11.0 Compressors, Blowers, and Fans Preface: Bechtel Confidential

11.
0 COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS
PREFACE
This section deals with the piping systems containing fans, blowers, and compressors. It
covers some important compression parameters and system design with pressure profile
program.
In general, fans, blowers, and compressors can be differentiated by their discharge pressure.
The type of equipment may be similar in configuration.
· Fan
Fan discharge pressures are normally less than 2 psig. Fans are classified as:
- Centrifugal
- Straight blade
- Forward curved blade
- Backward curved blade
- Axial flow
· Blowers
In general, discharge pressure of blowers is 1 - 7 psig. Pressure may go as high as

15 psig for positive displacement blowers.
Blowers may come in many configurations such as:
- Rotary vane
- Centrifugal
- Screw
- Liquid ring (blade)
- Lobe
- Reciprocating
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Refer to the electronic documents in BecRef for current revisions.
Bechtel Confidential
© Bechtel Corporation 2002. Contains confidential and/or proprietary information to Bechtel and its affiliated companies which shall not be
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3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 1 OF 32
· Compressors
When the discharge pressure developed by a blower exceeds 7 psig, it is not a blower
anymore. It is called a compressor. This, of course, depends on application,
equipment, and specifications involved in the service.
Positive displacement blowers/compressors are used for volumes up to about 3,000 -

4,000 ACFM and are suitable for variable pressure. Centrifugal blowers are used for
volumes greater than 4,000 ACFM and are suitable for variable volume.
Compressors may be classified in two main categories:
- Dynamic displacement
- Positive displacement
Dynamic compressors develop a rise in pressure by increasing the kinetic energy of the
gas flow on a continuous basis. The types within this category include:
- Blowers
- Centrifugal (radial)
- Axial
Positive displacement compressors perform work on the gas in a repetitive non-

continuous process. The types within this category include:
- Reciprocating
- Rotary
o Screw
o Sliding vane
o Liquid ring
o Roots (straight lobe) blower
Approximate application ranges in terms of inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM) and
discharge pressure for four categories of compressors are shown in Figure 11-1.
Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.
COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

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Blowers are generally considered degenerate centrifugal compressors, i.e., low
discharge pressures, but very high flow rates.
11.1 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMPRESSION
11.1.1 Introduction
The principles of compression are based on thermodynamics. Compressing gases involves

complications that pumping liquids do not. The compressible nature of gases requires us to
account for their more complex behavior through the application of thermodynamic principles.
Understanding thermodynamics of compression is helpful for the following reasons:
· Thermodynamic properties of the gas (or mixture of gases) affect the energy required to
do the compression. The energy requirements affect both the size of the driver and the
mechanical design of the compressor. Both are critical design factors.
· The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases can be estimated based on the

properties of the individual components. These are provided by process engineering.
· In gases with water vapor, the water content needs to be considered for three reasons:
- Its contribution to mass flow
- Its physical state
- Its effect on chemical properties
11.1.2 Perfect Gas Law and Compressibility
Equation 11-1 defines the behavior of a perfect gas in terms of variables listed: pressure,
temperature, volume, etc. This is a helpful starting point, although few gases actually are
perfect.
pV = WRT Eq. 11-1
where:
p = Absolute pressure in pounds per square foot

V = Volume in cubic feet
W = Weight in pounds
R = Ro/M = constant for specific gas

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Ro = Universal gas constant = 1545.3 (ft-lb/lb mole °R)
T = Absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
M = Molecular weight
For a continuous flow process, Equation 11-1 is modified as follows:
10.73wT
PQ = Eq. 11-2
M
where:
Q = Actual volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (ACFM)

w = Weight flow, pounds per minute
P = Absolute pressure in psia
To correct for deviations from a “perfect” gas, a compressibility factor, Z, is added to

Equation 11-2. Z is an empirical factor to correct the equation for actual, real gases, which
deviate from “perfect” gases. For example:
10.73wTZ
PQ = Eq. 11-3
M
At standard conditions (14.7 psia, 60oF), the factor (Z) of most gases is generally assumed to
be 1.0. However, at standard conditions, for example, normal butane has a Zo value of 0.975
(Zo denotes the factor at standard conditions).
Values for Z are available in charts for the gas being compressed. If a chart is not available,
or if the gas is a mixture, generalized compressibility charts may be used. To use these
charts, it is necessary to compute the so-called reduced pressure and temperature as follows:
P
Pr = Eq. 11-4
Pc
and:
T
Tr = Eq. 11-5
Tc
Pr = Reduced pressure
P = Actual absolute pressure, psia
Pc = Critical pressure of the gas, psia
Tr = Reduced temperature

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T = Actual absolute temperature, oR
Tc = Critical temperature of the gas, oR
The compressibility of some pure gases, notably steam and ammonia, cannot be accurately
predicted using the generalized charts. However, steam tables and charts for pure ammonia
are available. When the water vapor or ammonia content of a mixture is small (5 percent or
less), the generalized charts may be used for the mixture with relatively good accuracy.
For gas mixtures containing hydrogen or helium, effective values of critical pressure and
temperature for helium and hydrogen must be used to derive acceptable accuracy from the
generalized charts.
11.1.3 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity
11.1.3.1 Gas Mixtures
Knowing the mole fractions in a mixture leads to calculation of several important properties of
the mixture:
· The molecular weight, Mm
· Molal specific heat, MCp(m)
· The critical pressure, Pc(m)
· Critical temperature Tc(m)
The mole fraction, X, of each component is:
Ni
Xi = Eq. 11-6
Nm
where:
Nm = Total moles in a mixture

