issues facing their communities.67 communities hardest hit by chronic, preventable illness will
require a comprehensive range of policies and programs,
Urban planning policies reflect these disparities in as well as social, educational, and economic support that
political participation. Even though more residents bike provides residents with both the knowledge and the means
and walk in lower-income communities, these areas to lead healthier lives. Yet targeted investments to improve
are less likely to have zoning or subdivision codes that walking and bicycling conditions for vulnerable populations
require pedestrian- or bicycle-friendly infrastructure than can have a noticeable impact on residents’ health. In fact,
upper-income communities are.68 Ninety-one percent of since lower-income and other vulnerable populations
high-income communities require pedestrian-oriented are more dependent on walking and biking, the impact
design elements such as sidewalks, crosswalks, and so of these improvements may be felt more deeply there
on. But only 58 percent of low-income communities have than in other communities. The benefits extend beyond
such requirements. Similarly, 14 percent of higher-income health — improvements that increase walking and biking
communities have laws that mandate bike lanes, but only can improve quality of life for local residents, reduce our
5 percent of low-income communities do.69 environmental footprint, and help revitalize neighborhoods
and the local economy.
Many of these poorer neighborhoods are also dealing with
incompatible land uses, such as residences located near
polluting industrial and waste facilities. Zoning codes may
not require developers to provide basic infrastructure for
walking and biking for properties zoned for industrial/
manufacturing or mixed-use.70

Mobility challenges in rural and exurban areas: Rural

communities face particular health challenges, with higher
mortality rates and a greater incidence of many chronic

changelabsolutions.org 13
chapter 3: addressing health disparities

Zoning Strategies to Address Health Disparities

Creative approaches to zoning and subdivision codes show The existing land use context is critical — a proposal to
great potential to address past inequities. This section change zoning designations may be less likely to pass
describes a few zoning tools (zoning changes, buffers/ if the new zoning is substantially different, and a large
overlays, and inclusionary zoning), while the following number of properties will become “non-conforming”
section outlines some policy strategies that promote uses (for example, a recycling facility in a new residential
health equity. Depending on your local context and your zone could be considered non-conforming). One way
state’s laws, it may make sense to get involved in a policy to deal with this issue is to “grandfather” these non-
strategy in addition to, or instead of, working on your conforming properties, allowing them to continue their
community’s zoning codes. For example, your community operations until they substantially change the nature
can develop a stand-alone Complete Streets resolution of their activities. However, map amendments may
or integrate active transportation policies into your be most feasible in neighborhoods with many vacant
Comprehensive or General Plan. As the primary land use or undeveloped parcels or in communities that are
document, a community comprehensive plan contains conducting a more comprehensive zoning revision that
policies and implementation strategies that guide the way includes extensive zoning changes across the jurisdiction.
a community takes shape. See Appendix A for links to
resources that can help you implement these strategies. A community could also amend the text of its zoning
ordinance to add requirements and incentives that address
Zoning has two components: 1) a zoning map, which health disparities. For example, a community could decide
specifies categories of places (“zones”), down to to change its zoning code for “medium residential” zones
the individual parcel; and 2) a zoning ordinance (aka to require that apartment buildings provide a minimum
“zoning code”), which specifies the requirements number of bike parking spaces. Such a change would
that apply to properties in each zone. A basic zoning impact all properties across the jurisdiction that fall within
ordinance specifies permitted, conditionally permitted, and the “medium residential” zone. Even though this is a
restricted uses for all parcels within a given zone, as well rather blunt tool (impacting the entire jurisdiction), it can
as other requirements for how the land may be built out still address disparities affecting specific neighborhoods
(such as building height limits, setback requirements, and or groups. For example, we might reasonably assume
other design guidelines). that multi-family apartment buildings are more likely to
house low-income households that do not own cars. Thus,
Zoning changes the code amendment to add bike parking spaces would
likely have a greater impact for low-income residents
One way a community could address health disparities
but would have the added benefit of improving quality of
is to redraw its map boundaries. For example, most
life for everyone who lives in multi-family housing in the
communities assume that few pedestrians and bicyclists
community.
will travel through areas zoned for industrial uses, so
they may not include requirements for basic bicycle and
pedestrian amenities in such zones. But if a community
has a concentration of low-income households in a “light
industrial” zone that borders an area zoned “residential,”
residents could request to change these parcels to
residential zoning to qualify for pedestrian- and bicycle-
friendly features.

14 changelabsolutions.org
Creating new health-supporting are greatest. See the case study on Baltimore’s TransForm
rezoning process (page 19), an example of a community
zoning designations experimenting with buffer and overlay zoning tools to
Once communities are built out, it may be challenging to address health needs.
create substantial changes to prevailing land use patterns.
For instance, many suburban communities have been These tools can be used interchangeably to some
developed with a strict division of land uses — wholly degree, but they do have a few differences. Planners
separated zones for single-family homes, multi-family can use new zoning to signal a departure from current
homes, commercial, institutional, and industrial properties, zoning (such as a new mixed-use zone) or to tailor more
which has disconnected residential neighborhoods from general regulations to a specific neighborhood. Zoning
daily necessities. In this context, standard zoning code and overlays, which are quite common for habitat and historic
map amendments may not be sufficient to transition to preservation, can generally serve a similar purpose, but as
new, more livable development patterns. the name implies, they’re a set of policies that build upon
the existing underlying zoning with additional (usually
Planners are trying to create more flexibility within more specific or stricter) requirements. Zoning buffers
this system through new zones, buffers, and overlays tend to improve transitions between existing zones,
that respond to arising needs or priorities. For instance, which may be an especially useful strategy for residential
many communities are developing transit-oriented district communities in close proximity to industrial facilities or
(TOD) zones around major public transportation hubs, freeways. In practice, selecting the appropriate tool to
or pedestrian-oriented overlays around neighborhood use may depend on the specific outcomes desired, the
shopping centers. These more targeted forms of zoning local planners’ familiarity with these tools, and political
may also help to address health disparities, since they can feasibility.
be applied to limited areas where the barriers to health

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chapter 3: addressing health disparities

Zoning for health in all neighborhoods, threaten to displace existing residents). Many communities
adopt a jurisdiction-wide inclusionary zoning code that
not just vulnerable communities affects both higher- and lower-income neighborhoods;
In many places, neighborhoods may be heavily segregated however, some areas opt for targeted inclusionary
by income, education, and race, and zoning maintains strategies using overlays or specific zones.
these exclusionary practices. For example, some higher-
income neighborhoods have zoning requirements that Inclusionary strategies may be especially effective as
specify minimum house and lot sizes, which can prohibit part of subdivision codes, especially if you live in an area
the development of smaller or multi-family buildings. where the majority of new housing is built in subdivisions.
Residential segregation and concentrated poverty can Historically, subdivisions have tended to provide limited
lead to deepening health disparities — as communities types of housing (such as large, single-family detached
become increasingly divided, low-income communities homes) at prices that are unaffordable to many low- and
may suffer through lack of revenues, lower-quality schools, moderate-income buyers. Inclusionary housing strategies
and less engagement in civic processes. These trends can ensure that new developments provide a diversity of
have accelerated during the last half-century, as wealthier housing types and prices.
households have moved out of central cities to suburban
and exurban communities.74 (Evidence indicates that this Strategies to create healthier and more diverse
trend may now be reversing in many regions.75) communities can benefit everyone, not just low-income or
other vulnerable groups. Although studies on the subject
It is critical to look beyond the neighborhoods most remain rare, some evidence is beginning to emerge that
burdened by health disparities to ensure that zoning codes demand is growing for communities that are economically
everywhere foster diverse communities, with housing and and socially diverse and that social interactions among
economic opportunities across the income spectrum. One diverse groups in community settings (such as schools)
effective tool that promotes neighborhood diversity can help build social capital.76
is inclusionary zoning, which uses requirements and
incentives to induce developers to produce affordable
housing when new projects are developed. To ensure
health equity, it is especially critical that such policies
prioritize housing in neighborhoods that are rich in public
transportation, bicycle, and pedestrian amenities.

Inclusionary zoning can serve multiple functions. In more

prosperous neighborhoods, it can create new housing
opportunities for less well-off residents. Meanwhile, in
lower-income neighborhoods where housing prices are
relatively low, inclusionary zoning can result in newer
and higher-quality affordable units and can help preserve
affordable housing supplies (which is particularly
important in neighborhoods where rising property values

16 changelabsolutions.org
Crafting Strategies to Address Equity
The following strategies — many of which overlap with
those found in Chapter 4 — attempt to address the health
disparities described at the start of this chapter. As health
risks, opportunities, and resources vary significantly
from one location to the next, a comprehensive needs
assessment can help communities determine what specific
priorities can best improve health and livability.

Infrastructure quality and accessibility

• Build a complete network of functional, well-maintained
sidewalks and bike routes (such as bike lanes and multi-
use paths).

• Require or encourage multi-family housing units to

provide amenities such as pedestrian-oriented design
and bike parking.
Safety
• Ensure that routes to public transportation are safe and
• Use traffic-calming strategies, particularly on roads
accessible, and provide comfortable facilities (such as
where traffic-related injuries and fatalities are common
bus shelters).
and in places frequented by vulnerable populations
Economic development (such as children, seniors, or people with limited mobility).

• Develop neighborhood commercial areas that include • Incorporate crime prevention through environmental
pedestrian-oriented design, such as small or mid-sized design (CPTED) principles.
storefronts with street-facing windows, bike parking,
street furniture (such as seating and waste receptacles), Compatible land uses
and pedestrian-scale lighting. • Limit and phase out land uses that are incompatible
with residences, such as industrial facilities, liquor
• Ensure accessibility to major job centers for cyclists,
stores, and fast food restaurants.
pedestrians, and transit riders.

Access to goods and services Support for vulnerable populations

• Ensure that the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
• Prioritize improvements on routes to key neighborhood
design standards are enforced.77
services such as healthcare providers, schools, parks,
and shopping districts. • Address safety and accessibility around schools and
incorporate Safe Routes to School programs.
• Use inclusionary zoning to require or incentivize new
affordable housing near key transit routes, commercial • Prioritize safety and accessibility improvements around
areas, and services. senior centers and housing developments.

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chapter 3: addressing health disparities

Incorporating Health Equity Throughout

the Zoning Process
In practice, the zoning strategies described in this chapter Develop policies to address disparities
represent a set of tools to help create environments
that promote health equity, but they are not a panacea. • What agencies or people will implement the policy?
Jurisdictions are unlikely to make progress on reducing • What performance measures can be included to
health disparities unless there is a collaborative, ensure success and accountability? Consider diverse
community-wide effort that leverages the existing health, economic, and social indicators. A Health
strengths, knowledge, and resources of many stakeholders. Impact Assessment (HIA) may be one way to develop a
Here are some questions that can help frame discussions comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits
throughout this process, from the initial assessment phase or negative consequences of a policy.
through the implementation rollout:
• How can we set up the policy for success during the
Assess current health needs and implementation process? For instance, can we utilize
existing programs/resources, or design the policy to be
barriers cost-neutral or to generate revenue?
• Where are the areas with the greatest health needs? If
it has not already been completed, an assessment of the Stay engaged during implementation
built environment, such as a walk audit or bike audit,
• Which individuals or organizations will continue to
can highlight problem areas.
monitor implementation? What resources do they need?
• How are communities that are most underserved by
• How can we ensure that the plans don’t sit on a shelf?
bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure currently zoned?
What sorts of implementation tools (such as capital
How does the existing policy prevent people from being
implementation lists) do we need to keep track of?
healthy?
• Moving forward, how can we integrate our efforts with
Conduct outreach and develop other local/regional transportation planning initiatives?
partnerships
• What groups/people do we need to reach out to in order
to ensure that diverse populations are represented
(such as community groups, businesses and business
associations, health and social services agencies, or
other government agencies)?

• Who is likely to support the policy? How can we engage

them?

• Who is likely to oppose the policy, and why? What health

messages or priorities might resonate with them?

18 changelabsolutions.org
TransForm Baltimore: Advancing health through the
rezoning process using a Health Impact Assessment
For the first time in 40 years, Baltimore has taken a development or redevelopment affecting more than 5,000
unique and healthy approach to updating its zoning code square feet, new landscaping and design requirements
using a Health Impact Assessment (HIA) to evaluate and call for clear and safe pedestrian and bicycle routes
refine the first draft of the revised code, which is called and pedestrian-friendly environments.81 Developers of
TransForm Baltimore.78 Led by researchers from Johns new buildings will have to provide a minimum number
Hopkins School of Medicine and School of Public Health, of long-term covered spaces and short-term spaces for
this HIA allowed diverse stakeholders to identify zoning bikes; this will apply to a wide range of facilities, including
strategies that might improve health issues such as sports arenas, schools and college campuses, apartment
obesity and related chronic diseases. Baltimore has stark buildings, and shopping centers.82 To incentivize further
health disparities across neighborhoods, with average increases in bicycle parking, the plan allows developers
life expectancy varying from 63 to 83 years. The HIA to cut one automobile parking space for every 12 bicycle
researchers suggest that differences in local infrastructure, spaces added.83 TOD districts also require a minimum of
which are influenced significantly by zoning, may be one bicycle parking facility for every 15 parking spaces.84
among the complex factors that compromise the health of
lower-income and African-American communities. Additionally, TOD districts will allow for higher residential
density mixed with retail uses near public transit hubs.
By combining scientific research with local expertise,
The goal is to promote the development of neighborhoods
researchers identified key strategies to address
that people can navigate using active transportation,
disparities in local infrastructure. These strategies
thereby creating greater opportunity for people to get
include expanding opportunities for physical activity,
out of their cars and instead walk, bike, or take transit to
increasing the number of mixed-use developments,
work, shop, and play. Four distinct TOD designations will
creating more pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly
ensure that the new development suits the surrounding
neighborhoods, and developing transit-oriented
neighborhoods. Each district will be defined by height and
development (TOD) districts. To ensure that the new
code is effective in addressing community concerns, city retail mix allowances. For example, a TOD1 district will have
planners talked to a wide range of stakeholders, including low-rise buildings and retail that’s limited to neighborhood
city agencies, developers, community leaders, and the services, while a TOD4 district will feature taller buildings
general public through a robust community engagement and a full retail mix compatible with downtown locations.85
process.79 The HIA was initiated to support this process As part of the Waterfront Overlay District, the city has
and has been a powerful tool for raising public health included incentives for increased waterfront access and a
concerns, many of which are reflected in the draft continuous promenade in non-industrial areas.86
TransForm Baltimore zoning code.
Many of these tools will increase walking, biking, and
The proposed zoning references public health in its recreation, particularly in low-income communities. One
purpose statement, retains or improves design standards projected outcome of the new code is that 23 percent of
that promote walkability and pedestrian safety, lays out residents in high-poverty neighborhoods will now live in
requirements for bicycle parking, and specifies districts a TOD district, with walkable access to shopping, public
that support TOD in high-poverty neighborhoods.80 For any transportation, and bicycle infrastructure.

changelabsolutions.org 19
CHAPTER 4: Pedestrian- & Bike-Friendly Code Elements

Neighborhood Building Blocks

31 Codes at a Glance Access
Activity
Center
Block
Patterns
Buildings Comfort
Community
Character
Connectivity
Environmental
Co-benefits
Green
Streets
Land Use Parking
Public
Transportation
Safety
Street
Crossings
Traffic Flow TOD Wayfinding

Bicycle Infrastructure: Parking • • • • • • • • •

Bicycle Infrastructure: Separated Trails & Paths • • •
Bicycle Infrastructure: Showers & Lockers • • • • •
Building Entries • • • • •
Building Facades • • • •
Dead Space • • • • • •
Eyes on the Street • • • • •
Land Use: Commercial • • • • • •
Land Use: Density • • • •
Land Use: Mix • • • • •
Land Use: Undesirable Uses

Landmarks • • • • • • • •
Sample Code Elements

Lighting • • • •
Outdoor Dining • • • • • •
Parks & Recreation Spaces • • • •
Public Art • • • • •
Sidewalks • • • • • • • •
Signage • • • •
Street Furniture • • • • • • •
Street Walls • • • •
Streets: Block Length • • • • • • •
Streets: Connectivity • • • • • •
Streets: Road Widths • • • • • •
Streets: Safe Crossings • • • • • • •
Streets: Traffic Buffers • • • • • • •
Steets: Traffic Calming • • •
Streets: Trees • • • •
Transit: Access • • • • •
Transit: Facilities • • • •
Underground Utilities • • •
Water Features • • • • • • • •

Note: The sample codes in this chapter are quoted verbatim. All typos and unclear wording come directly from the codes being quoted.

