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PAPER CODE- 40102

IN SEMESTER EVALUATION
TOPICS –
A.ORIGIN OF COAL
B.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COAL
C.CLASSIFICATION OF COAL
D.MAKUM COAL FIELD

SUBMITTED BY
NABIN ADHIKARI
M.Sc 4th SEM
ROLL NO-19
DIBRUGARH UNIVERSITY
 A.ORIGIN OF COAL

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal

seams.Coal is mostly carbon variable amounts of other elements;chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen,
and nitrogen.

ORIGIN OF COAL

Coal forms primarily from ancient plant material that accumulated in surface environments where
the complete decay of organic matter was prevented.For example, a plant that died in a swampy
area would quickly be covered with water, silt, sand, and other sediments.These materials
prevented the plant debris from reacting with oxygen and decomposing to carbon dioxide and
water, as would occu under normal circumstances.Instead, anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that do not
require oxygen to live) attacked the plant debris and converted it to simpler forms: primarily pure
carbon and simple compounds of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons).Because of the way it is
formed, coal (along with petroleum and natural gas) is often referred to as a fossil fuel. The initial
stage of the decay of a dead plant is a soft, woody material known as peat.In some parts of the
world, peat is still collected from boggy areas and used as a fuel.It is not a good fuel, however, as
it burns poorly and with a great deal of smoke.If peat is allowed to remain in the ground for long
periods of time, it eventually becomes compacted as layers of sediment, known as overburden,
collect above it.The additional pressure and heat of the overburden gradually converts peat into
another form of coal known as lignite or brown coal.Continued compaction by overburden then
converts lignite into bituminous (or soft) coal and finally, anthracite (or hard) coal.Coal has been
formed at many times in the past, but most abundantly during the Carboniferous Age (about 300
million years ago) and again during the Upper Cretaceous Age (about 100 million years ago).
Today, coal formed by these processes is often found in layers between layers of sedimentary
rock.In some cases, the coal layers may lie at or very near the earth's surface.In other cases, they
may be buriedthousands of feet or meters under ground.Coal seams range from no more than 3-
197 ft (1-60 m) or more in thickness.The location and configuration of a coal seam determines the
method by which the coal will be mined.

There are two theories proposed for the mode of accumulation of the plant materials to transform
into coal.

1) In-situ theory

According to this theory, the coal seams are observed where once forest grew. As the land was
sinking slowly, the accumulated vegetation matters went under water slowly and did not
decompose and destroyed. In the course of time, the rate of sinking of land was increased and coal
forest was submerged under water. Again, land along with the coal forest emerged out of water
after sufficient time and this cycle went on again and again, which is responsible of formation of
coal strata and seams. The evidence of this phenomenon is observed in the coal seam that the stem
of fossil trees is found standing erect with their roots protruding into the underclays. The
uniformity in thickness and composition of coal seams over wide areas suggests that the
deposition of plant material took place in still water.

2) Drift theory

This theory tells that, the plant material was transported with the stream of water from one place
to another, and finally get deposited in a place of swamp having suitable condition like sediments.
The coal seams of India are of drift origin. The evidence of drift theory that the rocks associated
with the coal seams are of distinctly sedimentary. The coal seam itself behaves like a sedimentary
bed and they are observed to branch out.

B.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COAL

Coal is a mineral in which the chemical element of carbon is prevalent.Carbon content (the so-
called coalification) depends foremost on the time during which the conversion from plant matter
to the final mineral took place.The older the coal, the higher the carbon percentage and the less
apparent the original vegetable component, i.e.the fossil, remains of plant tissues, resin, etc.And,
in particular, such coal is of higher quality and is in greater demand.However, besides that
coalification and representation of impurities isxdependent on other circumstances, in particular
on species composition of plants from which the coal was formed, on the character of the deposit,
geological history thereof, etc.

Chemical analysis of coal

(i)Proximate analysis-a.Moisture content
b.Volatile matter
c.Ash content
d.Fixed carbon
 e.Calorific value

(a) Moisture content-Water present in coal is in 2 forms.In one case it appears as water adsorbed
either in external surfaces or in cappilaries or in pores free or accidental moisture.In other case it
occurs as an original constituent of coal itself and may be present as combined water, as water of
hydration of inorganic constituents, as dissolve water or as water resulting from decomposition of
organic compounds----inherent or hydroscopic moisture.The sum of free moisture and inherent
moisture is called total moisture.

(b) Volatile matter- Refers to the substances that volatilise or escapes when the coal is heated at
925 ͦC for a period of 7 mins.When coal is so heated , the organic matter present in coal
decomposes yielding a complex mixture made out of water of decomposition, oxides of carbon,
vapours of tar and gases including hydrogen, methane and other hydrocarbons.Volatile is not a
constituent of coal but a product of thermal decomposition of coal substances.