Ni = Number of moles of each individual component
The mixture properties can then be calculated as:
i
MC p ( m ) = å X i * MC p ( i ) Eq. 11-7
n =1

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i
Pc ( m ) = å X i * Pc ( i ) Eq. 11-8
n =1
i
Tc ( m ) = å X i * Tc ( i ) Eq. 11-9
n =1
i
M ( m ) = å X i * M (i ) Eq. 11-10
n =1
A “mole” is actually a number of molecules (about 6 x 1023). A “mole fraction” is the ratio of
molecules of one component in a mixture. For example, if the mole fraction of methane in
natural gas is 0.90, this means that 90 percent of the molecules are methane. Since volume
fractions are equivalent to mole fractions, the mixture is also 90 percent (by volume) methane.
The mixture fractions could also be calculated on a mass or weight basis. The mole (volume)
basis is used in compressor calculations because it is simpler and less confusing.
The molal specific heat is used to determine the k value (ratio of specific heats) as follows:
The k value is often called the adiabatic exponent, and is a value used in the calculation of
horsepower, adiabatic head, and adiabatic discharge temperature. The k value is:
Cp MC p ( m ) MC p ( m )
k= = = Eq. 11-11
Cv MC p ( m ) - Ro MC p ( m ) - 1.986
778
where:
MCp(m) = Molal specific heat (heat capacity) of mixture at constant pressure

778 = Conversion factor, ft-lb/Btu
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
Ro = Universal gas constant = 1545.3 (ft-lb/lb mole oR)
MCp(m) should be taken at the desired temperature (usually the average of suction and
discharge temperature). This aspect will be covered in Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression.
Note that the k value of the mixture must be determined by first determining the molal heat
capacity of the mixture. It is a common mistake to multiply the k values of the individual gas
components by their respective mole fractions to determine the k value of the mixture.

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11.1.3.2 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the gas mixture is determined by dividing the molecular weight of the
mixture by that of air.
Mm
S .G. = Eq. 11-12
28.96
11.1.3.3 Humidity
For air compressors, it is usually necessary to account for water vapor content. It is important
to know the moisture content accurately when a process requires a definite quantity of dry air.
Furthermore, the moisture in the inlet air affects the power requirement and water drop-out in
intercoolers and aftercoolers.
Note that water-vapor content must also be accounted for as a component in process streams,
if present. In those cases, the content is usually available from the process group.
The following information discusses how to account for water content in air.
Relative humidity, in percent, may be determined from the following relationship:
Pv
% R. H = * 100 Eq. 11-13
Psat
where:
Pv = Partial pressure of actual water vapor content

Psat = Partial pressure of water vapor when air is fully saturated at the temperature
of interest (can be found in steam tables)
Specific Humidity is the ratio of the weight of the water vapor content to the weight of dry air at
the existing conditions of pressure and temperature, and is determined as follows:
Wv 18 Pv Pv
S .H . = = * = 0.622 * Eq. 11-14
Wda 28.96 P - Pv P - Pv
where:
Wv = Weight of water vapor

Wda = Weight of dry air
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture (usually atmospheric), absolute

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Relative and specific humidity may be obtained from a psychrometric chart when the wet bulb
and dry bulb temperatures are known. However, most psychrometric charts are based on the
international standard sea level pressure of 14.7 psia and are, therefore, accurate only for that
barometric pressure.
For example, if a standard (14.7 psia) psychrometric chart were used for conditions of
5,000 feet elevation (12.23 psia), 80°F dry bulb, the indicated specific humidity would be low
by about 25 percent and the relative humidity by 10 percent.
If the altitude is more than 200 or 300 feet above sea level, the following equation should be
used instead of a psychrometric chart:
P - Pv ( wb )
Pv = Pv ( wb ) - * (t - t wb ) Eq. 11-15
2830 - 1.44t wb
where:
Pv(wb) = Vapor pressure in psia corresponding to wet bulb temperature (from steam
tables)
t = Dry bulb temperature, °F
twb = Wet bulb temperature, °F
Knowing Pv, the relative and specific humidities can be calculated with Equations 11-13 and
11-14. The volumetric or mole percent of the water vapor can be calculated as follows:
Pv
mol % H 2O = * 100 Eq. 11-16
P
The mole percent of dry air is then 100 minus the mole percent of the water vapor. The other
properties of the mixture of air and water vapor (molecular weight, MCp, etc.) may then be
calculated.
11.1.4 Flow Units
Flow through a compressor may be stated in a number of different ways:
· MMscfd
· Moles/hour (MPH)
· scfm

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· ACFM
· Weight flow
11.1.4.1 MMscfd
MMscfd denotes millions of standard cubic feet per day, where standard means 14.7 psia and
60°F. This notation is often used in gas plant, gas transmission, and refinery applications.
11.1.4.2 Moles/Hour (MPH)
Process engineers often use MPH in material balance computations. (A mole is a fixed
quantity of molecules. This concept greatly simplifies process calculations.) A mole of any
gas occupies approximately 379.4 cubic feet at standard conditions (14.7 psia, 60°F) and it
has a weight in pounds equal to the molecular weight of the gas. For example, a mole of
methane (CH4) would have a volume of 379.4 cubic feet at standard conditions and that
volume would weigh 16.04 pounds. Knowing the moles per hour, the MMscfd may be
determined from:
MPH * 379.4 * 24
MMscfd = Eq. 11-17
10 6
11.1.4.3 scfm
Scfm denotes standard cubic feet per minute and is frequently used in compression work.
11.1.4.4 ACFM
Actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) at the inlet, often called Q, is related to the physical size
of the compressor. Several design parameters are based on Q. ACFM at inlet is also
abbreviated ICFM. ACFM at the compressor discharge is sometimes of interest, and in this
manual it will be abbreviated DCFM (discharge cubic feet per minute).
However, note that ICFM is the more appropriate term to use when referring to inlet
conditions. In many cases, ACFM is often used interchangeably with ICFM. If there is any
doubt, be sure to get clarification.