20 changelabsolutions.org changelabsolutions.org 21
chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Bicycle Infrastructure: Parking

Not only does bicycling provide a healthy dose of (1) Required short-term bicycle parking spaces shall be
exercise, but it also improves air pollution and congestion. located in a convenient and visible area within fifty (50)
Increasing the proportion of trips taken by bicycle can feet of a principal entrance and shall permit the locking of
help mitigate climate change by reducing emissions of the bicycle frame and one (1) wheel to the rack and shall
greenhouse gases. However, a lack of bike parking can support a bicycle in a stable position without damage to
dissuade potential riders. A survey conducted by the New the wheels, frame or components. With the permission
York City Planning Department (2006) found that the two of the city engineer, required bicycle parking may be
most often cited barriers to bicycle commuting are traffic
located in the public right-of-way. Public bicycle parking
and lack of bike parking or storage.
spaces may contribute to compliance with required bicycle
parking when located adjacent to the property in question.
Providing comprehensive infrastructure — including bicycle
parking — is key to cultivating bicycle-friendly communities
(2) Required long-term bicycle parking spaces shall be
across the country. To encourage bicycle travel, many
located in enclosed and secured or supervised areas
communities have started to provide safe, adequate, and
providing protection from theft, vandalism and weather
convenient bicycle parking at important destinations like
commercial areas, public spaces, and major transportation and shall be accessible to intended users. Required
hubs. Please consult Appendix A for a comprehensive long-term bicycle parking for residential uses shall not
model bike parking ordinance. be located within dwelling units or within deck or patio
areas accessory to dwelling units. With permission of the
Code Examples zoning administrator, long-term bicycle parking spaces for
non-residential uses may be located off-site within three
In Minneapolis, the code provides bicycle parking
hundred (300) feet of the site.
guidance for downtown districts, requiring at least one
bicycle parking space for every 20 automobile spaces.
Minneapolis, Minn., Zon Code Title 20, ch. 541, art. III.
Tucson, Arizona’s code requires builders to provide bike
§ 541.180(b)
parking when renovating properties or expanding existing
uses, and bike parking is commonly required for new
development. Adding bike parking during renovations or Tuscon, Arizona
expansions is particularly important for cities that are 3.3.2 APPLICABILITY. The provisions of this Division
substantially built out. apply to:

3.3.2.1 New development.

Minneapolis, Minnesota
3.3.2.2 New uses locating in an existing development, as
(b) Bicycle parking standards. Each required bicycle
required in Sec. 3.3.3.11.
parking space must be accessible without moving
another bicycle and its placement shall not result in a 3.3.2.3 Any expansion of an existing use or any addition
bicycle obstructing a required walkway. Bicycle racks of a new use to an existing development, as required in
shall be installed to the manufacturer’s specifications, Sec.3.3.3.12.
including the minimum recommended distance from other
structures. In addition: Tucson, Ar., Land Use Code, Art. III, Div. 3, § 3.3.2

22 changelabsolutions.org
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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Bicycle Infrastructure: Separated Trails & Paths

Infrastructure designed and located specifically for c. The maximum grade of the multi-purpose path shall be
pedestrian and cyclist use is important to ensuring six percent.
accessible, safe, and comfortable travel, especially
in highly trafficked thoroughfares. A bicycle survey d. Multi-purpose paths shall require a pavement width of
conducted by the New York Planning Department found ten feet.
that a majority of cyclists (76 percent) preferred off-street
(separated) to on-street bike facilities. e. Shoulders shall be at least five feet in width and
comprised of grass or mulch.
Code Examples
Conyers, Geo. Code of Ords. Title 8, ch.7, art.C.
In Conyers, Georgia, policies aimed at increasing livability,
§ 8-7-66.i.6
sustainability, and walkability are codified in the Zoning
Code through the Livable Centers Initiative Overlay
Alachua County, Florida
District. The excerpt highlights implementation strategies
for increasing pedestrian and bicycle use and connectivity Multi-use paths. Multi-use paths shall be constructed
through 30-foot multi-use paths. parallel to and up to 300 feet from the roadway in an open
space or common area. A multi-use path may satisfy the
Alachua County, Florida, provides detailed direction on pedestrian facility requirement for two parallel roadway
multi-use paths, making room for creative design solutions facilities. Multi-use paths are intended to provide safe
by including guidance on possible locations and required and convenient bicycle and pedestrian transportation
separations between multi-use paths and homes and to major attractors within a development and between
roads. The Land Development Code example selected also developments. Multiuse paths can be placed behind
highlights how different materials and elevated treatments homes or homes can be oriented to front multiuse
can create distinction between multi-use paths and streets paths. Appropriate access management, site distance
and driveways. and intersection treatments must be used wherever a
multiuse path crosses an intersecting driveway or street.
Conyers, Georgia Development plans shall be designed to provide for safe
Multi-purpose paths. Multi-purpose paths should connect pedestrian and bicycle circulation. The county engineer
open space areas with built areas. Any property located may require deviations from this requirement due to
within 1,500 feet of a multi-purpose path shall provide public safety concerns. In no instance shall a pedestrian
a direct connection to the path in order to improve facility be eliminated entirely from a street corridor. Multi-
connectivity, promote alternative modes of transportation use paths shall conform to the following standards.
and enhance the quality of life. Multi-purpose paths shall
meet the following standards: (1) Vehicle/path separation. Where multi-use paths are
parallel and adjacent to a driveway or street (public or
a. With the exception of golf carts, the use of motorized private), they shall be raised six inches and curbed, or
vehicles shall be prohibited. separated from the driveway or street by a five-foot
minimum strip within bollards, a landscape berm or other
b. Multi-purpose paths shall require an easement no less physical barrier. If a raised path is used, the ends of raised
than 30 feet in width. portions shall be equipped with curb ramps.

24 changelabsolutions.org
(2) Housing and path separation. Multi-use paths shall be (4) Path surface. Path surfaces shall be concrete, asphalt,
separated a minimum of five feet from all residential living brick/masonry pavers or other durable surfaces, and shall
areas on the ground floor, except at building entrances. comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Separation is measured from the path edge to the closest requirements. Multi-use paths shall be constructed to
dwelling unit. a minimum width as shown in Table 407.141.1 and with a
surface of one inch in thickness and constructed with SP
(3) Crosswalks. Where paths cross a parking area, driveway 9.5 asphaltic concrete and four inches limerock base with
or street (“crosswalk”), they shall be clearly marked LBR 100 and 98 percent maximum density using modified
with contrasting paving material, humps, raised crossing proctor and six inches stabilized subgrade with LBR 30
or painted striping. An example of contrasting paving and 98 percent maximum density using modified Proctor.
material is the use of a concrete crosswalk through an An alternative may be substituted if approved by the
asphalt driveway. If painted striping is used, it shall consist county engineer.
of thermo-plastic striping or similar type of durable
application. Neighborhood streets do not require crosswalk Alachua County, Fla. Code of Ords. Title 40, ch.407,
striping except when the street width is greater than 36 art.XIII. § 407.142.c
feet or at the intersection of roadways that have AADTs
greater than 1200.

changelabsolutions.org 25
chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Bicycle Infrastructure: Showers & Lockers

In addition to bike lanes, signage, or other bicycle (c) For new buildings and buildings with major renovations
infrastructure, bicycle facilities at workplaces or whose primary use consists of medical or other
commercial areas also promote cycling behavior. Providing professional services, general business offices, financial
showers and bike storage in office, commercial, and other services, City government agencies and departments,
public spaces increases the likelihood that cyclists will general business services, business and trade schools,
undertake more frequent short trips or longer commutes, colleges and universities, research and development or
particularly in warm or humid climates. manufacturing, the following schedule of required shower
and locker facilities applies:
Code Examples
Montgomery County, Maryland, and San Francisco employ (1) Where the gross square footage of the floor area exceeds
different strategies for providing bicycle-related facilities. 10,000 square feet but is no greater than 20,000 square
Montgomery County requires developments with office feet, one shower and two clothes lockers are required.
uses greater than 100,000 square feet to provide one male
and one female shower or changing facility for employee (2) Where the gross square footage of the floor area exceeds
use. In addition to requiring short- and long-term bicycle 20,000 square feet but is no greater than 50,000 square
parking, the City of San Francisco also mandates shower feet, two showers and four clothes lockers are required.
facilities and lockers for new and existing buildings
undergoing renovations. (3) Where the gross square footage of the floor area
exceeds 50,000 square feet, four showers and eight
Montgomery County, Maryland clothes lockers are required.

(b) For office uses with a total non-residential floor area (d) For new buildings and buildings with major renovations
of 100,000 square feet of gross floor area or greater, one whose primary use consists of retail, eating and drinking
shower/change facility is required for each gender; the or personal services, the following table of shower and
facility may be made available only to employees when the
locker facilities applies:
building is accessible.
(1) Where the gross square footage of the floor area exceeds
Montgomery County, MD. Zoning Ordinance. 59-C-15.62(b)
25,000 square feet but is no greater than 50,000 square
feet, one shower and two clothes lockers are required.
San Francisco, California
(b) Requirements for New Buildings and Buildings With (2) Where the gross square footage of the floor area exceeds
Major Renovations. New buildings and buildings with 50,000 square feet but is no greater than 100,000 square
major renovations shall provide shower and clothes locker feet, two showers and four clothes lockers are required.
facilities for short-term use of the tenants or employees
in that building in accordance with this Section. Where (3) Where the gross square footage of the floor area
a building undergoes major renovations, its total square exceeds 100,000 square feet, four showers and eight
footage after the renovation is the square footage that clothes lockers are required.
shall be used in calculating how many, if any, showers and
clothes lockers are required. San Francisco, Ca., Art. 1.5, § 155.3 (b)(c)(d)

26 changelabsolutions.org
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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Building Entries
Building entrances are often obscured by parking spaces Fort Worth, Texas
or, in some instances, parking lots that create dangerous
Primary pedestrian building entrances shall be located on
environments for pedestrians. This type of configuration
the street frontage of the building. For buildings fronting
increases the likelihood of injury and may discourage
other public spaces, the primary pedestrian entrance shall
pedestrians from accessing these services.
be oriented to and accessible from the public space.

Code Examples Fort Worth, Tex., Near Southside Dev. Standards and
Both Fort Worth, Texas, and Louisville, Kentucky, have Guidelines § 5.C(3) (2008)
encouraged pedestrian-oriented buildings by ensuring that
building entrances can be accessed directly through the Louisville, Kentucky
street. These requirements differ from the current practice
Building Location and Orientation
of orienting entrances toward parking lots, often to the
side or rear of a building. (a.) Principal building entrances shall face the primary
street serving the development or shall be oriented toward
Fort Worth’s code requires that primary entrances face
a focal point such as a landscaped public square, plaza or
the street, except where a public space adjoins a building.
similar formal public open space. All structures that are
Louisville’s code also mandates that the primary entrance
located along the primary street serving the development
be oriented toward the street or public open space. Where
shall also have doors or windows facing the primary street
the primary entrance faces a public space other than
(see b. below for lots with more than one street frontage).
the street, Louisville requires doors and windows on the
Principal buildings shall be parallel to the primary street.
side of the building that fronts the primary street. For
If the prevalent (more than 50 percent) orientation of
a building located on a corner, there must be either an
buildings on the block is at an angle to the street, the new
entrance on both streets or a corner entrance. This same
building’s orientation shall be the same as other buildings.
provision of Louisville’s code also encourages buildings
The walls of buildings on corners should be parallel to
to create a sense of enclosure by forming a “street wall,”
the streets.
bringing in another element of pedestrian-friendly design.
(b.) Retail and office uses within buildings facing two or
more streets shall have at least one customer entrance
facing the primary street and one customer entrance
facing the second street or instead of two entrances, a
corner entrance.

