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Proceedings Paper:
Al Ammari, K and Clarke, BG (2016) Predicting the Effect of Vibro Stone Column
Installation on Performance of Reinforced Foundations. In: International Journal of Civil,
Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering. ICSMGE 2016:
18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 01-02
Feb 2016, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
, pp. 111-117.

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 Predicting the Effect of Vibro Stone Column
Installation on Performance of Reinforced
Foundations
K. Al ammari , B. G. Clarke
 the surrounding clay as one system. In reality all installation
Abstract—Soil improvement using vibro stone column methods of stone columns involve in partial to full radial
techniques consists of two main parts: (1) the installed load bearing displacement to the cylindrical hole in the soft clay. So the
columns of well-compacted, coarse-grained material and (2) the effect of this degree of lateral expansion on the response of the
improvements to the surrounding soil due to vibro compaction. surrounding clay should be taken into consideration in the
Extensive research work has been carried out over the last 20 years to design process of the reinforced ground, [19]. In this study, the
understand the improvement in the composite foundation adopted approach for the modelling process was chosen to
performance due to the second part mentioned above. Nevertheless,
few of these studies have tried to quantify some of the key design
simulate the dry bottom-feeding system in stone column
parameters, namely the changes in the stiffness and stress state of the construction, which is the most commonly, used method for
treated soil, or have consider these parameters in the design and vibro stone column installation. This system allows the
calculation process. Consequently, empirical and conservative design feeding of granular material from the bottom of the borehole
methods are still being used by ground improvement companies with by supplying these materials through the nose cone of the
a significant variety of results in engineering practice. Two- vibrator after reaching the required depth and without the need
dimensional finite element study to develop an axisymmetric model to use a water jet, Fig. 1.
of a single stone column reinforced foundation was performed using
PLAXIS 2D AE to quantify the effect of the vibro installation of this
column in soft saturated clay. Settlement and bearing performance
were studied as an essential part of the design and calculation of the
stone column foundation. Particular attention was paid to the large
deformation in the soft clay around the installed column caused by
the lateral expansion. So updated mesh advanced option was taken in
the analysis. In this analysis, different degrees of stone column lateral
expansions were simulated and numerically analyzed, and then the
changes in the stress state, stiffness, settlement performance and
bearing capacity were quantified. It was found that application of
radial expansion will produce a horizontal stress in the soft clay mass
that gradually decrease as the distance from the stone column axis
increases. The excess pore pressure due to the undrained conditions
Fig. 1 Vibro displacement by dry bottom-feeding method, [16].
starts to dissipate immediately after finishing the column installation,
allowing the horizontal stress to relax. Changes in the coefficient of
Two major effects can be distinguished due to the
the lateral earth pressure K , which is very important in representing
the stress state, and the new stiffness distribution in the reinforced installation of stone columns: the displacement of the ground
clay mass, were estimated. More encouraging results showed that due to the creation of the stone columns and changes within
increasing the expansion during column installation has a noticeable the soil due to movements of the vibration probe, [11] and
effect on improving the bearing capacity and reducing the settlement [18]. This variation increases the lateral stress within the clay
of reinforced ground, So, a design method should include this which provides additional confinement for the stone. An
significant effect of the applied lateral displacement during the stone equilibrium state is eventually reached, resulting in an
column instillation in simulation and numerical analysis design. increased stiffness of the surrounding soil and an increase in
the pore water pressure. Afterwards, stone columns will
Keywords— Bearing capacity, Design, Installation, Numerical accelerate the rate of consolidation of soft clays, providing a
analysis, Settlement, Stone Column. drainage path and relieving excess pore water pressures, [4],
[9] [19] and [23]. Elshazly [7] carried out a numerical
I. INTRODUCTION
analysis to prove the importance of taking into consideration