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Scfm may be converted to ACFM, or Q by:
14.7 T1 Z1
Q1 = ACFM = ( scfm) * * * Eq. 11-18
P1 520 Z 0
where:
P1, T1, Z1 = Absolute pressure (psia), absolute temperature (°R), and compressibility at
the condition of interest.
Zo = Compressibility at standard conditions.
11.1.4.5 Weight Flow
Weight flow (w) may be calculated from any conditions of interest using the following equation
(derived from Equation 11-3):
P1Q1 M
w= Eq. 11-19
10.73T1Z 1
Weight flow can also be determined from scfm:
14.7( scfm) M ( scfm ) M

w= = Eq. 11-20
10.73(520) Z 0 379.4 Z 0
Zo is often taken as 1.0 regardless of its actual value. It is important to use the same value for
Zo in all calculations. Although the discrepancy would generally be no more than one or two
percent in a single calculation, it could be compounded after conversions are made back and
forth by several parties involved with the compressor project. Be consistent.
When specifying compressors for purchase, it is best to provide the manufacturer the weight
flow, gas analysis, inlet pressure and temperature, and the desired discharge pressure.
If standard volume flow (MMscfd or scfm) is used, the standard conditions should be stated
explicitly.
11.1.4.6 Other Conventions for Standard Conditions
Standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60°F have been referred to in foregoing paragraphs.
This standard is prevalent in the USA in the petroleum and natural gas industries. API
Standards use these standard conditions. However, in working with air compression systems,
"Standard Air" as adopted by ASME is defined as air at a pressure of 14.7 psia, a temperature
of 68°F, and a relative humidity of 36%. These conditions correspond to an air density of

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0.0750 pounds per cubic foot.
In the metric system, the normal cubic meter per hour is a widely used term for flow. Normal
refers to conditions of 760 mmHg Absolute (14.7 psia) and 0°C (32°F). Weight flow is
generally stated in kilograms per hour. The SI system uses kilopascals for pressure (1 kPa =
0.145 psi). Other metric units such as kilograms per square centimeter or Newtons per square
meter are used.
Another common use of “standard” conditions is in the determination of the ISO power rating
of combustion of gas turbines. “Standard” conditions in this case are atmospheric pressure of
760 mm Hg Absolute, 15°C, and 60 percent relative humidity.
ISO power ratings of turbines are only useful in comparing the relative output of different
turbine models. ISO power shall never be used in calculations where shaft power is required.
When shaft power is required, the ISO power shall be replaced with the gas turbine site rated
power.
The site rated power includes the power losses due to inlet and exhaust system components,
ambient temperatures, atmospheric pressure, and relative humidity. The site rated power of a
turbine may only be 80 percent of its ISO power.
11.1.5 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Process
The two actual methods used to calculate thermodynamic relationships are isentropic
(adiabatic) and polytropic. These calculations are the basis for determining capacity, driver
size, and mechanical design. The following explains the differences and when they are used.
Figure 11-2 shows the compression paths of three theoretical processes: isothermal,
isentropic, and polytropic. The theoretical work needed for isothermal compression is
described by the area ABEF. It can be seen that the isothermal work is appreciably less than
that of the isentropic area ABDF. Similarly, the isentropic area is smaller than the polytropic
area ABCF.
These differences can be attributed to differences in heat transfer (cooling). The isothermal
process would require continuous cooling during compression to negate all of the temperature
rise. In an actual compressor the theoretical isentropic discharge temperature can sometimes
be achieved by a moderate amount of cooling during compression. Even so, the resultant
process will not be purely isentropic due to other losses in an actual machine. The polytropic
path BC best represents an actual process where there is no cooling during compression.
In practice, the isentropic and polytropic methods of analysis are both usable for designing
and predicting the performance of compressors.

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It turns out that the isentropic (adiabatic) method is commonly applied to positive displacement
compressors, because these machines are often equipped with a cooling system that cools
the casing or cylinder during compression, making the actual temperature rise approach that
of the theoretical adiabatic process.
The polytropic process is typically applied to dynamic compressors in which there is no cooling
during the compression that takes place in any individual stage. (There may be cooling
between each stage or series of stages, but not within a given stage.)
Positive displacement and centrifugal compressors are covered in further detail in

Sections 11-2 and 11-3.
11.1.6 Isothermal Compression
In an isothermal process, the temperature is unchanged during compression. Although it is

impossible to build a machine that will compress isothermally, isothermal performance is
approached as the number of intercoolers, or other cooling devises is increased.
Furthermore, although isothermal compression cannot actually be attained in practice, it is

often used as the basis for comparison with other compression processes. The effect of the
number of coolers on compression power will be covered under Polytropic Compression.
The following equation applies to an isothermal compression process:
P1V1 = P2V2 = Constant Eq. 11-21
“Head” is a term often used for the work input to the compression process. The units of head
are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass). In general practice, the unit of head is
usually taken as feet. The theoretical head for an isothermal process is:
H isot = RT1 ln r Eq. 11-22
where:
P2
r= = pressure ratio
P1
Equation 11-22 may be used to evaluate other compression processes with various amounts
of cooling.