Louisville, Ky., Land Dev. Code § 5.5.1 (A)(1) (2009)

28 changelabsolutions.org
Building Facades
Over the past several decades, buildings have become architectural features that are cohesive and aligned with
wider, and front entrances have been minimized, obscured, adjacent facades. The code requires that commercial and
or relocated from the street to the parking lot. Vast, mixed-use facilities visually distinguish between upper
monolithic buildings present too much dead space, making and lower floors and that ground floors contain a high
pedestrians feel small and out of place. Wide, unadorned percentage of windows. The code also requires that, for
buildings don’t offer as much visual variety as a row of buildings exceeding given lengths (between 30 and 100
smaller buildings, and they provide fewer ground-level feet, depending upon location), street- and riverside
services and window displays. facades be divided into traditionally scaled modules,
giving the appearance of separate buildings.
To keep an area visually interesting and define the
spaces on the street, communities can provide for narrow Salt Lake City does not restrict overall building size
buildings with many windows or ensure that large, wide but requires that building facades in developments
buildings are broken into comfortable units by using exceeding 60,000 square feet have articulated exteriors
design features (windows, awnings, balconies) that visually and suggests patterns and sheltering roofs. The code
delineate human-scale spaces. In addition, by encouraging also limits the amount of uninterrupted building length,
small retail uses on the first floor, pedestrians experience although the limitation only applies to buildings in excess
a wide building as a series of stimulating, appropriately of the already lengthy 300 feet.
scaled locations.
San Antonio, Texas
Human-scale building design considers both the horizontal
Mass and Scale. A building should appear to have a
and vertical building scales. When buildings are too
“human scale”. In general, this scale can be accomplished
tall, they can create canyon-like streets and block the
by using familiar forms and elements interpreted in human
sun, which can have an oppressive feel. To prevent
dimensions. Exterior wall designs should help pedestrians
these undesirable effects, communities can require that
establish a sense of scale with relation to each building.
buildings taller than three stories should “step back” from
Articulating the number of floors in a building can help to
the street before extending upward. Some cities include
establish a building’s scale, for example, and prevent larger
“height bonuses” for developers that provide grocery
buildings from dwarfing the pedestrian.
stores and other forms of retail on the ground level,
offsetting the potential negative aspects of greater height
(1) Express facade components in ways that will help to
with the benefits for walkability of ground-floor retail.
establish building scale.
Evidence suggests that narrower, taller buildings improve
walkability more than wider, shorter buildings do.
A. Treatment of architectural facades should contain
a discernable (sic) pattern of mass to void, or windows
Code Examples and doors to solid mass. Openings should appear in a
The following code examples both focus on incorporating regular pattern, or be clustered to form a cohesive design.
smaller, human-scale characteristics into large buildings. Architectural elements such as columns, lintels, sills,
canopies, windows and doors should align with other
San Antonio explicitly emphasizes the need for human architectural features on the adjacent facades.
scale, calling for a pattern of windows, doors, and

changelabsolutions.org 29
chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

(3) Express the distinction between upper and lower floors Salt Lake City, Utah
in commercial and mixed-use buildings.
a. Large building masses shall be divided into heights and
sizes that relate to human scale by incorporating changes
A. Develop the first floor as primarily transparent. The
in building mass or direction, sheltering roofs, a distinct
building facade facing a major street shall have at least
pattern of divisions on surfaces, windows, trees, and small
thirty (30) percent of the street level facade area devoted
scale lighting.
to display windows and/or windows affording some view
into the interior areas. Multi-family residential buildings
b. No new buildings or contiguous groups of buildings shall
with no retail or office space are exempt from this
exceed a combined contiguous building length of three
requirement.
hundred feet (300’).

(4) Where a building facade faces the street or river and

Salt Lake City, Utah, Zon. Code ch.21A, art. 59, div.
exceeds the maximum facade length allowed in Table 674-1
060 § 21A.59.060(M)(1) (2009)
[30 to 100 feet] divide the facade of building into modules
that express traditional dimensions.

San Antonio, Tex., Unified Dev. Code art. VI, div. 6, §§

35-674(b)(1,3,4) (2009)

30 changelabsolutions.org
Dead Space
It is unappealing to walk by the blank, unfriendly expanses Seattle, Washington
created by windowless structures or by parking lots or
a. On Class I pedestrian streets and designated green
garages. “Dead spaces” like these lack visual interest, often
streets, parking is not permitted at street level unless
feel oppressive to pedestrians, and can encourage crime.
separated from the street by other uses, provided that
garage doors need not be separated. b. On Class II
Examples of dead spaces include unadorned surface
pedestrian streets, parking may be permitted at street
parking lots (empty or full), long blank walls, vacant lots,
level if:
reflective glass facades, featureless open spaces, and
garage doors lined up along the street. Communities can
(1) at least thirty (30) percent of the street frontage of
help curtail dead space by mandating that parking lots
any street level parking area, excluding that portion of the
be concealed behind buildings, requiring buildings to
frontage occupied by garage doors, is separated from the
have windows at street level, and encouraging undulating
street by other uses;
facades and setbacks.
(2) the facade of the separating uses satisfies the
Code Examples transparency and blank wall standards for Class I pedestrian
Seattle and Fort Worth, Texas, address two different streets for the zone in which the structure is located;
aspects of preventing dead space in the following code
examples. (3) the portion of the parking, excluding garage doors, that
is not separated from the street by other uses is screened
Seattle limits parking that is visible from the main street, from view at street level; and
creating a set of standards and requirements that differ
depending on the typology of the street. On Class I (4) the street facade is enhanced by architectural detailing,
pedestrian streets, parking is only allowed in the rear of artwork, landscaping, or similar visual interest features.
buildings or where it is concealed by other uses. On Class
II pedestrian streets, parking is permitted at street level, Seattle, Wash., Mun. Code § 23.49.019(B)(1) (2009)
but it must be screened from view and 30 percent of the
parking must be separated from the street by other uses, Fort Worth, Texas
the facade of which must not present as an imposing blank Fenestration (all buildings) – New building facades fronting
wall. The code from Fort Worth focuses on preventing on publicly accessible streets or other public spaces
blank stretches of wall. (except alleys) shall have openings and transparent (not
mirrored) glazing that together constitute not less than 25
Fort Worth requires that, for new buildings, 25 percent or percent of the facade.
more of the portion fronting on public streets or spaces
must have transparent windows. Fort Worth, Tex., Near Southside Dev. Standards and
Guidelines § 5.F(5)(c) (2008)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Eyes on the Street

By encouraging development that leads people to naturally Code Examples
monitor the streetscape and one another, communities
can enhance safety. Buildings with porches, balconies, and Sarasota County, Florida, employs traditional neighborhood
windows that face streets, parks, and plazas help put more design (TND) principles to ensure high-quality public
“eyes on the street.” Communities can also increase this spaces where windows and doors open onto tree-lined
type of visibility by purposely providing seating on the streets, plazas, squares, or neighborhood parks. In addition
street and by encouraging the presence of street vendors to the example below (which highlights porches, stoops,
and outdoor dining in areas that need the most surveillance. and building visibility from the street), Sarasota County’s
Municipal Code includes comprehensive TND guidance for
When people regularly keep a casual eye on public mixed-use infill development.
spaces, or even when building design makes it clear
that people could be watching, crime goes down and The Seatac, Washington, Municipal Code, on the other
pedestrians feel safe, not isolated. This can improve hand, devotes an entire chapter to addressing CPTED
the mental health of a community by lowering stress. principles. Title 17 includes comprehensive design and
Another strategy for reducing crime is “crime prevention lighting standards for all uses, specifically calling out
through environmental design” (CPTED), which can include uses most often linked to safety issues, such as parking
landscaping that’s harder for potential criminals to hide structures, gasoline stations, and convenience stores. The
behind, lighting design that reduces blind spots, and example provided highlights the role of urban design and
building entries that are more visible to passersby, with orientation in providing natural surveillance.
fewer concealed pockets.

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 Sarasota County, Florida ii. Storefronts must remain unshuttered at night to provide
views of display spaces and are encouraged to remain
5. Front Porches: Front porches may extend up to ten
lit from within until 10:00 p.m. to provide security to
feet into street yards provided they are at least eight
pedestrians.
feet deep. Partial walls, screened areas, and railings on
porches that extend into the street yard may be no higher
iii. Doors allowing public access to streets must be
than 42 inches. Porches must remain set back at least the
provided at intervals no greater than 75 feet to maximize
following distances from a public right-of-way:
street activity, to provide pedestrians with frequent
opportunities to enter buildings, and to minimize any
i.In the Core transect zone, zero feet.
expanses of inactive wall.
ii.In the General transect zone, two feet.
iii.In the Edge transect zone, five feet. Sarasota County, Fla., Mun. Code § 6.11.5.(e) 5, 6, & 8

6. Stoops: Stoops may extend into street yards in the Seatac, Washington
Core and General transect zones provided their upper
B. Natural Surveillance. Natural surveillance is a design
platform is no higher than 42 inches above the sidewalk.
concept directed primarily at keeping intruders under
Partial walls and railings on stoops may be no higher
observation. Provision of natural surveillance helps to
than 42 inches. If requested during the PMI application
create environments where there is sufficient opportunity
process, stoops may extend into the right-of-way to
for people engaged in their normal behavior to observe
the extent specifically provided by the Board of County
the space around them. Areas can be designed so they are
Commissioners during the PMI approval process, based on
more easily observed through:
its determination as to the adequacy of sidewalk widths to
allow encroachment by stoops. 1. Design and placement of physical features to maximize
visibility. This may include: building orientation, windows,
8. Windows on Primary Facades: Primary facades on all
entrances and exits, parking lots, refuse containers,
Pedestal Building, Lined Building, and Mixed-Use Building
walkways, guard gates, landscape trees and shrubs, use of
Lots must have between 30 percent and 75 percent of
wrought iron fences or walls, signage and other physical
the primary facade of each story in transparent windows.
obstructions.
For windows to be considered transparent, the window
glass, whether integrally tinted or with applied film, must 2. Placement of persons or activities to maximize
transmit at least 50 percent of visible daylight. In addition, surveillance possibilities.
retail stores must comply with the following:
3. Minimum maintained lighting standards that provide for
i. The ground story’s primary facade must have nighttime illumination of parking lots, walkways, entrances,
transparent storefront windows covering no less than exits, and related areas to promote a safe environment.
75 percent of its principle plane in order to provide clear
views of merchandise in stores and to provide natural Seatac, Washington, Title 17 § 17.08.030 (B)
surveillance of exterior street spaces.

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Land Use: Commercial

Some types of commercial and civic spaces are more
pedestrian-friendly than others. Having stores, parks,
libraries, and restaurants at street level allows people
to run errands on foot and helps create more walkable
and inviting areas. Zoning is an effective strategy for
prohibiting unhealthy or hazardous uses. A community
may want to discourage drive-through restaurants, big
box stores, and auto repair shops in pedestrian- and
bicycle-oriented areas. Pedestrian malls located in civic,
commercial, and retail areas offer prime examples of
commercial uses geared toward pedestrians.

Code Examples
These two codes require commercial uses of the type that
support pedestrian activity. Seattle’s takes a streamlined
approach and requires that all lots on designated
pedestrian-oriented streets have at street level a park,
library, or supportive commercial use, such as a store,
San Francisco, California
restaurant, or entertainment location. San Francisco’s
takes a similar but more detailed approach, explicitly (a) Purpose: To support active, pedestrian-oriented
noting the goal of supporting pedestrian-oriented commercial uses on important commercial streets.
commercial uses and laying out in detail the acceptable
uses for street level frontages on given streets. San (c) Definitions. “Active commercial uses” shall include
Francisco also specifies that such uses shall not include those uses specifically identified below in Table 145.4
uses oriented toward motor vehicles. [including amusement game arcade, animal hospital,
automobile sale or rental (with qualifications), bar,
business goods and equipment sales and repair service,
Seattle, Washington
eating and drinking use, entertainment, tourist-oriented
Street-level uses. One or more of the uses listed in gift store, institutions, jewelry store, neighborhood serving
subsection A are required at street level on all lots business, nonauto vehicle sales or rental (see qualification,
abutting streets designated as Class 1 Pedestrian Streets above), public use (with qualifications), restaurant, retail
shown on Map B, located at the end of this Chapter. A. The sales and service, financial service, medical service,
following uses qualify as required street level uses: personal service, take-out food, trade shop, walk-up
facility], and: (1) Shall not include uses oriented to motor
1. General sales and service uses; vehicles except for automobile sale or rental where curb-
2. Eating and drinking establishments; cuts, garage doors, or loading access are not utilized or
3. Entertainment uses; proposed, and such sales or rental activity is entirely
4. Public libraries; and within an enclosed building and does not encroach on
5. Public parks. surrounding sidewalks or open spaces;

Seattle, Wash., Mun. Code § 23.48.019(A) (2009) San Francisco, Municipal Code, §145.4 (a, c) (1)

34 changelabsolutions.org
Land Use: Density
Medium to high residential and commercial densities an incentive for density in the form of a density bonus for
promote walkability and bikeability by ensuring that projects planned in the proximity of existing or planned
a full array of services and destinations are within an transit stations.
easy walking distance. Although appropriate in some
communities, increased density does not always require Aurora, Colorado
high-rise development. The benefits of density can be
1. Principle. Residential densities in TODs [Transit Oriented
achieved through incremental increases in building
Development] are higher than in surrounding areas,
heights, the quantity of residential units, spaces designated
and usually transition from higher densities near the
for commercial use, or other suitable metrics of density.
transit station to lower densities adjacent to surrounding
neighborhoods. Higher densities provide increased
Increased densities can assist in creating safe and vibrant
numbers of transit riders within walking distance of rail
environments by ensuring that a sufficient number of
stations and provide for lively, interesting places. There
people are present at various times of the day. Safer
shall be no upper limit for residential densities in the core
communities can enjoy higher rates of mental health
sub-area and those densities shall generally exceed 60
due to decreased stress levels, and a dense community
units per acres.
generally emits fewer greenhouse gases per capita, which
can help mitigate climate change.
2. Required Densities. Residential densities shall be defined
by the station area plan. Where no station area plan has
Requiring higher-density development around transit
been adopted, minimum densities shall be as follows:
centers is appropriate. Concentrating homes and
commercial areas around transit stops helps ensure
Core Area: 60 units per acre,
sufficient ridership levels to support the transit line, and
diverse commercial uses create interesting and lively General Area: 40 units per acre,
destinations at transit stops. Transition Area: 20 units per acre.

Cities can promote higher density by requiring a minimum Aurora, Co., Building and Zoning Code ch. 146, art. 7,
Floor Area Ratio (FAR), measured by dividing the building div. 6, § 146-728(C) (2009)
footprint (sum of all floor areas) by the size of the parcel.
Thus, a three-story building that covers 100 percent of the San Diego, California
parcel area would have a FAR of 3.
Density. The combined mixed-use core and residential
components of the urban village shall have an average
Code Examples density of at least 18 dwelling units per net acre. Maximum
Both of these codes promote higher densities around permitted density shall be determined by the base zone
transit stations as part of transit-oriented development regulations. A 10 percent density bonus over the base zone
policies. In Aurora, Colorado, the zoning code sets a range density may be permitted for projects located within 2,000
of minimum densities that decrease with distance from feet of an existing or planned light rail transit station or
the transit station. San Diego requires an average density other trunk transit line station, unless stated otherwise in
rather than a minimum density. Although San Diego’s the applicable land use plan.
average density requirement of 18 units per acre is much
lower than Aurora’s, it appears sufficient to support San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code ch. 13, art. 2, div. 11, §
transit and provide an active street life. San Diego offers 132.1107(a) (2009)

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Land Use: Mix

Neighborhoods that have a mix of uses allow people to Code Examples
run errands, commute to work, and access daily services
without the need to drive. Portland, Oregon’s code creatively uses traditional
zones and overlay zones to provide for a mixture of
Mixed-use storefronts that open out to sidewalks are uses. Neighborhood commercial zones (1 and 2) contain
more attractive and interesting and invite pedestrian flexibility to foster different uses, and the code limits the
activity. Codes can require or incentivize development that size of commercial uses to moderate potential negative
includes a combination of uses that are mixed vertically consequences of mixing residential and commercial uses.
(within the same building) or horizontally (along the same
block). Mixed-use developments promote health — through In encouraging a mixture of land uses, the code from St.
increased physical activity, and social and mental health Lucie County, Florida, takes a citywide approach, requiring
outcomes — while providing environmental co-benefits such a mix of uses in each neighborhood. Rather than simply
as improved air quality and the preservation of open spaces. allowing different types of uses, St. Lucie’s code requires
that each neighborhood contain a minimum number
of retail and civic building lots. St. Lucie provides for
continuous street walls and accounts for transitions in
scale and type, placing considerable emphasis on urban
design and aesthetic impact.