M any methods of stone columns installation have been

developed over the last four decades to achieve well-
compacted and efficient stone columns that work with
the changes of the stress state and stiffness of the treated clay
in the reinforced foundation design. This change starts after
vibro-replacement stone column installation and continues
during clay consolidation. They re-studied the field loading
K. AL ammari is with the University of Leeds, Civil Engineering, tests carried out on a single column within an extended group
Woodhouse Lane, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK. Email: [email protected]. in the Santa Barbara waste water treatment plant, using non-
B. G. Clarcke is with the University of Leeds, Civil Engineering,
Woodhouse Lane, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK. linear finite element code. They applied the axisymmetric
homogenization method and adopted the same soil profile and including the appropriate approach for simulation, selection of
geometric idealizations used by [22]. They found that parameters used in the analysis, the right choices for the
installing the vibro-replacement stone columns significantly constitutive model that represents the studied soil and some
alters the soil stress state, which can be represented by the assumptions related to the construction process of the stone
lateral earth pressure ratio K. They calibrated this parameter column installation.
utilizing the back-analysis method and found that the
horizontal to vertical soil stress ratio K of the clay surrounding
A. Soil profile
the stone columns increases from the original value of
untreated clay to the range [1.1 to 2.5] according to the layer. For development and validation purposes, the selected soft
This study is considered to have been the first step to quantify clay soil used in this study was Bothkennar Carse clay. It is
the change in the in situ soil after vibro stone column real clay which has been extensively characterized.
installation and consolidation, which leads to improvement in Bothkennar test site is a soft clay test bed site located in
the design of the foundation. In the second numerical Scotland, on the south side of the River Forth, near
analysis, Elshazly [8] searched for the relationship between Grangemouth, United Kingdom. It was chosen and purchased
the inter-column spacing and the corresponding alteration of by the Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) in
soil stress state of the clay around the stone columns. This 1987 for purpose of study and research the construction on
relationship affects the settlement performance of this system soft clay. the stratigraphy of the site relatively consists of
and illustrates the importance of the in situ clay between the uniformly soft clay deposits as a result of the post-glacial
columns and its role in increasing the capacity and reducing sediment of the Forth River [24]. Post to purchasing, an
the settlement after the increasing of its stiffness. So any intensive programme of field and laboratory investigations and
realistic and sufficient design needs to consider the effect of researches were carried out to establish a full geotechnical
the properties of the in situ soil and its stiffness response to the profile for the site, including full characterisation,
column installation and consolidation process. Permeability and hydraulic features, yielding and mechanical
The scope of this study is to quantify the effect of the vibro properties and disturbance and destructuration prior to
installation of stone column on the performance of the treated laboratory testing, [1],[14] and [21].
ground as an essential part of the design and calculation of the
stone column foundation. Bothkennar site sediments forming the Bothkennar clay
mainly consists of a crust of about 1.5m of stiff dark brown
silty clay, underlined by 12-22m of general consistent of soft
II. MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND SPECIFICATIONS silty clay layer commonly called as Carse clay, over a deep
layer of Bothkennar gravel. The soil is classified as clayey silt
according to BS5930 with low content of sand less than 10%,
In the last few years there were few attempts to take into and clay of average (35-50) %. The silt particles noted to be
account the stone column installation effect in improving the very angular giving higher friction angle for Bothkennar clay.
settlement performance using numerical analysis methods. The soil classified to be high plasticity As a result of the
They can be summarized in two main simulations methods; significant organic content in the main clay layer (3-5) % [14].
the first one is increasing the coefficient of lateral earth
pressure (K0) in the soil around the stone column [7] and [8]. The lateral earth coefficient has been calculated as a ratio
While the second based on applying cylindrical cavity between vertical and horizontal effective stress and has been
expansion to stone column in modelling using extendable plotted by [24]. K0 for the crust clayey layer has a high values
dummy material (with with very low stiffness stiffness). Then compared with the underneath Carse clay, where K0 become
convert properties to stone backfill after expansion [6] and less than 1, then it decreases slowly with the depth.
[12].
In this study the two simulation methods were combined
together by Apply cavity expansion to stone columns using
Guetif [12] method to take into account the changes in the
soil stress state then the enhanced zone was estimated based
on soil properties. After that stiffness of this enhanced zone
was increase to cover its role in improving the settlement
performance after consolidation.
The studied case of a single stone column that supports a
circular footing is not an applicable case in the field, but it can
be utilized from its results to be a framework for a real typical
field cases foundation supported by a group of stone columns
that . Never the less, the soft clay soil and stone column
Fig. 2 Axisymmetric problem, [25].
material parameters and geometry of stone column and footing
were taken to be as realistic as possible.
In order to build a realistic model for a single stone column B. Units and model type
that supports a circular foundation on soft clay soil, the Before describing the of modelling process, it should be
modelling process should involve into a series of challenges, mentioned that the units of the input parameters including the
geometry dimensions, forces, stresses and time in this model simulation results. Since the generated reaction forces and
were taken as the default units in Plaxis 2D V9 (m, N, day). displacement in these boundaries can influence the impact of
Consequently, all output data and curves will be showed using the applied forces on main interested zones. A sensitivity
the same units. Simulation of the single stone column was analysis was carried out on the studied model for both side and
carried out using axisymmetric analysis and without any bottom boundaries to ensure their neutrality of any influence
geometric modelling, fig 2. in analysis. It was found that there is no influence of the
bottom boundary in the settlement under the footing when it is
10m or more. Therefore, it was chosen at 11m depth under the
C. Boundary conditions
footing to have 3 m far from the base of the floating column.
The studied model is controlled with a group of boundary While the side boundary starts to affect the footing settlement
conditions that can be applied differently for each calculation results when it comes closer than 12.5m from footing centre
phase to reach an equilibrium state with the internal stresses line. So, it has been conservatively chosen at 15m distance,
and strains. where the effect of the model loading is diminished.
All boundary conditions of the model are listed below and
illustrated in fig 3 15-node triangular elements were selected for all the
1. The default general fixities were automatically clusters in the current studied model. Mesh density sensitivity
applied to the boundaries of the studied model, where analysis was carried out and the global coarseness was taken
all nodes of the model vertical sides are fixed in X- to be medium which is sufficiently fine to achieve accurate
direction (Ux =0) and free in Y- direction, to numerical results. One preferable feature in Plaxis 2D AE is
represent the infinite extension of the soil body mass an automatic fine mesh at the interfaces and inter-element
in x-direction, while the bottom boundary which boundaries, but it is still important to check any discontinuities
represent the deep mother soil is fully constrained in that may occur in these regions due to the fast changes of
both directions (Ux = Uy = 0). The ground surface strains and stresses. In this model, the platform under the edge
has no fixities in all direction of the footing should be checked after applying the working
load and refine the mesh at this area at any discontinuity case.
2. Self-soil weight was taken into account by applying
the gravity effect, assuming the default gravity
acceleration, g, is 9.810 m/s2, and the direction is
with the negative y-axis. Default unit weight of the
water is 10 kg/m3.
3. The ground water level was selected to be at the
surface of the soft clay. The water is allowed to flow
from the clay to the stone column drain during the
consolidation, while a closed ground water flow
boundary was assigned on right and bottom sides of
the model considering the continuity with mother soil
mass.
4. The studied soft clay was the lower layer of
Bothkennar Carse clay considered as normally
consolidated, saturated and extends to a large depth.