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11.1.7 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
11.1.7.1 Adiabatic Relationships
Isentropic means constant entropy. Adiabatic describes a process wherein no heat is added
or subtracted. For the sake of this discussion, it can be assumed that isentropic and adiabatic
are the same (although different thermodynamically).
Adiabatic compression is commonly assumed for reciprocating, but not centrifugal

compressors.
In isentropic processes, the following relationships apply:
P1V1k = P2V2k = C Eq. 11-23
where:
C = Constant
k = Ratio of specific heats
k -1
RT1 Z1 + Z 2
H ad = * (r k
- 1) * Eq. 11-24
k -1 2
k
where:
ft - lbs
Had = adiabatic head, abbreviated as “ft.”
lbm
k -1
X =r k
-1 Eq. 11-25
where:
X = Factor used below
T2( theo ) = T1 ( X + 1) Eq. 11-26
where:
T2 (theo) = Adiabatic discharge temperature (theoretical absolute discharge

temperature assuming 100% adiabatic efficiency)

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X
T2 = T1 * (1 + ) Eq. 11-27
h ad
where:
had = Adiabatic efficiency

T2 = Actual discharge temperature, °R
wH ad
Ghp = Eq. 11-28
33000h ad
where:
Ghp = Gas horsepower
Notice that Equation 11-24 has been corrected by an average compressibility, (Z1 + Z2)/2.
Averaging is a fairly accurate approximation of the correction required.
Because of the non-ideal (non-perfect) behavior of many gases, the k exponent does not
remain constant during compression. For air, diatomic gases, and inert gases, the change in k
is small when the pressures are moderate. However, for most hydrocarbon gases, the
variance of k during compression is substantial. The usual correction is to calculate k using
MCp at the average of the compressor (or stage) suction and discharge temperature.
Using the MCp at atmospheric pressure and average compression temperature for compressor
head and power calculations is sufficiently accurate for most applications. However, for very
high pressures or other unusual conditions, further corrections are necessary. Such
corrections will be covered under Polytropic Compression.
11.1.7.2 Adiabatic Efficiency
Since the change in entropy is not zero in an actual adiabatic compression process, an
adiabatic efficiency (had) is used in Equations 11-27 and 11-28. In order to calculate MCp at
average compression temperature, it is necessary to estimate the adiabatic efficiency to arrive
at a discharge temperature per Equation 11-27. If the estimate is inaccurate, a second
iteration may be required.

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11.1.7.3 Thermodynamic Diagrams
Thermodynamic-property diagrams account directly for deviations of a real gas from ideal
relationships. These diagrams are a plot of gas properties, commonly including: enthalpy,
entropy, pressure, and temperature. Occasionally, a special diagram is developed for a widely
used gas mixture such as a refrigerant. However, note that few charts are available for
mixtures, and this method is therefore not commonly used for hydrocarbon mixtures.
When a diagram is used to predict changes of state during compression, compressibility and
variance of k are not needed because these variables are already factored into the diagrams.
In general, then, this method is more accurate than Equation 11-24 and when charts are
available, it is certainly more convenient. Diagrams are often used in compressor calculations
for heavier hydrocarbon gases such as propane and propylene that tend to deviate
considerably. Diagrams for many pure gases are well established.
The following equations pertain to the use of diagrams for compressor calculations. Note that
for an isentropic process, there is no change in entropy, S.
S 2 ( theo ) - S1 = 0 Eq. 11-29
where:
S2(theo) = S1 = entropy at suction conditions, Btu/lb °R
Dh( theo ) = h2 ( theo ) - h1 Eq. 11-30
where:
h1 = Enthalpy at suction conditions, Btu/lb

h2(theo) = Theoretical enthalpy at discharge pressure and S1, Btu/lb
Dh( theo )
h2 = + h1 Eq. 11-31
h ad
where:
h2 = Actual enthalpy at discharge pressure and temperature, Btu/lb

had = Adiabatic efficiency
Note that the actual discharge temperature T2 may now be found on the thermodynamic
diagram at the point corresponding to h2 and P2.

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H ad = (778)Dh( theo ) Eq. 11-32
The gas horsepower may now be calculated by using Equation 11-28.
11.1.8 Polytropic Compression
Polytropic compression is commonly assumed for dynamic (centrifugal and axial)

compressors.
The previous discussion of the adiabatic process showed that its relationships need
mathematical corrections to make credible predictions. The corrections are compromises
between theory and actual gas deviations, and they do not always yield sufficiently accurate
predictions for some types of applications. Unfortunately, even polytropic compression
requires adjustments to account for the non-ideal behavior of many gases.
11.1.8.1 Polytropic Relationships
The polytropic compression process is described mathematically as follows:
P1V1n = P2V2n =C = Constant Eq. 11-33
where:
n = Polytropic exponent
k -1
hp = k Eq. 11-34
n -1
n
where:
hp = Polytropic efficiency

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n -1
RT1 Z1 + Z 2
H poly = * (r n
- 1) * Eq. 11-35
n -1 2
n
where:
Hpoly = Polytropic head, ft.
n -1
T 2=T 1r n
Eq. 11-36
wH poly
Ghp = Eq. 11-37
33000h poly
In Equation 11-34, k is ordinarily taken at the average compression temperature by most

compressor manufacturers. Therefore, when estimating overall flange-to-flange performance,
use k at average flange-to-flange temperature to yield results very close to those of stage-by-
stage calculations. In the case of single-stage machines, the difference between k at inlet
temperature and average temperature is generally very small. Accordingly, in this manual, k
at average compression temperature will be used.
A thermodynamic diagram can be used for a polytropic calculation by first determining the
adiabatic head Had using Equations 11-30 and 11-32. Polytropic head Hpoly can then be
determined by:
hp
H poly = H ad Eq. 11-38
h ad
The relationship between polytropic and adiabatic efficiencies is:
k -1
r k
-1
h ad = k -1
Eq. 11-39
kh p
r -1
From the foregoing discussion, it should be obvious that k is not equal to n. In some of the
early compressor publications, the k and n exponents were erroneously treated as the same
value. This error may have been one of nomenclature. At any rate, it is important to
recognize that k is associated with the adiabatic process, and n with the polytropic process.