(c) Ash content- It represents the inorganic constituents present in coal and left as residue after
complete combustion of coal.This residue or ash is made up of silicates of ca, Mg, Fe, Ti, oxides
of Fe and Si, carbonates of Ca , Mg, sulphates of Ca and some phosphates.In addition to this there
are no.of minor inorganic constituents in coal.Imp among them are salts of vanadium, germanium,
boron,arsenic, lead,zinc.

(d) Fixed carbon- Fixed carconis the solid combustible residue that remain after a coal particle is
heated and the volatile matter is expelled.The fixed carbon content of coal is dtermined by
substracting the percentages of moisture ,VM and ash from a sample
Fixed carbon= 100- (moisture % + VM% + Ash %)
Fixed carbon is always less than the total carbon content.
Eg- Total carbon content in bituminous coal varies from 75-90% whereas the fixed carbon lies
between 55-70%.

(e) Calorific value- Indicates the amount of heat that is released when the coal is burned.The
calorific value varies on the geographical age , formation , ranking and location of the coal mines.
• Expressed as KJ/ kg in SI unit
• Goutals law, Calorific value = P+ 82C+ aV
Where, P= no of calories in a gram of coal
C= % of wt of fixed carbon
V= % wt of volatile matter
a= constant
(ii) Ultimate analysis- It involves estimation of the proportion of C, H, N,O,S and Ph.The
amount of C,H,N are determined directly and that O is determined by difference.The presence of
a high % of O is very undesirable as it not only reduces the heating value of coal but also effects
the coking property.Sulphur is invariably present in all coals and may be found in different
forms.It may occur as organic sulphur compounds, as mineral sulphides like pyrite and
marchacite or sulphates mostly of Ca or Fe.It varies in amount from 0.5%- 2.5%.But in some
cases it may be present as much as upto 10%.The presence of high amount of sulphur detracts the
value of coal as it renders it unfit for metallurgical purposes.The organic sulphur being an integral
part of coal cannot be removed by washing.Phosphorus is always present in coal in amount
generally less than 0.01% but occassionally less than 0.03%.It may probably occur as organic
phosphorus representing the constituent of the original plant and also may present as inorganic
calcium phosphates derived from intrusive rock.

C.CLASSIFICATION OF COAL
Numerous systems of coal classification have been proposed by different authors since the later part of
the 19t h century. Most of the classification are based on the chemical and technical properties of the
coals.Coals are classified for various purposes according to its chemical properties in relation to their
industrial usage .The following classification schemes are discussed below:

1. Classification based on Proximate analysis

A number of classifications have been in practice based on proximate analysis due to its simple
nature.Moreover,in view of the practical importance in relation to its utilization of coal, proximate
analysis includes a measure of the proportions of the volatile matter and the range of calorific value.
Most investigation of coal during the 19t h century used either the “Fixed carbon” or “the volatile
matter” content of coal in their classification.The parameters included in the term proximate analysis that
are mostly used in classification systems are Fuel ratio,the volatile matter,(or the related “fixed
carbon”),the moisture (either total or inherent)and the calorific value.

(a) Fraser’s classification

It is one of the earliest classifications of coal proposed by Fraser (1877) in the USA. He devised a system
based on the fuel ratio, i.e., the ratio between volatile matter and fixed carbon content.According to this
classification,the coal has been categorized into 4 divisions namely Bituminous, Semi-Bituminous, Semi-
Anthracite and Anthracite.

(b) Parr’s classification

The coal classification system as introduced by S. W. Parr (1928) is mainly based on the proximate
analysis and calorific value of the coal. The calorific value of the pure coal is plotted against the
percentage of unit volatiles.

(c) A.S.T.M. Classification

Classification by proximate analysis of coal has been a favourite method in the USA for more than a
century. The A.S.T.M (American Society for Testing and Materials) system is generally used here, being a
development of the best features of the systems based upon proximate analyses by Parr and others. The
ASTM classification uses bases of fixed carbon or volatile matter for high rank coals, and the calorific
value of the moist, mineral matter free coal for the low rank coals which contain high proportions of
moisture. The coals are classified into a series of classes and groups. In this classification which is
numbered, commencing with the higher rank coals. Coals of higher rank than No. 4 high volatile -
Bituminous coal, i.e., coals containing less than 31% of volatile matter, in dry mineral matter free basis,
are classified according to their fixed carbon contents. Coals containing more than 31 % of volatile matter
in dry mineral matter free basis are classified according to their 'moist calorific value’. Moist calorific
value (moist B.Th.U) means the calorific value of the coal containing its 'natural bed moisture’, but not
including visible water on the surface of the coal.
(d) Indian Standard Classification
The coal classification system adopted by the Indian Standard Institute is mainly based on the yield of
volatile matter and calorific value (on dry mineral matter free basis) together with the moisture content
and caking nature of the coals.
2. Classification based on Ultimate and Proximate analysis