Portland, Oregon
A. Neighborhood Commercial 1 zone. The Neighborhood
Commercial 1 (CN1) zone is intended for small sites in
or near dense residential neighborhoods. The zone
encourages the provision of small scale retail and service
uses for nearby residential areas. Some uses which are not
retail or service in nature are also allowed so a variety of
uses may locate in existing buildings. Uses are restricted
in size to promote a local orientation and to limit adverse
impacts on nearby residential areas. Development is
intended to be pedestrian-oriented and compatible with
the scale of surrounding residential areas. Parking areas
are restricted, since their appearance is generally out of
character with the surrounding residential development
and the desired orientation of the uses.

B. Neighborhood Commercial 2 zone. The Neighborhood

Commercial 2 (CN2) zone is intended for small commercial
sites and areas in or near less dense or developing
residential neighborhoods. The emphasis of the zone is on

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uses which will provide services for the nearby residential
areas, and on other uses which are small scale and have
little impact. Uses are limited in intensity to promote
their local orientation and to limit adverse impacts on
nearby residential areas. Development is expected to be
predominantly auto accommodating, except where the site
is adjacent to a transit street or in a Pedestrian District.

Portland, Or., Zoning Code § 33.130.030(A-B) (2009)

St. Lucie County, Florida

e. Lot Types:

(1) Each neighborhood must contain a mixture of lot types

to provide a variety of uses and diverse housing options
within the neighborhood. Differing lot types may be placed
back-to-back on a single block to provide harmonious
transitions between lot types. Lot types should be selected
to provide buildings of like scale and massing on opposite
sides of streets.

Each neighborhood must contain at least one Mixed-Use

or Retail Building Lot.

Each neighborhood must contain at least three Civic

Building Lots; one civic building must be constructed
within two years after development commences.

St. Lucie County, Fla., Land Dev. Code ch. 3, § 3.01.03.

EE.2.e(1) (2009)

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Land Use: Undesirable Uses

Many neighborhoods are saturated with unhealthy,
automotive-oriented, or hazardous uses. Unhealthy
food retail such as fast food or liquor stores, especially
those in close proximity to schools and public parks,
can fuel consumption of unhealthy food by children and
disadvantaged populations.

Code Examples
Local governments can, and often do, limit the location
of fast food restaurants to non-residential districts.
Communities can also regulate the density of fast
food restaurants by limiting the total number of
restaurants allowed; establishing spacing standards
between restaurants; and restricting fast food around
sensitive uses such as schools or playgrounds. Carlsbad,
California, prohibits drive-thru restaurants within all zone
designations; while Detroit prohibits fast food restaurants
within 500 feet of any school — defined in their zoning Carlsbad, California
code as public or private primary, elementary, middle,
a. Drive-thru restaurants are prohibited within all zones
junior high, or high school.
in the city, including coastal zone properties. The drive-
thru restaurant prohibition applies citywide to all existing
and proposed specific plans, master plans, and related
amendments. Drive-thru restaurants that are either existing
or have received final approvals on January 5, 1998 are
allowed to continue in existence subject to the terms and
conditions of this code and the conditional use permit or
other discretionary permit permitting them and may apply
for and may be granted CUP extensions under this code.

Zoning Code. Title 21, ch. 21.42 §21.42.140(B)(50)

Detroit, Michigan
Use Type: Restaurant, carry-out or fast food

Minimum Distance from Other Use Types (Existing or

Approved): School (not including Educational institutions):
500 feet

Municipal Code §61-12-91 (2008)

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Landmarks
Landmarks serve as points of reference for pedestrians (2) Safeguard the city’s historic, aesthetic and cultural
and others as they find their way. Landmarks help people heritage, as embodied and reflected in such landmarks to
recognize and remember routes, they contribute to the next search terms and districts;
identity and character of an area, and they can act as
gateways that orient travelers who are approaching or (3) Foster civic pride in the accomplishments of the past;
leaving a district. Landmarks can include monuments,
natural objects, buildings, or other structures that have (4) Protect and enhance the city’s attraction to visitors
notable physical features or historical significance. A and the support and stimulus to the economy thereby
landmark such as a plaza or square can also serve as a provided; and
place where people gather or events take place.
(5) Promote the use of landmarks and historic districts for
the education, pleasure, and welfare of the people of the
Code Examples
District of Columbia.
Washington, DC’s code spells out the historic value of
landmarks and calls for their protection and enhancement. D.C. Code § 6-1101(a) (2009)

In Aurora, Colorado, the code calls for the dedication of

land for neighborhood parks, community parks, other park
uses, and trails. Park requirements for developments in
urbanized areas, transit-oriented development, or infill
locations can satisfy their parks requirements by providing
accessible and useable public spaces. The code will likely
lead to sites that people identify with a place, and may
create lovely meeting points and reference points for
travel orientation, although these places may not rise to
the order of historic or monumental landmarks.

Washington, District of Columbia

It is hereby declared as a matter of public policy that
the protection, enhancement, and perpetuation of
properties of historical, cultural, and esthetic merit are
in the interests of the health, prosperity, and welfare of
the people of the District of Columbia. Therefore, this
subchapter is intended to:

(1) Effect and accomplish the protection, enhancement,

and perpetuation of improvements and landscape features
of landmark districts which represent distinctive elements
of the city’s cultural, social, economic, political, and
architectural history;

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Aurora, Colorado (2) Desired Public Spaces. Any public space intended to
satisfy land dedication requirements of section 147-48(b)
(1) Principle. Plazas, main streets, squares or open space
of this code shall conform to the criteria set forth in
are used to create enduring and memorable public spaces.
the Parks and Open Space Dedication and Development
These spaces are part of a highly integrated system of
Criteria Manual. Small Urban Park (SUP) is a park
streets, walkways, and buildings that create a sense of
classification that may be used to advance the above
enclosure on the street where citizens walk, recreate,
principles of public spaces while concurrently serving park
congregate and interact. These spaces use interesting
needs of an urban population in a TOD.
entryways and features. Intense uses around these spaces
will activate them and make them lively. The public spaces
Main streets shall be designed as attractive public areas
are adjacent or well-connected to the transit station.
with quality streetscaping, provision of space for sidewalk
Outdoor commercial activities, such as outdoor restaurant
cafés, and at the appropriate width for the volume of
seating, will be encouraged as part of the transition
pedestrians.
between wholly public outdoor space and wholly private
building space.
Aurora, Co., Building and Zoning Code ch. 146, art. 7,
div. 6, § 146-728(F)(1)(2) (2009)

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Lighting
Lighting that is designed for pedestrians is important in
areas in which people will walk after dark. Such lighting
is important to address actual personal and traffic safety
concerns, as well as to increase the perception of safety
and encourage use of the area after dark.

Pedestrian-scale lighting differs from standard road

lighting in a variety of ways. First, it is closer to the
ground. In addition, it is spaced together closely to create
an even lighting of the sidewalk instead of alternating
bright and dark spaces. Pedestrian oriented lighting also
usually features a white light, rather than yellow light,
which is more inviting to pedestrians. Finally, pedestrians
appreciate and enjoy lamps that have interesting or
attractive shapes. As a further benefit, human-scale
lighting, like other street furniture, alerts drivers to the
presence of pedestrians in an area.

Code Example Nashville and Davidson County, Tennessee

Nashville and Davidson County, Tennessee, requires that Lighting. Lighting shall be designed and located at a
lighting be designed and located at a pedestrian scale. It pedestrian scale consistent with pedestrian movements
specifies that lighting should be shielded to avoid glare, and the neighborhood. Lighting shall be concealed or
and acknowledges the aesthetic function of lighting by shielded to avoid glare and off-site impacts on abutting
requiring compatibility with surrounding properties. Rather properties. Lighting poles and fixtures shall be compatible
than stating that lighting should be pedestrian scale, with the function and design of the feature and abutting
language that is subject to varying interpretations, San properties.
Antonio specifies that pedestrian-oriented lighting is not
Nashville and Davidson County, Tenn Code part II, tit 17,
to exceed the objective measure of 15 feet off the ground.
ch 17.40, art IV, § 17.40.160(F)(3) (2009)

San Antonio, Texas

Provide Lighting for Pedestrian Ways That is Low Scaled
for Walking.

A. The position of a lamp in a pedestrian-way light should

not exceed fifteen (15) feet in height above the ground.

San Antonio, Tex., Unified Dev. Code art. VI, div. 6, §

35-673(j)(2) (2009)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Outdoor Dining
Dining outdoors is inviting and can turn areas into a (1) The width of the sidewalk;
pedestrian and community destination. Sidewalk cafes
and restaurants create a lively street environment that (2) The design and relationship of the cafe to other
can serve to deter crime. Increased daytime and nighttime existing or planned uses in the vicinity;
activity can enhance the social fabric of a community,
providing important social and mental health benefits. (3) The amount of pedestrian use and the impact of the
cafe’s location on pedestrian activity; and
Communities can promote outdoor dining by expanding
sidewalks, implementing zoning codes that define outdoor (4) The ability of the cafe to fit the character of the area,
dining as an allowed use, and ensuring that the dining create an outdoor pedestrian plaza, intensify pedestrian
areas and surrounding areas provide safe pedestrian activity, and make the street activity more attractive.
environments.
(i) The furnishings of the interior of a sidewalk cafe shall
Code Examples consist solely of moveable tables, moveable chairs, and
San Diego and Montgomery, Alabama, take two different moveable umbrellas. Landscaping may be placed in
approaches to enlivening the pedestrian environment moveable planters or planted in the ground inside the
through outdoor eating. delineated cafe area adjacent to the barrier. Lighting
fixtures may be permanently affixed to the front of the
San Diego’s code does so by permitting sidewalk cafes main building.
within Commercial and Industrial Base Zones. Sidewalk
café furnishings must be movable or affixed to adjacent San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code ch. 14, art. 1, div. 6,
buildings. The decision to allow a sidewalk café in a §§ 141.0621 (a) (2009)
given location is discretionary; major factors in the
determination include the effect on pedestrians’ right of Montgomery, Alabama
way, and the ability of the café to make the area more
attractive to pedestrians and increase pedestrian traffic. Permitted merchandise. No merchandise shall be sold by
a vendor from a cart or kiosk in a vending district except
In Montgomery, Alabama, the zoning code allows for food the merchandise approved. Permitted merchandise shall
vending by sidewalk vendors. Having found that “[v]ending be limited to rental of boats, jet skis (or similar water
on the public sidewalks promotes the public convenience sports equipment), food and non-alcoholic beverages such
by contributing to an active and attractive pedestrian as, but not limited to, biscuits or sandwiches made from
environment,” the code creates a specified vending district biscuits, hot dogs, sausages, bagels, pastries, candy, fresh
wherein vending is permitted, requires vendors to be licensed, fruit, tamales, burritos, kebabs, sushi, chicken, beef or
and restricts sales to food and non-alcoholic beverages. pork meat, prepackaged sandwiches, chips, popcorn, nuts,
pretzels, ice products, ice cream, milk products, frozen
San Diego, California yogurt, hot and cold beverages containing no alcohol, and
(a) The decision maker will evaluate the following to condiments related to permitted merchandise. Tobacco
determine if a sidewalk cafe is a suitable use for the products are not permitted merchandise.
proposed site and will not infringe on the use of the public
right-of-way by pedestrians: Montgomery, Ala., Code app. C, art. VI, § 10.14.1.D (2007)

42 changelabsolutions.org
Parks & Recreation Spaces
Parks and public spaces such as playgrounds, fields, Code Examples
and gardens are critical elements of an appealing and
In Montgomery, Alabama, public space requirements
healthy neighborhood. Well maintained and well used
are very innovative. The code requires that a certain
public spaces also increase safety by promoting activity
percentage of each pedestrian shed is reserved for public
throughout the day and night. When these areas are open space, requiring that playgrounds be located within
integrated into a neighborhood and are accompanied by 1000 feet of every residential use. By requiring that public
commercial enterprises, they increase the use of public spaces border streets, Montgomery’s code increases the
spaces, add to the character of a neighborhood, and create appeal of such spaces, since public spaces that appear as
a sense of place, all of which encourage pedestrians. These extensions of the sidewalk receive more impulsive use and
spaces not only provide areas for physical activity, they add visual interest and appeal to the street.
also provide important mental health benefits, reinforce
In Cambridge, Massachusetts, the code provides for an
the social fabric of a community, and provide important
interesting mechanism to increase and preserve public
ecological functions.
space within a redevelopment district. The code provides a
density bonus available only with provision of at least 2.2
Parks, if large enough and heavily forested, can also be
acres of public open space, half or more to be contiguous
used by a city to offset its greenhouse gas emissions as
and within a designated neighborhood. Additionally, the
the trees sequester carbon from the atmosphere. These total open space within the district may not shrink below
carbon offset “credits” can be sold on the California cap 100,000 square feet even if the density bonus is not
and trade market if the development of the forested used. The code spells out a choice of property control
area complies with certain validation and verification approaches to ensure that the space remains public for 75
procedures. years or longer.

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Montgomery, Alabama Cambridge, Massachusetts

(a.) Each Pedestrian Shed shall assign at least 5 percent of 15.41 Public Open Space Requirement.
its urbanized area to Civic Space…
As an incentive for the maximum allowable density as
(c.) Each Pedestrian Shed shall contain at least one main provided in Subsection 15.32.1 there is a requirement that
Civic Space. The main Civic Space shall be within 800 feet a minimum amount of one hundred thousand (100,000)
of the geographic center of each Pedestrian Shed, unless square feet within the District be permanently reserved
topographic conditions, existing Thoroughfare alignments, or designated (without reference to location) as publicly
or other circumstances require otherwise. beneficial open space accessible at ground level as set
forth in Section 15.32.5. No development shall be allowed
(d.) Within 1000 feet of every lot in residential use, a Civic which would permanently reduce publicly beneficial open
Space designed and equipped as a playground shall be space in the District below one hundred thousand (100,000)
provided. square feet. A minimum of fifty thousand (50,000) square
feet of contiguous publicly beneficial open space shall
(e.) Each Civic Space shall have a minimum of 50 percent be located west of Sidney Street. The initial location
of its perimeter enfronting a Thoroughfare. of the required publicly beneficial open space shall be
guaranteed through one or more of the following.
Montgomery, Ala., Zon. Code app. C, art. VI,
§ 10.14.2(2.7.2)(a.-e.) (2007) Cambridge, Mass., Zoning Ord. § 15.41 (2009)
(Mun. Code § 17.04.010)

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Public Art
Public art pieces (such as sculptures or murals in plazas,
parks, or buildings) create active destinations for art
lovers, give character to an area, and serve as landmarks,
helping people find their way. Involving community
members in the process can deter graffiti and enhance a
sense of community.