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11.1.9 Miscellaneous Notes
Some gases have extraordinarily large deviations from ideal behavior near their critical
conditions or at high pressures. For example, carbon dioxide at 1500 psia and 100°F has a
compressibility factor, Z, of about 0.27. Furthermore, if the temperature is increased by only
20°F, there is a 40 percent increase in the compressibility factor. If a small amount of
methane is mixed with carbon dioxide, the compressibilities change significantly, and
predictions of these compressibilities by generalized charts is not reliable.
There are a few compressor applications that must deal with widely deviating gases. The values
for Z and k vary so much that conventional methods of calculations for the compressor gas
properties do not have sufficient accuracy. For these somewhat rare occasions, various
equations of state are used. There are a number of these empirical relationships in existence,
and each set of relationships tends to have some advantages over the other sets for certain gas
compositions.
All compressor manufacturers calculate gas properties with their own programs. When they
quote performance of their equipment, their predictions will often be different from calculations
by Bechtel’s process group. Vendor’s predictions will form the basis for any performance tests
or guarantees.
11.2 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
11.2.1 Centrifugal Compressor Construction Types
There are two types of compressors, defined by either an axial (horizontally split) or radial
(vertically split) casing construction.
The top half of the axially-split casing is removed to access the internals. The stationary
diaphragms are installed individually in the top and bottom half of the casing. Main process
connections may be located either in the top or bottom half.
The axially-split down-connected casing has the advantage of allowing removal of the top half
for access to the rotor without requiring removal of major process piping.
Radially-split or barrel compressors have a complete cylindrical outer casing. The stationary
diaphragms are assembled around the rotor to make up an inner casing, and installed inside
the outer casing as a unit, contained by heads or end closures at each end. Some later
designs hold the heads in place by use of shear rings. The internal assembly is frequently
referred to as the bundle.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 18 OF 32
On the radially-split casing, maintenance of the rotor and other internal parts (other than
bearings and shaft-end seals) involves removal of at least one head, withdrawal of the inner
casing from the outer pressure containing casing, and then dismantling of the inner casing to
expose the rotor. The inner casing and rotor can be removed from either the up-or-down-
connected radially-split outer casing without disturbing process piping.
API 617 (Centrifugal Compressors) requires the use of the radially-split casings when the
partial pressure of hydrogen at the maximum allowable working pressure exceeds 200 psig.
Other factors which influence the axially/vertical split decision include the absolute operating
pressure of the service and ease of maintenance for a particular plant layout.
Both the axially and radially-split casing designs allow removal of bearings and shaft-end seals
for maintenance without disassembly of major casing components.
11.2.1.1 Overhung-Impeller Types
Single-stage, overhung-impeller (impeller located out-board of the radial bearings, opposite

the driver end) designs are available in pressure ratings to approximately 2000 psig and
capacities to 50,000 cfm and are usually used in gas transmission pipelines.
Another type of centrifugal compressor is the integrally-geared configuration. This is an

overhung-impeller type built around a gear box, with the impellers attached to gear pinion
shafts and the impeller housings mounted on the gear box. Possible configurations include
two, three, four, and even five stage designs with capacities to 30,000 cfm and pressures to
250 psig. These have typically been used as packaged-air or nitrogen compressors. The
overall arrangement of this type varies significantly between manufacturers.
Major features of the integrally geared design include:
· Open impellers – Maximum head developed
· Volute diffusers for optimum efficiency
· Different pinion speeds to optimize impeller efficiency
11.2.2 Surge
Surge is a condition of unstable flow within the compressor typified by rapid flow and pressure
oscillations, rapidly rising temperature, thrust reversals and often damage. Surge at full
operation can be caused by process upsets, jammed valves, molecular weight changes or
intercooler failure, and at reduced operation by start/stops or load changes. Surge is not
limited to reduced throughput and can occur at full operation. It occurs when the imposed

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 19 OF 32
pressure ratio exceeds the ability of the stage or stages to generate the required head.
Surge control systems must cope with the following circumstances:
· Near the surge limit, head curves are very flat
· Small differential pressure changes can cause large flow changes
· Pressure changes can occur very quickly approaching surge
Dedicated surge control systems are available to dynamically monitor surge approach and
prevent surge as well as to provide optimum compressor operation. Controls for compressors
in series must be configured such that one stage doesn't force another into surge. Controls
for compressors in parallel should maintain both machines an equal distance above surge for
optimum load sharing, rather than base loading one machine or simply dividing the flow
equally.
Compressor performance can be controlled by a variety of means, listed in increasing