D.Sensitivity analysis
In order to have accurate results for the analysis using finite
Fig. 3 Boundary conditions in studied model.
element technique and make these results dependent only on
soil properties and geotechnical problem conditions, a group
After finishing the sensitivity analysis, the model was
of important analysis for the features and conditions like the
simulated to be a (30 x 10) m cylindrical of solid soft clay,
mesh density and the distance of the boundaries were
overlaid with 1m thickness of gravel platform. The installed
investigated to avoid any reaction on the model results.
vibro stone column diameter was ranged between (50-100) cm
and the applied footing was 2m diameter of 50 (kPa)
External boundaries are an artificial representative of real
distributed load on both stone column and surrounded
forces, extensions and conditions that define the situation of a
compacted clay. The model geometry is symmetric so one half
finite element model. It is not possible to include real natural
of it is enough for simulation. The final model dimensions are
extension of a mass of soil or some events applied on it, so
illustrated in fig 3.
finite element code (Plaxis 2D AE) enable the user to
substitute the reaction of these extensions and events as a
restraints, displacements and forces. Consequently, user can E. Models and parameters
quantify these effects and assign them to the studied model The studied 3D single stone column foundation model
with minimum effect on the accuracy of this model. Positions consists of three components, concrete footing, stone column
of boundary restraints can significantly affect finite element and platform material and soft treated clay. Typical parameters
values of were assumed for the reinforced concrete footing Hardening soil model was used to represent both soft clay
material in modelling; as shown in table 1, [5]. The footing and stone column materials. These two choices were decided
thickness was assumed to be 0.5m, which is rigid enough to after investigating the right representative constitutive model
approximately consider some applied settlement for both stone that able to capture the changes in both of them. Adopted soil
column and surrounded soft clay. Liner elastic model was parameters for the Hardening soil model are shown in table 1.
used to simulate the footing material.

TABLE 1

Soil parameters adopted for finite element analysis.

Soil Parameter Platform & Stone Column Crust Upper Carse clay Lower Carse clay Unit

Material model Hardening soil model Hardening soil model Hardening soil model Hardening soil model -

Depth 14.5 0.0-1.5 1.5-2.5 2.5-14.5 (m)