Code Examples
In Minneapolis, the code encourages developers to provide
public art by providing floor area ratio premiums as an
incentive. To qualify, the art must meet or exceed a given
value based upon the capital cost of the principal structure
in the development itself. The art must be highly visible to
the public, and the developer is responsible for ongoing
maintenance. Aurora, Colorado, requires every major
development project within transit-oriented development
districts to provide public art. The required art can include
sculpture or consist of architectural elements in a building
facade. Aurora also sets a minimum expenditure for the
art, and requires the submission of a public art plan.

Minneapolis, Minnesota Aurora, Colorado

Public art, subject to the following standards: 1. Principle. Art in public spaces and within private
development that is visible from streets and public areas
a. The art shall be valued at not less than one-fourth contributes to creating the identity of TODs [transit-
(.25) of one (1) percent of the capital cost of the principal oriented developments]. In this context, public art includes
structure. a wide variety of elements, ranging from free-standing
artworks in parks to creative architectural elements
b. The art shall be located where it is highly visible to the incorporated into streetscapes and building facades. Art
public. If the art is located indoors, such space shall meet elements in differing materials, size, and subject matter
the minimum requirements for an indoor open space, should be incorporated throughout a TOD. A public art
interior through-block connection or skyway connecting master plan that identifies themes and artwork placement
corridor, as specified in this article. is encouraged.

c. The art shall be maintained in good order for the life of Aurora, Colo., Building and Zoning Code. Zoning
the principal structure Districts. Art.7 Div.6 146-728.K.1

Minneapolis, Minn., Code tit. 20, ch. 549, § 549.220(7)

(2009)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Public Spaces
The following codes creatively use the development (2) A bench or other sitting area with at least 5 linear feet
process to increase the number and quality of public of seating;
plazas and waiting spaces.
(3) A shelter or other weather protection. The shelter must
Code Examples cover at least 20 square feet. If the plaza is adjacent to the
bus stop, TriMet must approve the shelter; and
Portland, Oregon, innovatively allows the substitution of
transit plazas for up to 10 percent of parking that would (4) Landscaping. At least 10 percent, but not more than 25
otherwise be required, encouraging attractive transit stops percent of the transit-supportive plaza must be landscaped
with more public space. Such transit plazas must be at to the L1 standard of Chapter 33.248, Landscaping and
least 300 square feet in size and open to the public. The Screening. This landscaping is in addition to any other
plazas must include seating, shelter, and landscaping. The landscaping or screening required for parking areas by the
code does not only apply to new development, but also Zoning Code.
allows existing parking to be converted to transit plazas.
Portland, Or., Zon. Code ch. 33, art. 266, div 14,
Salt Lake City’s takes a different approach, requiring § 33.266.110(B)(5)(d)(2009)
developers to provide public space in proportion to the
total floor area of the development (1 square foot of
Salt Lake City, Utah
public spaces for every 10 square feet of building area).
The code allows a choice of elements for the public space b. Plazas or public spaces shall incorporate at least three
that will “activate” the space, including seating, trees, (3) of the five (5) following elements:
water features, and eating areas. Because use of outdoor
space increases when there is a mixture of sun and shade, (1) Sitting space of at least one sitting space for each two
the option to include shade and trees increases the hundred fifty (250) square feet shall be included in the
attractiveness of the space. plaza. Seating shall be a minimum of sixteen inches (16\”)
in height and thirty inches (30\”) in width. Ledge benches
shall have a minimum depth of thirty inches (30\”);
Portland, Oregon
Substitution of transit-supportive plazas for required (2) A mixture of areas that provide shade;
parking. Sites where at least 20 parking spaces are
required, and where at least one street lot line abuts a (3) Trees in proportion to the space at a minimum of one
transit street may substitute transit-supportive plazas for tree per eight hundred (800) square feet, at least two inch
required parking, as follows. Existing parking areas may be (2\”) caliper when planted;
converted to take advantage of these provisions…
(4) Water features or public art; and/or
d. The plaza must include all of the following elements:
(5) Outdoor eating areas or food vendors.
(1) A plaza open to the public. The owner must record a
public access easement that allows public access to the Salt Lake City, Ut., Zon. Code ch.21A, art. 59, div. 060,
plaza; § 21A.59.060(M)(2)(b) (2009)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Sidewalks
In many communities, sidewalks start and stop without Columbus, Ohio
warning or are lacking altogether, endangering
All subdivisions, site developments or sections thereof
pedestrians. In addition, narrow sidewalks can force
which, shall have installed in them sidewalks and bikeway
pedestrians to walk into the street to get around obstacles
facilities as specified in the Bicentennial Bikeways Plan
and other people.
to serve each lot or parcel therein. Such sidewalks and
bikeway facilities shall be installed by the property owners
Sidewalks should be wide enough to accommodate a
abutting the street rights-of-way within the development
landscaped “planting strip,” which serves as a barrier from
and along the existing streets fronting the development:
traffic and a place to plant trees for shade and beauty.
Ideally, sidewalks should also be wide enough to allow
(A) Sidewalks and bikeways shall have a hard, improved
benches for older adults and families to stop and rest or
surface constructed of materials and to standards
relax. Generally, two couples or two wheelchairs should be
established by the director of public service and/or their
able to pass each other comfortably on a sidewalk, which
designee depending on type of street construction,
requires about 10 to 12 feet across.
anticipated permanence of sidewalk, and land uses
being served. Such specifications shall be available for
Wide sidewalks can also provide room for outdoor dining,
inspection in the department of public service offices.
public art, and other community-oriented activities.

(B) Sidewalks and bikeways shall be located in the right-

Code Examples of-way of the street or as close to the right-of-way line as
Seattle requires a minimum 12 foot sidewalk, wide enough possible, and shall extend across the entire dimension of
for considerable pedestrian traffic and for couples to pass each lot or parcel side adjacent to a public street.
one another.
(D) Bikeways shall be located, configured and completed
Seattle, Washington according to the Bicentennial Bikeways Plan and include
separate shared-use paths, bike lanes and signed and
1. The owner shall construct a sidewalk no less than twelve
marked shared bike routes.
(12) feet in width.
(G) Sidewalk or Bikeway Fee in Lieu of Construction. It
2. The owner shall plant street trees adjacent to the major
is the desire of the city to have required sidewalks and
pedestrian street. The trees shall meet criteria prescribed
bike facilities built at the time of and congruent with
by the Director of Transportation.
development. However, there may be circumstances
regarding safety, economic waste and geographical
3. Planting strips are prohibited along major pedestrian
features that preclude such construction. The Director of
streets.
Public Service has the authority to approve construction
exemptions and collect a fee in lieu of as set out in
4. The owner shall install street furniture and planting boxes
properly promulgated rules and regulations. In no instance
adjacent to the major pedestrian street. The installation
will a private or public entity not build or pay a fee in lieu
shall conform to the Right-of-Way Improvements Manual.
of sidewalk or bike facility construction.
Seattle, Wash., Mun. Code tit. 23, subtit. 3, div. 3, ch.
Columbus, OH. Regulations for Land Development.
23.71, § 23.71.008(E)(2009)
§ 4307.29

48 changelabsolutions.org
Signage
People on foot experience signs differently than those in Nashville and Davidson County, Tennessee, provides a
cars. At 25 or 45 miles per hour, signs need to be big, bold, simple, discretionary standard for signs in neighborhood
avoid details, and be posted a block before the location landmark districts, providing that a sign must fit a
the sign refers to. Signage intended for pedestrians neighborhood’s context and character in size and design.
should be visually interesting, informative, and scaled This approach is very flexible, but also very vague, providing
appropriately. All too often when signs are oriented toward little information to a business owner or community
vehicles, street and directional signage is secondary, while member regarding what might or might not be acceptable.
advertising signs loom large and bright, cluttering up the
view. Coherent signage that is consistent in shape, size, In contrast, San Diego’s takes a highly detailed and
color, height, and lettering gives pedestrians a feeling of prescriptive approach to signage, restricting the size and
order as they walk, can add to a place’s identity, and can number of signs based upon detailed numerical formulas.
assist pedestrians with wayfinding, which is crucial since This approach provides less opportunity to allow a
pedestrians may become far more exhausted if they lose different but appealing sign, but provides more clarity. One
their way than is likely for drivers. interesting aspect of San Diego’s code is the requirement
that blade (projecting) signs either take the shape of a
Code Examples graphic representation of the product or services offered,
or include such an image on the sign. This requirement
The code examples from Nashville and San Diego
encourages a certain look to blade signs without creating
demonstrate two very different approaches to regulating
uniformity or restricting creativity.
the visual impact of signs.

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Nashville and Davidson County, Tennessee

Signs. Any sign, where permitted as part of the
neighborhood landmark development plan, shall be
consistent with the context, scale, and character of the
neighborhood and in particular streetscape where the
district is located. The feature’s mass and scale and the
neighborhood in which it is located shall be considered
in any sign size and design to ensure sensitivity and
proportion to surrounding properties.

Nashville and Davidson County, Tenn., Code part II, tit.

17, ch. 17.40, art. IV, § 17.40.160(F)(4) (2009)

particular establishment, e.g. a boot to advertise a shoe

San Diego, California
repair shop, or designed to include a graphic presentation
(A) Signs are permitted on the faces of each business on the sign.
establishment provided that no such sign shall project
above the nearest parapet or eave of the building and (E) No free standing or roof top identifications signs shall
signs parallel to the face of a building shall not project be permitted with the following exceptions:
more than 12 inches from the building to which the signs
are attached. (i) For establishments located within arcade, court, office
building or similar structure not fronting on the public
(B) One identification sign shall be permitted on the front right-of-way, a single free standing sign at the entrance to
or primary face of a business establishment. Said sign shall said court or arcade to identify the establishments within.
not exceed one square foot for each linear foot of frontage
or 24 square feet, whichever is smaller, provided that said (ii) Maximum height of such signs shall not exceed 4 feet
sign need not be less than 10 square feet in area. above average adjacent natural grade.

(C) One identification sign on the side or rear wall of an (iii) Maximum size for identification of each individual
establishment shall not exceed 16 square feet or one-half- establishment shall not exceed 2.0 square feet for office
square-foot for each linear foot of street or dedicated and 3 square feet for retail.
walkway frontage along those walls, whichever is smaller,
provided that said sign need not be less than 8 square feet (F) In lieu of a primary identification sign, 1 freestanding or
in area. hanging perpendicular sign, not to exceed 6 feet in height,
with a total surface area on both sides not exceeding one-
(D) One perpendicular (30 degrees or greater) projecting half the area of the permitted primary identification sign,
and/or hanging trade identification sign not to exceed 6 shall be permitted. Only 1 such sign shall be permitted per
square feet per side shall be permitted on the front or establishment
primary face of each establishment provided however
that the sign face is, either designed as a graphic San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code ch. 15, art. 16, div. 4,
representation of the goods or services provided at the § 1516.0403(b)(1) (2009)

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Street Furniture
Public benches and seating where pedestrians can take San Antonio, Texas
a rest, meet a friend, or wait for transit are important
Historic districts and the downtown, as well as other
for pedestrian-oriented areas. Older adults, pedestrians
distinct areas of the city have diverse character and
with disabilities, and families may need to stop and rest
any street furniture selected for these areas should
frequently. Street furniture (such as benches, drinking
complement these differences. In addition, the clustering
fountains, and trash cans) is often regarded as an optional
of street furniture in one (1) place is recommended. Trash
amenity, but can contribute markedly to the comfort and
receptacles, seating, telephones and other street furniture
character of an area for pedestrians. Seating areas should
should be grouped together.
include amenities such as shade trees, shelter, attractive
lighting, and informational signage. By making these
A. Circulation.
spaces visible from surrounding areas, safety is improved
for both those seated and pedestrians within the vicinity. A clear path-of-travel of thirty-six (36) inches wide
shall be maintained in and around street features and
To avoid visual clutter and pedestrian obstruction, street arrangement.
furniture should be grouped at particular intervals along
the street so that the clusters of furniture can function B. Seating.
as pedestrian rest stops and potential gathering areas Seating should be physically comfortable and inviting,
without impeding pedestrian movement. durable and attractive. Plaza and open space seating
should also be socially comfortable by offering a variety
Code Examples of choices such as in the sun or shade, near traffic and
activity or not, and alone or in groups.
San Antonio’s code features a number of excellent
provisions regarding street furniture. The code calls for C. Drinking Fountains.
a variety of different seating options, supports physical
Placing drinking fountains in new development is
activity by encouraging drinking fountains, and calls for
encouraged. Fountains should be placed within general
inconspicuous but convenient trash cans. Recognizing
areas of pedestrian traffic and located on accessible
the important aesthetic and place-making role of street
surfaces.
furniture, the code notes that street furniture should not be
uniform, but should complement the distinctive nature of
D. Trash Receptacles.
the district in which it is located. San Antonio also requires
a clear path without obstacles for walking, and suggests Trash receptacles should blend visually with their
clustering different types of street furniture to increase use, surroundings and their design and location should make
create friendly gathering spots, and avoid clutter. use as convenient as possible.

San Diego’s includes street furniture code language that San Antonio, Tex., Unified Dev. Code art. VI, div. 4,
focuses on benches and their appearance, requiring §§ 35-646(a)(3)(A)–(D) (2009)
that benches be wood or iron, rather than plastic, and
prohibiting advertisements on benches located in the right
of way. The code also requires that street furniture not
intrude into the wide sidewalk, and regulates the positioning
of benches to allow socializing and people-watching.

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

San Diego, California (ii) Benches shall not be located within 5 feet from the
center of the sidewalk.
(2) Benches

(iii) A bench located parallel to the sidewalk shall face the

(A) Materials: Benches located in the sidewalk right-of-way
center of the sidewalk.
shall conform to one or more of the following materials:
wood; wood and iron; wrought iron or cast iron; and
(iv) If two or more benches are situated perpendicular to
formed iron.
the sidewalk, the benches shall be sited to face each other.

(B) The siting of benches shall be as follows:

(C) Advertisement on benches located in the public right-
of-way shall be prohibited.
(i) Benches shall not encroach into the required 8-foot
sidewalk clearpath.
San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code ch. 15, art. 4, div. 4,
§§ 154.0405 & (g)(2) (2009)

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Street Walls
A street wall consists of a continuous set of building Peoria, Illinois
facades with similar heights that are set back a similar
Street Facade
distance from the property line. For pedestrians, having a
street wall on both sides of the street creates a feeling of
a. On each lot the building facade shall be built to the
comfort and enclosure. Buildings should not stand too far
required building line for at least 80 percent of the
apart from each other, and driveways should be kept to a
required building line length.
minimum, not only to preserve the continuity of the street
wall, but also so that pedestrians do not have to dodge b. The building facade shall be built to the required
cars turning into or out of driveways. building line (RBL) within 30 feet of a block corner.