efficiency:
· Discharge throttling – Least efficient and most wasteful
· Suction throttling – Common with electric drivers
· Adjustable guide vanes – Gives greatest turndown
· Speed variation – Most efficient and sometimes combined with adjustable guide vanes
Performance and surge controls can conflict in their manipulation of the compressor operating
point and must be decoupled to operate efficiently. Similarly, performance controls must
respect other limits such as maximum driver power, maximum discharge pressure and
temperature, and minimum suction pressure.
11.2.3 Stonewall
Another major factor affecting the theoretical head-capacity curve is choke or stonewall. The
terms surge and stonewall are sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably, probably due to
the fact that serious performance deterioration is observed in either case.
A compressor stage is considered to be in stonewall, in theory, when the Mach Number equals
one. At this point the impeller passage is choked and no more flow can be passed. Industry
practice normally limits the inlet Mach Number to less than 0.90 for any specified operating
point.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 20 OF 32
It is important to note the choke effect is much greater for high molecular weight gas,
especially at low temperatures and lower k values. For this reason, maximum allowable
compressor speed may be limited on high molecular weight applications, with a corresponding
reduction in head per stage.
11.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
Positive Displacement Compressor selection involves a great deal of cooperation between the
Process, Project/Systems and Mechanical Groups to select an optimum machine.
A major consideration (beyond the compression calculation) is the number of compression

stages. The number of stages is governed by the following factors:
· Allowable discharge temperature
· Rod loading
· Existence of a fixed sidestream pressure level (where flow is added to or withdrawn

from the main compressor flow)
· Allowable working pressure of available cylinders
Discharge temperature is the most important factor affecting the number of stages. Class A
and B reciprocating compressors are generally limited to 300°F for most gases. API 618
further limits the discharge temperature of hydrogen-rich gases to 275°F. These limits restrict
the stage pressure ratios. It is often necessary to increase the number of stages so that
intercoolers can be added to keep the discharge temperature within limits, while achieving the
required overall pressure ratio.
Adding intercoolers to a centrifugal compressor tends to save horsepower. With reciprocating

compressors, however, there will seldom be any benefit in adding intercoolers beyond those
needed to maintain discharge temperature limits. The reasons are:
· Reciprocating compressors are already highly efficient, and adding an intercooler adds
pressure drop which offsets the power savings
· Addition of a stage requires additional cylinder(s), pulsation dampener(s), knockout

drum(s), and piping
The rod-load limit can affect the number of stages since the combined rod loading is related to
the differential pressure across the cylinder. Increasing the number of stages obviously
reduces the differential pressure of each stage.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 21 OF 32
Sometimes a compressor application has more than one suction or discharge pressure level.
For example, in an oil field gas system, the compressor may take different quantities of gas
from the separator at two pressures, say 40 and 250 psig. This machine could also be
required to deliver a portion of the gas at 1000 psig for gas lift, and the remainder at 2500 psig
for injection back into the formation. In this case, these pressures would set the interstage
pressures so that the sidestreams are accommodated. Note also that two stages might be
required between the 40 and 250 psig levels (depending on suction temperature and k value)
to stay below the discharge temperature limits.
11.3.1 Allowable Working Pressure
Occasionally a given pressure ratio might be achieved in one stage with satisfactory discharge
temperature and rod loading, but an actual cylinder does not exist to handle both the capacity
(ICFM) and pressure. In these situations, it is necessary to use two stages, or use two smaller
single stage cylinders depending on hardware and economics.
11.4 PRESSURE PROFILES
Pressure profiles for vapor systems are prepared similar to pump hydraulic profiles. Low
pressure systems can be particularly critical as pressure drops available are very low. Many
clients require pressure profiles for plant control as well as design.
Determine pressure drops through equipment and piping from vendor data or estimates,
arrangements and the Linesize program are similar. Elevation differences are often ignored
except in low available pressure drop or high-pressure/high-density systems.
Some example pressure profiles follow.
11.5 FANS
Fans are used for low pressures, in general, for pressure heads of less than 0.5 psi. They are
usually classified as of the centrifugal type or the axial-flow type. Both types are used for
ventilating work, supplying draft to boilers and furnaces, moving large volumes of air or gas
through ducts, supplying air for drying, conveying material suspended in the gas stream,
removing fumes, etc.
11.5.1 Centrifugal Fans
These are made in three general types, the straight-blade, or steel-plate, the forward-curved-
blade fan, and the backward-curved-blade fan.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 22 OF 32
11.5.1.1 Straight-Blade Fans
These fans have rotors of comparatively large diameter with a few (5 to 12) radial blades
resembling paddle wheels. These operate at comparatively low speed. They are often used
in exhaust work, particularly where wastes are carried in the air stream.
11.5.1.2 Forward-Curved-Blade Fans
These fans are usually of the multi-blade (20 to 64) "Sirocco" type. The rotors are of smaller
diameters and they operate at higher speeds than straight-blade units. They have less
stability than backward curved blades.
11.5.1.3 Backward-Curved-Blade Fans
These fans are of the multi-blade (10 to 50) type. Such fans have a wide range of usefulness.
11.5.2 Axial-Flow Fans
These fans are made in two general types, disk type and propeller type.
Disk-type fans have plain or curved blades similar to an ordinary household fan. They are
usually for general circulation or exhaust work without ducts.
Propeller-type fans have blades similar to aeronautical designs. Such fans may be two
staged.
11.5.3 Theory of Operation of a Centrifugal Fan
The theory of operation of a centrifugal fan is much like that of a centrifugal pump, the
pressure developed arising from two sources. These are centrifugal force due to the rotation
of an enclosed volume of air or gas, and velocity imparted to the air or gas by the blades and
partly converted to pressure by the volute or scroll shaped fan casing.
The centrifugal force developed by the rotor produces a compression of the air or gas which,
in fan engineering, is called the static pressure. The amount of this static pressure developed
depends on the ratio of the velocity of the air leaving the tips of the blades to the velocity of the
air entering the fan at the heel of the blades. Therefore, the longer the blades, the greater the
static pressure developed by the fan.
Operating efficiencies of fans are in the range of 40 to 70 percent. Operating pressure is the
sum of the static pressure and the velocity head of the air leaving the fan. It is generally
expressed in inches of water gauge, or in ounces per square inch.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 23 OF 32
The horsepower of a fan is given by:
144Q( P2 - P1 )
Air hp = = 0.000157Q * developed head (in inches of water)
33000
Eq. 11-40
Air hp
Shaft hp = Eq. 11-41
Efficiency
where:
Q = Volume handled, ft3/min