Type of material behaviour Drained Undrained Undrained Undrained -
Soil unit weight ( ) 19.0 18 16.5 16.5 KN/m3
Soil saturated unit weight ( sat) 21.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 KN/m3
Over-consolidation ratio - 1.5 1.5 1
Permeability (Kh) 1.5 1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 1.0 × 10-4 m/day
Permeability (Kv) 1.5 6.9 × 10-5 6.9 × 10-5 6.9 × 10-5 m/day
Young’s modulus (Eref) 35000 - - - KN/m2
Poisson’s ratio ( ) 0.3 0.35 0.35 0.35 -
Cohesion (Cref) 0 3 1 1 KN/m2
Friction angle ( ) 38 34 34 34 º
Dilatancy angle ( ) 6 0 0 0 º
Initial voids ratio, (e0) - 1.0 1.2 2.0 -
Compression index, (CC) - 0.07 0.25 1.12
Swelling index, (CS) - 0.01 0.03 0.16 -
Reference pressure, pref) - 13 20 30 KN/m2
Lateral earth coefficient K0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.75
m - 1.0 1.0 1.0
E50ref - 1068 506 231 KN/m2
Eoedref - 1068 506 231 KN/m2
ref
Eur - 5382 3036 1164 KN/m2

F. Validation

It is very important to validate the use of Plaxis 2D AE and

its adopted model before studying the case of stone column
installation effect. For this purpose, Plaxis 2D AE with
Hardening Soil Model parameters selected for Bothkennar
profile in Table 1 were used to investigate the load-
displacement behavior of Bothkennar soil and then compare
the results with a well-documented field load test on rigid pad
footing carried out by [15]. The comparison result is shown in
fig 4.

As illustrated in fig 4 Plaxis 2D AE and the adopted

parameters for its Hardening Soil Model are able to predict the
settlement behaviour of Bothkennar Clay very well. However,
it appears that the initial stiffness of the field test is under
estimated by Plaxis 2D V9, but it is clear the trend is the same
and the ultimate bearing capacity is similar. So, this validates
the use of Plaxis 2D AE and the choice of selected Hardening advanced option has been considered in analysis the effect of
Soil Model parameters to be Adequate for the next step. column installation. Since stone columns are usually installed
in a short period of time, the applied radial expansion to the
1500 surrounding clay was modelled as a prescribed displacement
considering undrained conditions.
Applied pressure (kPa)

1200

A. Column–soil interface
900
Interface elements are designed to model the interaction
600
between the soil and structural elements surfaces (smooth and
rough) including any gap or slip displacement it might happen.
Field Data For the case of stone column analysis, the researchers had two
300
Plaxis 3D different opinions; [13] and [17] considered the smear zone
created between the stone column and the soft clay after
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 installation as a low permeability thickness. This zone affects
Settlement (mm) the drainage capacity of stone columns and reduces the rate of
consolidation. So they use column-soil interface in their
Fig 4 Comparison of Plaxis 2D AE modeling results with real load- models. Many other researches like, [10], [12] and [19]
displacement behaviour for a field footing done by [15]. believe that Due to vibro compacted installation of the stone
column, the interface between the soft clay and column
material is assumed to be full adhesive and the stone column
III. COLUMN INSTALLATION MODELLING becomes tightly interlocked with the surrounding soil.
However, in this model no column–soil interface was
Stone column installation in this case is modelled as an considered, because of the following reasons;
undrained expansion of a cylindrical cavity. In order to
perform this installation process in the finite element 1. Both of the soft clay and stone column material have
simulation, a procedure called (Dummy material) was adopted a soil nature with different geotechnical properties
to avoid any discontinuity in simulating the radial expansion and no possibility for any slipping or gaps after
process. It considers the cylindrical hole made by the vibrated installation.
probe after installation and before start the radial 2. The focus of the current model mainly to study the
displacement, as a fictitious purely elastic material with a very changes in both the stress state and the material
weak young modulus (First phase). This weak Dummy properties of the treated soil mass adjust to the
material can stretched when it is subjected to the radial column (including the smear zone) due to the
displacement (vibro compaction of stone column material) installation and consolidation. So any prejudged
until the radial expansion reaches the stone column radius assigned properties for this zone will affect the
[12]. Then the dummy material replaced by stone column results.
material (second phase). Fig 5 illustrates the principle of 3. The low permeability smear zone mentioned above
installation process. has no effect on the long term performance of the
stone column system.