Minor setback variations, however, can keep the street c. These portions of the building facade (the required
wall from feeling monotonous. Although street walls help minimum build-to) may include jogs of not more than 18
create a pedestrian-friendly street, many vibrant urban inches in depth except as otherwise provided to allow bay
areas have other types of building arrangements, so this windows, shopfront, and balconies.
element is not necessary everywhere.
Peoria, Ill., Code app. C, § 6.2(A)(9) (2009)
Code Examples
Seattle’s requires that on designated pedestrian-oriented
streets, each building facade must be built to the street
property line for 70 percent of the building. Peoria’s
code is similar, but provides more detailed specifications.
Peoria, Illinois, has the more demanding requirement that
80 percent of the facade be built to the required building
line, but provides flexibility by allowing jogs of 18 inches to
accommodate architectural details such as bay windows,
shop fronts, and the like. The required building line
frequently is the same as the street property line, but need
not be. Peoria also ensures that the street wall prevails at
street corners by requiring that the facade be built out to
the required building line within 30 feet of a corner.

Seattle, Washington
All facades on Class 1 Pedestrian Streets, as shown on
Map B, shall be built to the street property line along a
minimum of seventy (70) percent of the facade length.

Seattle, Wash., Mun. Code tit. 23, subtit. 3, div. 2, ch.

23.48, § 23.48.014 (C) (2009)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Streets: Connectivity
An interconnected street network is crucial for without crossing busy streets. The code also calls for
pedestrians. Shorter blocks with frequent crossings streets to frame vistas to enhance visual interest and
provide quick connections so pedestrians can get directly orientation for pedestrians.
to their destinations.
St. Lucie County, Florida
The traditional grid street network brings a variety of
benefits to pedestrians — direct routes, parallel streets Each neighborhood must provide an interconnected
that provide interesting alternate routes, clear orientation network of streets, alleys or lanes, and other public
so that pedestrians do not get lost easily, and an orderly passageways.
progression of streets. However, the repetitive form of the
traditional grid network can become boring. (i.) Neighborhood streets must be designed to encourage
pedestrian and bicycle travel by providing short routes to
Variations on the grid network can increase pedestrian connect residential uses with nearby commercial services,
activity in an area by providing visual interest. For schools, parks, and other neighborhood facilities within
example, some communities have oriented their streets the same or adjoining Towns or Villages. Sidewalks and
to frame attractive vistas, which can help with pedestrian rows of street trees must be provided on both sides of all
orientation. A modified grid, with T intersections, appears neighborhood streets…
to reduce the number and severity of vehicle collisions,
increasing pedestrians’ safety. While different forms of the (iii.) Neighborhood streets do not have to form an
grid work well under different circumstances, connectivity orthogonal grid and are not required to intersect at ninety-
is the constant. degree angles. These streets may be curved or bent but
must connect to other streets…
Code Examples
St. Lucie County, Florida, provides for an interconnected (vii.) A continuous network of rear and side alleys and/
network, but puts less emphasis on a grid per se, allowing or lanes is desirable to serve as the primary means of
streets to be curved or bent, as long as they connect vehicular ingress to individual lots…
to other streets. St. Lucie County emphasizes short
routes and connectivity between attractive pedestrian viii. Cul-de-sacs are not permitted except where physical
destinations such as schools, parks, and retail, and limits conditions such as freeways provide no practical
to use of culs-de-sac. Interestingly, both San Diego and St. alternatives for connection for through traffic.
Lucie call for alleys as one method of balancing vehicle
and pedestrian needs. ix. Street stubs must be provided to adjacent undeveloped
land to ensure an integrated street network is achieved
San Diego’s calls for a grid pattern explicitly. It also allows over time.
a modified grid, providing flexibility that may enable it to
maximize the benefits of a grid while avoiding some of the St. Lucie County, Fla., Land Dev. Code ch. 3, § 3.01.03.
drawbacks, particularly in places where topography makes EE.2.k(2) (2009)
a grid less practical. The code provides for short blocks,
and recognizes pedestrians’ desire to reach destinations

54 changelabsolutions.org
 San Diego, California
Street Pattern. The layout of the street system shall be
in a grid pattern or modified grid pattern, emphasizing
interconnected streets and the ability to reach local
destinations without crossing major streets or primary
arterials. It is desirable to have streets with block faces of
400 feet in length or less. The use of alleys is encouraged.
Where possible, streets should frame vistas of the mixed-
use core, public buildings, parks, and natural features.

San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code § 132.1109(a) (2009)

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Streets: Block Length

Long street blocks are inconvenient and unsafe for flexibility in recognition of existing conditions, but includes
pedestrians. Long blocks commonly have crosswalks only provisions requiring that mid-block access points be
at intersections, imprisoning cautious pedestrians on provided during redevelopment in areas where block size
one side of the street and indirectly encouraging unsafe exceeds 400 feet.
mid-street crossings as the only practical means to access
places directly across the street. Madison, Wisconsin
Block Size. Block perimeter for new development shall
Long blocks also encourage higher vehicle speeds due to
not exceed a maximum of 1600 feet. No block shall
fewer traffic calming mechanisms than shorter blocks,
exceed 400 feet in length measured from center of
with more frequent intersections, provide. Vehicles are
R.O.W. [Right of Way]. Block lengths longer than 300 feet
less likely to anticipate pedestrians on the road, leading to
shall be provided with mid-block access points. If a block
more collisions, and vehicle-pedestrian collisions at higher
size in a developed area exceeds these standards, mid-
vehicle speeds are more serious and lethal. Long blocks
block pedestrian access points shall be included in any
also require pedestrians to go out of their way to get to
redevelopment projects such that block lengths do not
locations that are on the next block over.
exceed 400 feet. The Planning Director may modify block
Shorter blocks and more crossings provide flexibility and size standards based on limitations of existing conditions.
options for pedestrians. Mid-block street crossings and
Madison, Wis., Code § 28.08(13)(i) (2009), subsequently
pedestrian walkways through the middle of large blocks or
revised by Madison, Wis., Code Ch 28 (adopted 2011)
buildings also help address these problems, but mid-block
pedestrian crossings must be designed to be safe and
clearly apparent to vehicle operators. These approaches Albuquerque, New Mexico
make walking more direct and convenient by offering more In the R2S District, block lengths shall not, as a general
opportunities for pedestrians to safely access destinations rule, exceed 500 feet in length between street lines, unless
around their community. required by exceptional topography or other limiting
factors when approved by the Plan Commission.
Code Examples
Albuquerque, N.M., Code § 14-16-3-22(B)(1)(i)(1) (2009)
Madison, Wisconsin, takes a very simple approach to
restricting block length, providing a general limitation of
500 feet and permitting limited exceptions. The exception
for topography provides flexibility in recognition of local
conditions. By requiring approval for exceptions, the
code provides some safeguard against overuse of the
exceptions process.

Albuquerque, New Mexico, adopts an approach that is

slightly more complex. Albuquerque’s code requires
considerably smaller blocks, limiting block size to 400 feet
and requiring that blocks over 300 feet provide mid-block
pedestrian access. Albuquerque also provides for some

56 changelabsolutions.org
Streets: Road Widths
Wide streets with many lanes of traffic are common, but and bicyclists. The rule also balances emergency
they are difficult and dangerous for pedestrians to cross or vehicle requirements, a common source of concern for
cyclists to navigate. Multiple lanes of fast-moving cars can jurisdictions considering narrower streets. The rule is
be dangerous and often feel threatening to pedestrians worded generally and could apply to both the width and
walking along a thoroughfare. number of lanes.

Encouraging narrower roads is one of the best ways to Albuquerque, New Mexico, provides for the boulevard as
increase safety and comfort for pedestrians and cyclists. the widest permissible street type, and the code provides a
Where appropriate, communities can make large, wide number of restrictions and controls to make these streets
roads safer and more attractive by expanding sidewalks somewhat safer and more welcoming for pedestrians.
and adding landscaped “planting strips” that buffer the By providing for one-way slip roads separated from the
sidewalk from the street. Other helpful additions include primary three or four lanes, the boulevard ensures that
bicycle lanes, bulbouts, and landscaped medians. Bulbouts pedestrians walking along the right of way experience
extend the sidewalk into the intersection, shortening the slower traffic and are buffered from the rapidly-moving
crossing distance for pedestrians, while medians provide bulk of vehicular traffic. Additionally, the landscaped
a safe waiting place for pedestrians who are not able to medians that separate the slip from traffic provide
cross all lanes at once. some refuge for pedestrians who are crossing, ensuring
that they need not make their way across so broad and
With fewer lanes and the addition of pedestrian and inhospitable an expanse of roadway.
cycling infrastructure, drivers not only drive at safer
speeds, but they also become more aware that the road Oregon State
is a shared space. But if narrowing existing roadways,
Local governments shall establish standards for local
expanding sidewalks, and installing medians is not
streets and accessways that minimize pavement width and
feasible, communities can achieve some benefits through
total right-of-way consistent with the operational needs
traffic-calming mechanisms, speed limit enforcement,
of the facility. The intent of this requirement is that local
and appropriate signage and pedestrian crossings along
governments consider and reduce excessive standards
roadways.
for local streets and accessways in order to reduce the
cost of construction, provide for more efficient use of
Code Examples urban land, provide for emergency vehicle access while
Although streets that are wider than two to four lanes discouraging inappropriate traffic volumes and speeds,
pose considerable challenges for pedestrians, it is the rare and which accommodate convenient pedestrian and
community today that is able to do away entirely with bicycle circulation.
the demand for such streets. The following provisions
demonstrate two attempts to address this issue. Or. Admin R. 660-012-0045(7) (2009)

Oregon’s administrative rule 660-012-0045(7) instructs

local governments to establish standards to minimize
excessive width requirements for streets, to reduce
design speed and provide for the needs of pedestrians

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Albuquerque, New Mexico

BV-115 BV-125 BV-135

Thoroughfare Type Boulevard Boulevard Boulevard

Right-of-Way Width 115 feet 125 feet 135 feet

Pedestrian Realm 15 feet, each side 13 feet, each side 13 feet, each side
Walkway Type 8 foot Sidewalk 8 foot Sidewalk 8 foot Sidewalk
Planter Type 5 foot Continuous planter 5 foot Continuous planter 5 foot Continuous planter
Landscape Type Trees at 25’ o.c. Avg. Trees at 25’ o.c. Avg. Trees at 25’ o.c. Avg.
Edge zone 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet
Roadway Realm 85 feet 80 feet 89 feet
Pavement Width 18 feet - 33 feet - 18 feet 18 feet - 44 feet - 18 feet 18 feet - 33 feet - 18 feet
Traffic Lanes 2 lanes w/ one turning lane & two 4 lanes & two one-way slip roads 3 lanes, one turning lane & two
one-way slip roads one-way slip roads
Parking Lanes 8 feet 8 feet 8 feet
Curb Type Curb Curb Curb
Curb Radius 15 feet 25 feet 25 feet

Albuquerque, N.M., Code ch. 14, art. 16, § 14-16-3-22(C)(4)(d) (2009)

58 changelabsolutions.org
Streets: Safe Crossings
Pedestrians must be able to cross streets safely. More
than 40 percent of pedestrian fatalities take place where
no crosswalk is available. Often, marked crosswalks alone
are insufficient to protect pedestrians, and additional
infrastructure is necessary to make the crossing safe.
Crosswalk signal timing should be designed to allow
potentially vulnerable populations, such as older adults,
adequate time to cross and, wherever possible, the signals
should have countdown clocks. In areas with long blocks,
or where pedestrians use both sides of the street heavily,
crosswalks located both in the middle and at the end of
blocks are helpful.

However, mid-block crossings can be particularly

dangerous because drivers may not anticipate or see
pedestrians. Dangerous crossings can be made safer by
installing features like signals, signage, crosswalk striping,
flashing beacons or pedestrian-activated traffic signals,
curb extensions or bulbouts, and median refuges.
Louisville, Kentucky
There are additional safety considerations for crossings.
All new blocks created by any major subdivision of
Ramps and curb cuts leading to crossings should
land hereafter proposed shall conform to the following
feature high-contrast detectable warning strips to alert
standards of design:
pedestrians, particularly those who may be vision-
impaired, that they are approaching traffic. Bus stops
A. Pedestrian Access — Sidewalks bisecting non-residential
should be located after crosswalks so that transit riders
blocks may be required within non-residential blocks
crossing the street for a bus stop won’t be hit by a bus,
where necessary to improve pedestrian circulation by
and so that stopped buses don’t block drivers’ view of
providing more convenient access to schools, parks,
pedestrians in crosswalks.
shopping, etc., than is possible with sidewalks within the
street right-of-way. Such walkways shall have an easement
Code Examples width of at least ten feet.
Louisville, Kentucky, requires pedestrian connectivity to
destination uses (such as schools, parks, and shopping B. Mid-block Walkways — When residential blocks are over
areas) by requiring a 10 foot pedestrian easement through 800 feet in length, a walkway bisecting the block and
non-residential blocks or a 10 foot walkway for residential dedicated to public use not less than ten feet wide, may be
blocks greater than 800 feet in length. Hailey, Idaho, required to provide proper access to schools, playgrounds,
utilizes a range of strategies to create safer pedestrian shopping centers and other facilities.
conditions such as the provision of medians, signals,
increased crossing times, and curb extensions. Louisville, Ken., Land Dev. Code, § 7.3.20 (2009)

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

Hailey, Idaho g. Enhance the visibility of the crosswalk markings or

consider a raised crosswalk with detectable warnings
Form Based Code: Street Design
(truncated domes) at both ends;
1. Design Solutions at Wide Intersections. The following
h. Reduce crossing distances and increase visibility
techniques are appropriate to use to improve pedestrian
through the construction of curb extensions;
conditions and access at wide intersections, particularly
on Main Street where appropriate right-of-way exists, and
i. Reduce traffic speed;
maybe incorporated into a design:
j. Clarify the pedestrian crossing area by installing
a. Center medians to provide a refuge for slower pedestrians;
stamped or raised crosswalks with detectable warnings
(truncated domes) installed at both ends;
b. Accessible pedestrian signals to assist in providing people
with vision impairments enough time to cross the street;
k. Pedestrian lead time and an accessible pedestrian signal
so pedestrians, including those with vision impairments,
c. Increase crossing times so that people who walk
can assert themselves in the crosswalk before motorists
slowly will have sufficient time to cross before the signal
start making right and left turns;
indication changes;

l. Mid-block signalized crossing with accessible pedestrian

d. Increase the crossing times so that people who delay
signal opportunities at busy intersections to encourage
the start of their crossing to confirm the WALK interval
people to cross where there are fewer potential points of
will have sufficient time to cross before the signal
conflict between pedestrians and motorists;
indication changes;

m. Traffic and pedestrian signal indications if they do not

e. Prohibit left turns during the WALK interval;
already exist.
f. Restrict right turns on red;
Hailey, Idaho. Municipal Code, Mobility Design. Chapt 18
§18.06.016 (E)(1) (2012)