P1 = Inlet pressure, psia
P2 = Discharge pressure, psia
11.5.4 Fan Performance
The performance of a centrifugal fans varies with changes in conditions such as temperature,
speed, and density of the gas being handled. It is important to keep this in mind in using the
catalog data of various fan manufacturers, since such data are usually based on assumed
standard conditions, such as 70°F and 29.92 in. barometric pressure, or 68°F and 50 percent
relative humidity. Corrections must be made for variations from these assumed standards.
When speed varies:
· Capacity varies directly as the speed ratio
· Pressure varies as the square of the speed ratio
· Horsepower varies as the cube of the speed ratio
When temperature of air or gas varies:
· Horsepower and pressure vary inversely as the absolute temperature (speed and
capacity being constant)
When density of air or gas varies:
· Horsepower and pressure vary directly as the density (speed and capacity being
constant)

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 24 OF 32
11.5.5 Selection of Fans
It is common practice among fan manufacturers to publish complete data in tabular form
showing capacities, pressures, speeds, and horsepowers of their fans under standard
conditions of temperature and air density. These tables are of great use to the heating and
ventilating engineer and to others who specialize in fan engineering. Those who do not
specialize along these lines, should not attempt to select fans from these tables. The proper
course to follow is to put full data concerning the job to be done in the hands of fan
manufacturers and allow them to specify the fan they are willing to guarantee to do the
required work at the best obtainable economy. A comparison of several such proposals from
manufacturers will indicate the best choice.
11.6 COMPRESSOR DESIGN AND COMPRESSOR SYSTEM DESIGN
In order to provide preliminary data for vendor quotations, compressor service conditions must
be developed before equipment layouts are available. While making the compressor
calculations, equipment design pressures can be determined by development of the system
pressure profile.
For convenience and ease in maintaining records, the compressor calculation has been
prepared to indicate the original calculation I, the purchase calculation II, and the final
calculation III. Calculations II, III are generally made by the Project Engineer. Calculation I
may be prepared by Process Engineering.
Note: Calculation III will be done only for blowers and compressors in critical service. For non-
critical applications, Calculations I and II alone will be performed. After Calculation II has been
done and changes occur in plot plan or system design by addition or deletion of equipment
affecting a non critical compressor circuit, the necessity of Calculation III shall be explored. A
decision can be taken in a short time by re-running the PPS program and by substituting new
values in Calculation II. If results indicate a doubt in the adequacy of contingency, Calculation
III should be performed.
Compressors that are in critical service will be defined at the beginning of each project. These
critical services normally involve more than one destination, multiple heat exchangers in
series/parallel, and a multitude of control valves. Any inadequacy in flow or head of such
applications will not allow sustained plant operation.
Typical critical services may include:
· Recycle compressor loops
· High horse power compressors (500HP and above)

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 25 OF 32
The following groups shall be consulted on identifying critical blower/compressor service
applications:
· Process
· Project
· Process Licensor (if any)
· Machinery
Project Engineering will facilitate identification of critical service applications.
11.6.1 Original Calculation I
The Project Engineer usually prepares the Calculation I using Linesize Program of Pressure
Profile Suite (PPS). It's important that any alternate service conditions be specified as different
cases. These alternate service conditions should be shown as a range of flowrates (min.,
max.) or different process condition. The Project Engineer then assigns a drawing number to
the Compressor Calculation Sheet, and completes the calculation, system sketch, and
pressure profile. The Project Engineer will prepare the pressure profile in psia on the lower
graph section of the Compressor and Control Valve Design Sheet.
It is important to remember that vendor information for vessels, exchangers, heaters, etc., is
normally not available at this stage. Therefore, engineering judgment is required to set design
pressures for this equipment during the early stages.
However, the compressor datasheet prepared by Process Engineering Group can be treated
as Compressor Calculation I to save cost, if specified in the Project Work Instruction.
11.6.2 Calculation II
The second phase of calculations is made by the Project Engineer using the PPS program
just prior to the purchase of the compressors. Compressor quotations have been received with
estimated performance curves. In addition, the quoted pressure drops for exchangers, etc.,
may be available. Changes in equipment design pressures and rated compressor head
should be made as early as possible and preferably prior to start of vendor's engineering and
fabrication to minimize extra costs and/or delivery delays. The Project Engineer then assigns a
drawing number to the Compressor and Control Valve Design Sheet, and completes the
calculation, system sketch, and pressure profile. The pressure profile must be presented in
psia on the lower graph section of the Compressor and Control Valve Design Sheet, showing
the estimated system pressure profile at normal flow or min and max flow conditions.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 26 OF 32
The difference between Calculations I and II are:
Equipment pressure drops are based on equipment selected for purchase and piping studies.
After the Project Engineer has completed the calculation and adjusted the system pressure
profile for the actual compressor curves, the calculation sheet is issued as "Design Basis for
Purchase."
For blowers/compressors in non-critical service where Calculation III is not to be performed,