The numerical analysis was conducted considering infinite

permeability between the clay and the stone column, and
allowing enough time consolidation after column installation
until the minimum pore water pressure within the soil is 10%
of the maximum value caused by column installation. Then
Applying foundation load considering a rigid foundation
(same displacement for both stone columns and clay). After
that, allowing consolidation again to minimum pore water
pressure within the soil is 10% of the maximum value caused
by applying foundation load.
Fig. 5 Principle of stone column expansion using the dummy material. Groups of Nodes & Stress Points under the footing and at mid
depth of the stone column were selected on the finite element
In small deformation of the engineering structure, it is mesh, in order to generate results for the studied model.
accurate enough to consider the finite element mesh in
equilibrium conditions, which means that the stiffness matrix
in this case is approximately constant, while in large IV. RESULTS
deformation theory this stiffness matrix should be updated in
Application of radial expansion will produce a horizontal
each step of calculation [3]. Vibro lateral expansion of the
stress in the soft clay mass; part of this horizontal stress is the
stone column caused large displacement on the surrounded
excess pore pressure due to the undrained conditions of the
soft clay up to 45 cm in this model. So the “updated mesh”
saturated clay. These stresses gradually decrease as the
distance from the stone column axis (R) increases. to the stone column and decrease gradually with the distance
Immediately after finishing the column installation, the excess to get close to its original value after about five times the
pore pressure starts to dissipate, allowing the horizontal stress column diameter (dc). Similar dramatic increase in the soil
to relax. Fig 6 and fig 7 illustrate the relationships of radial stiffness after consolidation can be noticed in fig 9. This effect
displacements, and the generated excess pore pressure before extends up to 6 times the column diameter and reaches a peak
consolidation with distance from the column axis for the case of 2.6 times the initial soil stiffness. It can be also noted in fig
of 0.2m displacement. 9 that due to the applied dynamic vibration, a drop in the
stiffness in the soil very close to column is expected as reason
0.2 for a potential liquefaction in this area.
Lateral Displacement (m)

1.8
0.15

Normalized lateral pressure

1.6

coficient (Kn/K0)
0.1
1.4
0.05
1.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 1.0
Normalized horizontal distance (R/dc)
Fig. 6 Variation of lateral displacement within the clay with distance from the 0.8
column axis (displacement degree = 0.2 m). 0 2 4 6 8 10
Normalized horizontal distance (R/dc)
Fig 6 shows that the applied lateral expansion is directly
exerted by the surrounding clay, causing a displacement Fig. 8 Variation of stress within the clay with distance from the column axis
within the clay, which usually vanishes close to and not more (displacement degree = 0.2 m).
than six times the value of the applied expansion.

12.0 The last aforementioned two effects of the stone column

installation are believed to have significant influence in the
10.0 stone column foundation system performance. They have been
neglected in many of the design methods nowadays. For the
8.0 purpose of studying these influences, a programme of
numerical analysis to quantify their impact, as a function of
6.0
U / U0

the expansion degree applied during stone column installation,

has been carried out.
4.0
3.0
2.0
Normalized soil stiffness

0.0 2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Normalized horizontal distance (R/dc) 2.0
(En/E0)

1.5
Fig. 7 Variation of excess pore pressure within the clay with distance from the
column axis (displacement degree = 0.2 m).
1.0
A. Evaluating the new stress state and the stiffness changes
due to stone column installation 0.5
By taking the normalized radial stress to vertical stress, it is 0 2 4 6 8 10
possible to estimate the changes in the coefficient of the lateral Normalized horizontal distance (R/dc)
earth pressure K , which is very important in representing the
stress state and evaluating its new distribution in the
reinforced clay mass. Fig 8 shows the coefficient of the lateral Fig. 9 Variation of stiffness of clay with distance from the column axis
(displacement degree = 0.2 m).
earth pressure and its changes after column installation
compared with its original value at rest. It is clear that the
stress state rises up to about 1.6 times the initial value adjunct
 B. Effect of expansion degree on bearing capacity
settlement performance
In aforementioned numerical programme, the improvement V. CONCLUSIONS
in bearing capacity and settlement performance of the soft soil A series of axisymmetric numerical analysis has been
around the stone column due to displacement installation of carried out to study the installation effect of a single stone
the column were evaluated. Eight different column expansion column in natural well documented Bothkennar Clay by
degree cases ( d= 0.10, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.4 and adopting unit cell concept. Two main effects were found;
0.45 m) were simulated and numerically analysed. The results  Increase the coefficient of lateral earth pressure as a
showed that increasing the expansion during column result of applying the cavity expansion during
installation has a very important effect on improving the installation.
bearing capacity and reducing the settlement of reinforced  Significant increase the stiffness of the enhanced soft
ground. soil around the column after installation and
consolidation.
1.4 Different degrees of stone column lateral expansions were
Bearing Pressure improvement

studied, and then the changes in the stress state and settlement
performance were quantified. The results demonstrate a
significant improvement in the performance of this composite
1.2 foundation when the applied lateral displacement of the
factor (m)

installed column increases. Confirming the fact that;

neglecting the role of the soft soil in stone column
reinforcement system design will end with about 50% under
1.0
estimation of the settlement performance for these
foundations.

0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Normalized expansion Degree ( d/dc) REFERENCES
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