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Streets: Traffic Buffers
Providing a physical barrier between traffic and the Louisville, Kentucky
sidewalk makes pedestrians feel less exposed and
Sidewalks shall be at least 84” wide measured from the face
increases their safety by providing protection from
of curb to the building facade, shall include a pedestrian
vehicles. Planting strips and furniture zones enhance the
zone and a streetscape zone, and may include a storefront
attractiveness and utility of the sidewalk, by providing
zone.
space for trees (and shade), seating, transit stops, and
other amenities. On-street parking serves as an effective
1. Pedestrian zone. The pedestrian zone is that portion of
buffer from traffic for pedestrians and can have a traffic
the sidewalk that is maintained free of any obstructions to
calming effect, although street parking poses dangers to
allow for the passage of pedestrians. The pedestrian zone
bicyclists. Some cities have worked around this problem by
shall be at least 48 inches wide and shall not be shared
moving bicycle lanes between sidewalks and parking strips.
with the streetscape or storefront zones. If the width of
the pedestrian zone is less than five feet wide for more
Code Examples than 50 linear feet, passing spaces must be provided at
Louisville, Kentucky, requires that the sidewalk be a intervals of no less than 200 feet apart and must provide
minimum of seven feet wide and include a streetscape an area of at least five feet by five feet to allow two
zone that buffers the pedestrian zone from traffic. The wheelchairs to pass each other.
pedestrian zone must be a minimum of four feet wide,
and if less than five feet wide, must include frequent 2. Streetscape Zone — That portion of the sidewalk located
wider areas to allow wheelchairs to pass one another. The between the curb line and the Pedestrian Zone in which
streetscape zone has no specific size requirement, except the following elements are located, following authorization
when trees are present. The code provides considerable by the Public Works Department: Street trees/grates,
flexibility regarding the contents of the streetscape zone, planting strips, raised planters, Street light standards,
allowing trees and other landscaping, street furniture, Street signs/pedestrian wayfinding signs, Transit stops,
transit stops, and other uses. Because there are no firm Media boxes, Postal/freight collection boxes, Parking
requirements, this flexibility could lead to a narrow and meters, Utility boxes/public phones/ fire protection,
barren streetscape zone. However, the wide minimum Seating (with/without tables), Trash receptacles, Public
sidewalk size makes it likely that the streetscape zone will art/water feature, Bike racks. The Streetscape Zone shall
function as a barrier even when other features are not be at least 48” wide when trees are included.
included in the zone. Provincetown, Massachusetts, also
explicitly calls for a buffer zone, which is required to be Louisville, Ky., Land Dev. Code § 5.8.1(C)(1)(b) (2009)
a minimum of 10 feet wide, and visually separate parking
from the road. Plantings are required, and the code calls Provincetown, Massachusetts
for a sufficient setback from the road to limit traffic A landscaped buffer strip at least 10’ wide continuous
visibility hazards. except for approved driveways shall be established adjacent
to any public road to visually separate parking and other
uses from the road and which shall be planted with medium
height plant materials set back a sufficient distance at
intersections to prevent any traffic visibility hazard.

Provincetown, Mass., Zoning Bylaws art. 4, § 4053(2)

(a) (2009)

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Streets: Traffic Calming

For decades, streets have been designed with the primary traffic flows can encourage speeding on local streets.
goal of moving cars as quickly as possible. But high-speed Accordingly, these design standards will slow traffic on
driving environments increase the number of collisions local streets while allowing flexibility in design and offering
and the severity of injuries, both for motorists and for applicants the choice of treatment that works best for the
pedestrians. streets in a proposed development.

Reducing how rapidly cars drive on a street is crucial (3) Traffic Control Calming Features. A longer street
not only for pedestrian safety, but also for the livability length may be allowed through the placement of an
and social and recreational functions of a street. To approved traffic calming feature at a location which
reduce traffic speed and increase pedestrian visibility, produces an unimpeded length of the street link which
communities can introduce narrow streets, roundabouts, does not exceed the block length standards (subsection
medians, speed humps, street signs alerting drivers to the 35-515(b)(4)). Table 506-8 provisions describe and
presence of pedestrians, and bulbouts at places where establish standards for permitted traffic calming devices
pedestrians cross the street. [such as bulbouts, roundabouts, speed humps, median
islands, t-intersections] where traffic calming measures
Code Example are permitted as part of the roadway design elements.

San Antonio acknowledges that street design can lead to

San Antonio, Tex., Unified Dev. Code art. V, div. 2,
excessive speeds, and provides for various traffic calming
§ 35-506(t)(3)(2009)
devices, such as bulbouts, roundabouts, and median
islands. The city’s code permits longer length streets
where there are traffic calming features.

Las Cruces, New Mexico, details a procedure for

evaluating and implementing traffic calming measures
for residential streets in the city. In addition to describing
data for inclusion in a traffic calming study, the design
guidelines include descriptions of the potential benefits
or disadvantages and costs for a range of traffic calming
measures. Traffic calming measures range from more
affordable options such as speed humps to higher value
investments like traffic circles.

San Antonio, Texas

Traffic Calming. The purpose of this section, is to protect
the public health, safety and general welfare by ensuring
that speeds on local streets are suitable for their intended
purpose. The city hereby finds and determines that long
blocks, wide street cross sections and uninterrupted

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 Las Cruces, New Mexico b. Placement. Street grades approaching the intersection
should not exceed ten percent.
Choker:
a. Definition. A physical constriction built at the curbside c. Advantages. Effectively reduces speeds, fewer left-turn
of the roadway effectively reducing the width of the travel crashes, can be visually attractive.
lane.
With landscape enhancements, improves aesthetic value
of intersection.
b. Placement. Normal turning radii should be
accommodated. Visibility should be a key design
d. Disadvantages. Placement of circle may require parking
consideration with features such as advance warning
removal.
signs, reflective channelization, reflectors on curbs and
elevated landscape elements.
CROSSWALK REFUGE:

c. Advantages. Effective lane narrowing results in lower a. Definition. A physical constriction (a median) built in
speeds, provides parking protection, and shortens the middle of the roadway with a cut provided for the
pedestrian crossing distance. crosswalk.

With landscape enhancements, improves aesthetic value of

b. Placement. Where significant number of pedestrians
intersection.
(minimum of ten—20 pedestrians per hour for a minimum
four hours of a typical day) cross the roadway. Special
d. Disadvantages. Potential drainage problems; increases
consideration can be given to designated school walking
maintenance costs.
routes.

RAISED CROSSWALK:
c. Advantages. Provides refuge for pedestrians when
a. Definition. A raised hump (a pavement undulation) in crossing the roadway; effective lane narrowing results
the roadway with an eight-foot to ten-foot’ wide flat top, in lower speeds. May allow space for landscape
extending across the road perpendicular to the direction enhancements with increased aesthetic value of the
of traffic flow. The top is typically striped with MUTCD- crossing point.
compliant crosswalk markings.
d. Disadvantages. Increases maintenance cost.
b. Placement. Where significant number of pedestrians
(ten—20 per hour in a minimum four-hour period of a typical CHICANE:
day) cross the roadway with 85th percentile speeds greater
a. Definition. Physical constrictions (three/set) built at the
than 30 mph, speed hump placing considerations apply.
curbside of the roadway to create a 45-degree bend in a
formerly straight street. This forces cars to negotiate the
c. Advantages. Effectively reduces speeds, provides
narrowed street in a snake-like fashion. The 45-degree
improved visibility for crossing pedestrians.
bend can also be achieved by alternating parking from one
side of the street to the other.
d. Disadvantages. Slows emergency vehicles and buses;
increases noise and maintenance cost.
b. Placement. Normal turning radii should be
accommodated. Chicane sets are to be placed 400—600
TRAFFIC CIRCLE:
feet apart. Visibility should be a key design consideration
a. Definition. A circular intersection which provides with features such as advance warning signs, reflective
counter-clockwise, one way operations by placing channelization, curb-mounted reflectors, and elevated
an elevated area in the middle of the intersection. landscape.
Approaching vehicles yield to traffic already in the circle.

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chapter 4: pedestrian & bike-friendly code elements

c. Advantages. The snake-like alignment and the lane STREET TREES:

narrowing result in lower speeds provide parking Street trees planted along both sides of the street ROW
protection, shorten pedestrian crossing distance. can make the street appear narrower than it is and can
With landscape enhancements, improves aesthetic value result in traffic calming. Landscaping and street trees have
of street. been shown to reduce traffic speeds by creating a more
pedestrian-friendly and enclosed environment. Vertical
d. Disadvantages. May contribute to head-on collisions, elements such as street trees serve to alert vehicles to the
potential drainage problems and higher maintenance costs. presence of pedestrians, and cause them to reduce their
speeds. Street trees and a landscaping strip are often used
DIVERTER: in conjunction with other traffic calming techniques such
a. Definition. Physical barrier constructed to completely as traffic diverters and chicanes.
restrict passage of traffic and/or disallow certain
movements through an intersection. Las Cruces, NM. Ord. No. 2663, § I(exh. A), 9-4-12

b. Advantages. Effective control in reducing traffic

volumes.

c. Disadvantages. Placement of diverters can have an

adverse impacts to local traffic.

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Streets: Trees
Good street shade trees have a large canopy that Arlington County, Virginia
hangs relatively low but is high enough not to endanger
Each STREET shall have canopy shade trees (STREET
pedestrians walking underneath. Placed between the
TREES). Wherever the REGULATING PLAN does not show
street and the sidewalk, shade trees provide a physical and
specific STREET TREE placement, STREET TREES shall be
psychological barrier between vehicles and pedestrians.
planted along the STREET TREE ALIGNMENT LINE at an
When properly spaced, shade trees offer a continuous
average spacing not greater than 25 to 30 feet on center
canopy of shade that adds to pedestrian comfort and
(measured per BLOCK face). Required tree planting area
physical well-being, especially in warm climates. Shade
widths are specified on the typical street cross sections in
trees give a sidewalk a sense of security and enclosure,
the Master Transportation Plan – Part I. However, open soil
add natural color and beauty, mitigate storm water runoff,
surface area shall be not less than 60 square feet (with a
and improve air quality.
minimum of 5 feet in any direction) per isolated tree, and
connected (tree strip) planting areas are encouraged. The
Urban forestry projects can also qualify as carbon offset
planting area’s minimum dimension shall be not less than
credits in California’s cap and trade market if certain
5 feet. At planting, trees shall be at least 4 to 4.5 inches in
requirements are met, such as a 100 year lifespan for the
diameter (4 feet above grade) and at least 12 feet in overall
trees and an average spacing of no less than five meters.
height. Species shall be selected from the Columbia Pike
Shade trees can thereby raise some money for local
Special Revitalization District Street Tree List. Consult the
governments as well as mitigating some greenhouse gas
ADMINISTRATIVE REVIEW TEAM for the designated tree
emissions.
species for a particular STREET.

Code Examples Arlington County, Va., Zoning Ordinance § 20, app. A

Both Arlington and Peoria require that street trees (V)(B) (2009)
be spaced at an average spacing of not more than 30
feet apart, a distance that meets street tree spacing Peoria, Illinois
recommendations.
At the time of development, the applicant is responsible
for installing/planting the following street trees in the
Arlington County, Virginia, requires trees on every street
space fronting their property between the required
within the design area. Arlington also requires a minimum
building line and the travel lane: … Each street-space shall
amount of unpaved ground, in order to promote health of
have street trees planted along the street tree alignment
the trees, and requires the trees be a minimum size when
line (generally three feet, six inches from the back of the
planted. Peoria, Illinois, makes developers responsible for
curb) at an average spacing not greater than 30 feet on
planting trees along the property that is being developed.
center (measured per block face). Required tree planting
Peoria allows some flexibility in spacing of trees, but
area widths are specified in the Street Type Specifications
prohibits spacing more than 45 feet apart. In a related
or on the regulating plan. Where necessary, spacing
provision, Peoria requires a minimum unpaved area per
allowances may be made to accommodate curb cuts, fire
tree, and also requires the bare ground to be covered with
hydrants and other infrastructure elements, however, at no
a plant groundcover.
location shall spacing exceed 45 feet on center.

Peoria, Ill., Code app. C, § 6.8.3(b) (2009)

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Trail Networks
Well-connected bike paths and lanes can facilitate longer (c) Emphasize the pedestrian and bicycle circulation
commutes and even encourage non-commuters to use through street design, including streetscape and traffic
their bicycles. Bicycle infrastructure, especially paths calming, and trail networks.
that separate bicycle from vehicular traffic, creates safer
environments for all motorists by reducing potential for (d) Encourage a variety of uses that serve the needs
accidents and collisions. Transportation networks should of the local community, including mixed-use buildings
provide continuous, well-maintained, and direct bicycle that provide housing and commercial uses to the extent
connections to key activity centers such as schools, allowed in the underlying zone.
commercial areas, and other public spaces.
Montgomery County, MD. Zoning Code. § 59-C-18.23
Code Examples
Seminole County, Florida
Montgomery County, Maryland, utilizes a handful of
strategies to create pedestrian and bicycle friendly rural Transit service must be competitive with the automobile in
village centers. The overlay zone emphasizes the need for terms of access, cost, convenience, comfort, security and
pedestrian and bicycle connectivity. In contrast, the code safety if it is to be successful. Therefore, transit service
in Seminole County, Florida, outlines a comprehensive must be planned, designed and operated to respond to
list of strategies selected to ensure transit supportive customer needs. Transit can be successful in attracting
planning for all users including the elderly and the a significant number of users from the automobile if
disabled. Strategies include clustering a mix of compatible it provides user-oriented service. The planning and
land uses around transit stations, orienting buildings development of land use patterns and site designs that
toward transit facilities, and providing safe and direct are sensitive to the needs of potential transit users can
pedestrian and bicycle connections to transit. create a user-friendly environment which will enhance
the attractiveness of transit. Transit compatible land use
Montgomery County, Maryland planning includes the following features:

It is the purpose of this overlay zone to create attractive, (g) Provide for safe, convenient pedestrian and bicycle
cohesive, and pedestrian-friendly rural village centers, circulation with direct, logical connections between
consisting of a mix of uses as allowed in the underlying buildings and transit stops/stations.
zones, as limited in this section. Specifically, the overlay
zone is designed to: Seminole County, Fla. Land Dev. Code. Appendix A.
§ 14.3.g
(a) Draw upon the open, green character of the
surrounding area, emphasizing this character through
streetscape design, open space, and landscaping.

(b) Maintain and enhance the rural village character

through compatible scale, massing, siting, and setbacks for
new and expanded uses.