special attention needs to be paid to insure vendor pressure drop data is obtained for heat
exchangers, heaters, filters, flow orifices before Calculation II is completed and issued. If for
some reason vendor pressure drop data is available only after completion of Calculation II, the
vendor data shall be compared to the assumed pressure drop and the difference verified against
the contingency. If an inadequacy is determined, Calculation III shall be performed.
11.6.3 Final Calculation III
The compressor calculation III will also be performed by the Project Engineer using the PPS
program once equipment layouts and isometric drawings are available. The Project Engineer
is responsible for verifying the specified compressor service conditions by using the
manufacturer's equipment pressure drops, and line losses calculated by the Linesize program
in PPS using the length and fittings taken from isometric drawings. The line loss calculations
from simplified piping sketch can also be used if isometric drawings are not available. The
pressure profile is firmed up to indicate final design and final data is developed in the
Calculation III Compressor and Control Valve Design Sheet.
11.6.4 Important Note Pertinent to all Three Calculations
It is most important to check compressor maximum head versus mechanical design pressure
of all affected systems, specially when revisions are made to the system.
11.7 CRITERIA FOR COMPRESSOR DESIGN
11.7.1 Rated Flow
All compressors should be rated for 110% of normal flow. This is Bechtel's standard practice
and must be implemented, unless specified otherwise by the Client.
11.7.2 Pressure Drops through Equipment at Normal Flow
· Exchangers
A 10 psi pressure drop per exchanger unit may be assumed.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 27 OF 32
· Air coolers
A 10 psi pressure drop may be assumed for high pressure, 2-5 psi for low pressure and
0.5-2 psi for atmospheric coolers.
· Orifice meters
A nominal pressure drop of 2 psi (corresponds to 100-inch meter orifice) will be used for
all orifice meters.
· Other equipment
For equipment in which pressure losses vary considerably (heaters, filters, etc.) consult
Process Engineering and Vendor specifications.
11.7.3 Control Valves in Compressor Discharge Systems
The selection of the pressure drop through control valves is a function of the dynamic losses in
the system. The dynamic losses are the pressure drops which vary with flow, such as
through piping, heat exchangers, and filters. (These do not include the pressure drop through
the control valves.)
In practice, the losses in most compressor discharge systems are in a range that result in using
the basis of 50% of the system dynamic loss at normal flow. Pressure drop through equipment
is determined based on normal flow. A check should be made at rated flow to insure a minimum
of 10 psi control valve pressure drop is available. If the check reveals a deficiency, the
pressure drop at rated flow should be set at 10 psi and the pressure drop at normal flow
increased accordingly.
Decreasing the percentage of the system dynamic loss used for the control valve also
decreases the ability of the valve to control.
11.7.4 Line Friction Losses
Line losses must be calculated by the Linesize program. For estimating line losses, discharge
lines, assume 1.0-1.5 psi/100 ft for pressures above 100 psig and 10% of discharge pressure
for pressures below 100 psig. Suction lines 1.0-1.5 psi/100 ft for above 100 psig (including
recycle lines) and 0.1-0.3 psi/100 ft for 1 atm - 50 psig. (These losses are inclusive of all
fittings.)

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 28 OF 32
11.7.5 Adiabatic Horsepower
A simple approximation of the horsepower for estimating purposes may be obtained from the
formula.
P2
hp = 0.0044 p1Q ln( ) Eq. 11-43
P1
where:
P1 = Suction pressure in psia

P2 = Discharge pressure in psia
Q = Flow rate in ft3/min (actual)
A sample pressure profile is attached for reference. See Attachment 11-1.

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 29 OF 32
Figure 11-1
COMPRESSOR APPLICATION RANGES

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 30 OF 32
Figure 11-2
THEORETICAL COMPRESSION PATHS

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 31 OF 32
Attachment 11-1
SAMPLE COMPRESSOR CALCULATION

3DG-M11-K0001-003 PAGE 32 OF 32

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11.

0 COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

- Forward curved blade

- Backward curved blade

In general, discharge pressure of blowers is 1 - 7 psig. Pressure may go as high as

Blowers may come in many configurations such as:

- Liquid ring (blade)

Positive displacement blowers/compressors are used for volumes up to about 3,000 -

Compressors may be classified in two main categories:

Positive displacement compressors perform work on the gas in a repetitive non-

o Roots (straight lobe) blower

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

11.1 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMPRESSION

The principles of compression are based on thermodynamics. Compressing gases involves

Understanding thermodynamics of compression is helpful for the following reasons:

· The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases can be estimated based on the

- Its contribution to mass flow

- Its physical state

- Its effect on chemical properties

11.1.2 Perfect Gas Law and Compressibility

pV = WRT Eq. 11-1

p = Absolute pressure in pounds per square foot

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

For a continuous flow process, Equation 11-1 is modified as follows:

Q = Actual volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (ACFM)

To correct for deviations from a “perfect” gas, a compressibility factor, Z, is added to

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

11.1.3 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity

11.1.3.1 Gas Mixtures

· The molecular weight, Mm

· Molal specific heat, MCp(m)

· The critical pressure, Pc(m)

· Critical temperature Tc(m)

The mole fraction, X, of each component is:

Nm = Total moles in a mixture

The mixture properties can then be calculated as:

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

MCp(m) = Molal specific heat (heat capacity) of mixture at constant pressure

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

Relative humidity, in percent, may be determined from the following relationship:

Pv = Partial pressure of actual water vapor content

Wv = Weight of water vapor

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

11.1.4 Flow Units

Flow through a compressor may be stated in a number of different ways:

Bechtel Confidential © Bechtel 2002. All rights reserved.

COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

11.1.4.2 Moles/Hour (MPH)

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COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND FANS

11.1.4.5 Weight Flow

Weight flow can also be determined from scfm:

14.7( scfm) M ( scfm ) M