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Transit: Access
Public transportation and walking complement each other, San Diego, California
since transit users generally walk to and from transit, and
Locate transit stops to maximize access and optimize
transit increases the distance pedestrians can travel.
transit service and pedestrian and bikeway connections.
Communities can arrange transit stops around popular
Where located near cross-roads and major activity centers,
destinations such as grocery stores and community centers.
stops should be at one-quarter mile intervals.

Transit stops should be within 1/4 to 1/2 mile of destinations

San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code ch. 15, art. 14, div. 4,
and residences, especially for residences or destinations
§ 1514.0408(j)(1) (2009)
of older adults and low-income families as they are less
likely to own cars and have difficulty walking beyond these
distances. When communities can meet these needs,
Lauderhill, Florida
public transportation becomes much more convenient for Review criteria. The following four criteria shall be
those who rely on it, and more attractive for those who considered in determining whether a special permit for a
might otherwise drive. bus stop shall be granted:

Areas surrounding transit centers benefit from increased 1. Access.

foot traffic, which leads to an increase in local purchases a. Proximity to major trip generators.
and a decrease in automobile traffic. It’s also important
b. Availability of sidewalks, crosswalks and curb ramps.
to provide the areas near transit stops with crosswalks
and other pedestrian-friendly features to ensure that c. Connection to nearby pedestrian circulation system.
passengers are safe when walking to and from transit. d. American with Disability Act accessibility.
e. Convenient passenger transfer to other routes.
Code Examples
San Diego’s general language calls for locating transit 2. Traffic and safety.
stops to “maximize access” and optimize pedestrian and a. Conflict between buses and other traffic.
cycling connectivity. The code provides more specificity b. Passenger protection from passing traffic.
in the context of major activity zones, stating that stops
c. Availability of all weather surface to step on and off
should be every quarter-mile in such areas.
the bus.

Lauderhill, Florida, regulates the spacing, location, and d. Open and lighted spaces for personal security and
design of future bus stops to maximize transit efficiency passenger illumination.
while encouraging pedestrian access and safety. e. Street and sidewalk illumination.

Lauderhill, FL, Land Development Regulations, art.III,

§ 5.46

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Transit: Facilities
More people use public transportation when transit San Diego, California
facilities are attractive, safe, and functional. To make
(2) Design transit stops to be attractive, highly visible and
them more appealing and to optimize use, transit stops
provide shelter. Transit stop design and location should be
should be highly visible to pedestrians, and oncoming
acceptable to MTDB [Metropolitan Transit Development
transit vehicles should be easy to see from the stop.
Board].
Facilities should have some architectural verve to enhance
the streetscape, provide benches and shelter from the
(3) Include transit shelters, bicycle parking facilities,
elements, and address the challenges posed by local
canopies, patterned sidewalks, information kiosks, benches
weather (for example, by including heating in cold climates).
and other pedestrian amenities in developments located
along transit corridors. Enhanced transit shelters are
Code Examples desirable.
San Diego requires very simply that transit stops be
attractive, visible, and provide shelter from the elements. San Diego, Cal., Mun. Code §§ 1514.0408 Guidelines for
The code also requires that developments along transit Discretionary Review (j)(2)–(3) (2009)
corridors include bicycle parking, benches, and other
pedestrian-friendly features. Minneapolis, Minnesota
Transit facility, subject to the following standards:
Minneapolis uses an incentive system to provide a much
more comprehensive set of requirements in terms of (c.) The transit facility shall be similar to the principal
functionality and usability of the transit stop itself. structure in design and materials, shall be weather
Developers can obtain floor area ratio premiums by protected, heated and lighted, and shall contain at least
building and maintaining transit facilities that meet a two (2) entries.
number of requirements. Facilities must include heat, light,
and shelter, and must provide high visibility. In addition, (d.) The transit facility shall be clearly visible from the
facilities must contain resting spaces for 30 percent of street and sidewalk, and transit users shall be able to see
the projected peak demand, and must be visually tied oncoming transit vehicles from the facility.
into related principal structures. These requirements
reflect weather and comfort requirements necessary to (e.) The transit facility shall contain a combination of
accommodate transit riders year round in Minneapolis. leaning rails and seating for at least thirty (30) percent of
projected peak demand, trash receptacles and connections
for transit schedule monitors.

Minneapolis, Minn., Code tit. 20, ch. 549, art II

§ 549.220(5)(c,d,e) (2009)

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Underground Utilities
Putting utilities underground can greatly enhance the Palo Alto, California
attractiveness of an area. Removing utility poles also often
The council finds and determines that the public interest
provides concrete benefits for pedestrians, preserving
requires that all poles, overhead lines and associated
sidewalks for their use, maintaining a clear pathway for
overhead structures used in supplying electric service,
people with disabilities, and allowing for larger trees. If
communications service or similar associated service to be
utilities can’t all be placed underground, it’s important
constructed in the city of Palo Alto after July 1, 1965, shall
to choose an aboveground location that minimizes
be placed in underground locations in order to promote
interference with pedestrian use of the sidewalks.
and preserve the health, safety and general welfare of
the public and to assure the orderly development of the
Code Examples city of Palo Alto. The director of utilities, or designee,
Both Palo Alto and Flagstaff encourage the location may authorize poles, overhead lines and associated
of utilities underground. Palo Alto, California, requires overhead structures for new construction when the
underground utility location for all new construction, director determines that an installation in an underground
but provides flexibility where infeasible or impractical by location in any particular instance would not be feasible or
allowing the director of utilities the discretion to allow practicable. The decision of the director is final.
exceptions. Flagstaff, Arizona, utilizes design standards to
require all utilities in certain neighborhoods to be located Palo Alto, Cal., Mun. Code § 12.16.010 (2009)
underground, and also encourage their location in rear
alleys so that access and utility boxes are also hidden Flagstaff, Arizona
from view.
UTILITY PLACEMENT IN THOROUGHFARES: In Traditional
Neighborhood developments all utilities shall be located
underground in compliance with the following standards
… (2) Electric, telephone, cable and gas utilities (“dry”
utilities) shall be located in Alleys or Lanes where these
are provided to minimize above ground utility meters and
boxes in the front of the property

Flagstaff, Ariz, Engineering Design and Construction

Standards and Specifications, 10-12-015.1

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Water Features
Water features can make a pedestrian area much prettier
and livelier. Water features can range from large public
fountains with sculptural spray elements to small, wall-
mounted fountains, and can include a wide variety of
decorative drinking fountains, children’s water-spray play
areas, and natural or artificial ponds or canals.

As pieces of art and sources of entertainment, water

features may become destinations in themselves. They
can also provide resting space for pedestrians, serve as
gathering spots, and act as landmarks that help people
find their way. Beautiful water features can only truly be
enjoyed on foot, so that the water can be seen, heard, and
maybe even felt.

Code Examples
Zoning codes increasingly encourage water features as a
pleasant option in pedestrian-oriented areas. Louisville,
Kentucky, sets out an expectation that new or improved
open spaces within the downtown area will contain a
fountain or water feature among other pedestrian-friendly
features. Pasadena, California, encourages fountains by
requiring new projects within a certain district to include
at least one “craftsmanship element” and two “building Pasadena, California
elements,” and including fountains among the choices
1. Craftsmanship Element. Each project shall incorporate
for each.
into the design at least one feature such as iron grates, tile
fountains, cast terra cotta, wood work, stenciled ornament
Louisville, Kentucky or other elements as approved by the Design Review
Any newly developed or improved open space accessible authority.
to the public should generally: 1. Create a comfortable and
interesting place to rest. 2. Let people clearly know it’s 2. Building Element. In addition to the above requirements,
there and that it’s accessible. 3. Provide plenty of seating each new project shall incorporate at least two building
(about one linear foot for every 30 square feet of paved elements. Building elements include: upper floor loggias,
open space. 4. Have enough lighting to create a safe roofed balconies supported by brackets or by columns at
nighttime environment. 5. Use fountains or other water the ground floor, exterior wooden or masonry stairs with
features. 6. Incorporate public art. closed risers, or tile or masonry fountain.

Louisville, KY, Land Dev. Code § 3.3B.B.12 Pasadena, Cal., Zoning Code, s. 17.22.080(E)

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Model Codes
The following model code examples reflect some of the Street Trees
most important components of a safe and comfortable
pedestrian and cyclist experience. They are provided as Each street shall have street trees that provide canopy
a starting point for toolkit users looking to improve their and shade. Street trees shall be planted along the street
existing zoning or subdivision codes. tree alignment line at an average spacing not greater than
[25-30] feet on center. Open soil surface area shall be not
less than [60] square feet (with a minimum of [3-5] feet in
Pedestrian-Oriented Entrances any direction) per isolated tree, and connected (tree strip)
Principal building entrances shall be located on the street planting areas are encouraged. At planting, trees shall be
frontage of the building. However, for buildings fronting at least 4 to 4.5 inches in diameter (4 feet above grade)
other public spaces, such as public squares or plazas, the and at least 12 feet in overall height. Where necessary,
principal entrance may face the public space; some public spacing allowances may be made to accommodate curb
entrance must face the public space. In addition, entrances cuts, fire hydrants and other infrastructure elements,
must be provided at intervals no greater than [75] feet however, at no location shall spacing exceed [45] feet
along a street to maximize street activity, to provide on center.
pedestrians with frequent opportunities to enter buildings,
and to minimize any expanses of inactive wall. Landscape Buffers
A landscaped buffer strip at least [5] feet wide, planted
Building Facade with street trees and medium height plant materials, shall
1. At least [30] percent of the facade of each story of a be established adjacent to streets to provide a buffer to
building must consist of transparent windows or doors. pedestrians and to visually separate uses from the street.
For windows to be considered transparent, the window
glass must transmit at least 50 percent of visible daylight.
For retail stores, the ground story must have transparent
storefront windows covering no less than [75] percent of
its facade in order to provide clear views of merchandise
in stores and to provide natural surveillance of exterior
street spaces.

2. The building facade shall be built to the [required

building/street property] line for at least [80] percent of
the building length.

Pedestrian-Oriented Lighting
Lighting shall be designed and located at a pedestrian
scale consistent with pedestrian movements and the
neighborhood. Lighting shall be placed at [15] feet or
lower, and shall be concealed or shielded to avoid glare
and off-site impacts on abutting properties.

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Appendix A: Resources
The following model policy resources may aid in your healthier neighborhoods and encouraging active living
efforts to create more walkable, bikeable, and transit through building design. Information about trainings on
friendly communities: the guidelines is also available at the link below.

Model Complete Streets The New York City Active Design Guidelines are available at
www.centerforactivedesign.org/guidelines/
Conventional street design promotes traffic congestion,
pollution, and collisions, and discourages physical activity.
Complete streets, on the other hand, are designed and
ENACT Local Policy Database
built so that people of all ages and abilities can travel Additional best practices can be found in this searchable
easily and safely, while also getting the regular physical database of local physical activity and nutrition policies,
activity that is so critical to preventing obesity. ChangeLab compiled by Prevention Institute and maintained by
Solutions has developed model laws and resolutions to the Strategic Alliance for Healthy Food and Activity
help communities embrace complete streets, no matter Environments. The database is searchable by topic,
how new or experienced they are with this idea. keyword, state, jurisdiction, year and environment (e.g.
school, workplace).
Complete streets model policies are available at
www.changelabsolutions.org/publications/ The ENACT Local Policy Database can be found at
laws-resolutions-cs www.eatbettermovemore.org/sa/policies/

Model Bicycle Parking Ordinance This toolkit was developed with support from the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely
One clear impediment to bicycle use, however, is that most the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily
cities lack sufficient safe and convenient bicycle parking. represent the official views of the Centers for Disease
Just as drivers need easy, secure parking, so do bicyclists. Control and Prevention.
ChangeLab Solutions has developed a model bicycle
parking ordinance to help local communities increase the Users of this document should be aware that every funding
availability and quality of bicycle parking, creating a more source has different requirements governing the appropriate
bike-friendly environment. Download our fact sheet below use of those funds. Under U.S. law, no federal funds are
for a more complete overview, and contact us for help permitted to be used for lobbying or to influence, directly or
adapting the model ordinance to your community’s needs. indirectly, specific pieces of pending or proposed legislation
at the federal, state, or local levels. Organizations should
The Model Bicycle Parking Ordinance is available at consult appropriate legal counsel to ensure compliance with
www.changelabsolutions.org/publications/bike-parking all rules, regulations, and restriction of any funding sources.

New York City Active Design Guidelines

Implementing active transportation policies requires
strong, evidence-based design practices. A partnership
of New York City government agencies and professional
groups developed a manual of strategies for building

changelabsolutions.org 73
Endnotes
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Institute. 2009.

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77. The United States Access Board is an independent Federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with
disabilities. The Board develops and maintains design criteria for the built environment, transit vehicles,
telecommunications equipment, and for electronic and information technology. It also provides technical assistance
and training on these requirements and on accessible design. http://access-board.gov
78. Zoning for a Healthy Baltimore: A Health Impact Assessment of the TransForm Baltimore Comprehensive Zoning
Code Rewrite. Center for Child and Community Health Research, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore City,
2009-2010.
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80. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code. Draft (2012). www.rewritebaltimore.org
81. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code §4-505. Draft (2012).
82. Id.
83. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code §16-703. Draft (2012).
84. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code §12-405. Draft (2012).
85. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code §12-401. Draft (2012).
86. Baltimore, Mar. City Zoning Code §12-207. Draft (2012).

This tool was developed with support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely the responsibility of
the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Users of this document should be aware that every funding source has different requirements governing the appropriate use of those
funds. Under U.S. law, no federal funds are permitted to be used for lobbying or to influence, directly or indirectly, specific pieces of
pending or proposed legislation at the federal, state, or local levels. Organizations should consult appropriate legal counsel to ensure
compliance with all rules, regulations, and restriction of any funding sources.

ChangeLab Solutions is a nonprofit organization that provides legal information on matters relating to public health. The legal
information in this document does not constitute legal advice or legal representation. For legal advice, readers should consult a
lawyer in their state.
Design: Wick Design Studio
Photos Courtesy of Urban Advantage (pages 2, 5, 6, 10, 15, 17, 30, 32, 36, 37, 43, 44, 49, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 70), Lydia Daniller
(pages 9, top 38, bottom 38, 43, 52, 69, 72), Sara Zimmerman (pages 50, 67), ChangeLab Solutions (pages 18, 27, 28), pedbikeimages.
org/Dan Burden (page 23) and Flickr Creative Commons; Payton Chung (pages 1, 64), Walmart Corporate (page 11), Vincent Desjardins
(page 16), Richard Drdul (page 25), La Citta Vita (page 34), Photogirl7.1 (page 39), Stevenharris (page 40), ahisgett (page 40), Inspire
Kelly (page 41), Montgomery County Planning Commission (page 45), Olo81 (page 47), Boonerator (page 62), Martin Pettitt (page 71)
© 2013 ChangeLab Solutions

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