(a) Seyler’s classification

Seyler’s classification is one of the outstanding historical classifications of coal based upon ultimate
analysis. As originally presented in 1900, coals were grouped into a series of species according to carbon
content and into series of genera according to hydrogen content. The carbon and hydrogen as
determined by ultimate analysis, were corrected for moisture, ash and combustible sulphur. The lowest
carbon content included was 75%, thus excluding lignites, whilst the hydrogen range was too small to
include such soils rich in hydrogen as channels and bogheads. In this classification the prefix ‘ortho-
indicates ‘true’, ‘typical’ or ‘normal’, ‘sub’ means ‘less than normal’, whilst ‘per’ means ‘more than
normal’. In Seyler’s chart, a narrow band is drawn between the carbon limits 70.0-97.0% and hydrogen
2.0 to 5.8% which is believed to include the composition of all normal (humic) bright coals within this
range of carbon content. Later on Seyler has produced a series of graphical representations of his
classification in the form of charts with carbon and hydrogen as rectangular coordinates, with further
axes indicating calorific value and volatile matter at right angles to each other, but inclined at about 60°
to the carbon axis (Francis, 1961).

Fig: Seyler’s classification of coal

(b) Mott’s Classification

Mott has made an intensive study into the subject of classification based upon ultimate and proximate
analyses, and his classification covers a wide variety of coals. The construction of the chart representing
Mott’s classification is on somewhat similar line to that of Seyler, except that the volatile matter and
calorific value determinations are used as the principal rectangular coordinate, whilst hydrogen and
carbon are subsidiary co-ordinates, inclined at an angle of approximately 40° to the main coordinates.
The ultimate and proximate analyses are calculated to the dry mineral matter free basis. The Mott’s
classification is tabulated in Table 8.8. The chief merit of Mott’s classification lies in the recognition of the
coal outside the coal band of Seyler.
 Fig Mott’s classification of coal

(c) Hickling’s classification

Hickling (1927) proposed a classification and constructed a chart by. plotting the percentage of carbon
against oxygen (unit coal basis).

(d) Classification by Williamson

Williamson (1957) plotted the percentage of carbon against the calorific value in B.Th.U/lb in dry ash
free basis to have a coal classification.

(e) Classification by International Geological Congress

In the classification proposed by International Geological Congress letters are substituted for names .
The parameters used are V.M., fuel ratio, calorific value and carbon. In a general way the classification
conforms to the nomenclature used in America as follows :

Ai = Anthracite coal

A2 = Semi-anthracite coal

B1 = Anthracite coal and high carbon bituminous coal

B2 = Bituminous coal
 Fig : Classification by International Geological Congress

(f) Basic curves by Francis

On the basis of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contents of coal, Francis (1961) has drawn basic curves
for the Humic coal series from Peat to Graphite.

3. PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION

(a) Classification based on vitrinite

An attempt has been made by Sen (1978) to classify and codify Indian coals on the basis of petrographic
analysis. Vitrinite has been chosen as the most important parameter for classification. Here coals have
been divided into a number of coal types such as pervitrinous, meta-vitrinous, ortho-vitrinous, para-
vitrinous and sub-vitrinous according to decreasing proportion of vitrinite content (in visible mineral
matter free basis) of coals.

Fig: Classification of coal based on vitrinite per cent (V.M.M.F. basis)

(b) Classification based on exinite

Sen has also classified the Indian coals on the basis of exinite content. Coals have been grouped into
eight genera with corresponding group numbers according to exinite content (volume % on the basis of
VMMF basis).

Fig: Classification of coal based on exinite per cent (V.M.M.F. basis)

(c) Classification based on reflectance and volatile matter (rank)

Rank is of paramount importance in deciding the chemical, physical and technological properties of
coal. In some classifications in addition to maceral composition, rank is also taken into consideration. This
may be achieved by considering the reflectance of vitrinite. Mean maximum reflectance (in oil) of
vitrinite is recommended for this purpose. Reflectance values of vitrinite have been divided into
reflectance numbers and group numbers based on carbonisation properties as deduced from correlation
of volatile matter per cent and carbon per cent with maximum reflectance per cent. The span of
bituminous range has been divided between reflectance of 0.51% (volatile matter approximately 40-
50%) and reflectance 2.1% (volatile matter 13%). The entire range of bituminous coal has been divided
into 5 groups each having an equal range of reflectance of 0.30%, except the last one which has a span of
0.40%. In this classification provision has been made for placing anthracite and low rank coals.

Fig: Classification of coal based on reflectance and volatile matter

D.MAKUM COAL FIELD

The Makum coalfield, located in the northeast part of the Tinsukia District of Assam,contains 5
workable coal beds.Two of these, one 18 m thick and the other 6 m thick, are persistent across the
coalfield; the others are sporadic in their occurrence.All of the coal beds occur in the Oligocene
Tikak Parbat Formation, the uppermost member of the Barail Group.The Tikak Parbat Formation
is underlain by the Borgolai and Naogaon Formations.The lithologic characteristics of these
formations are summarized in Table1.The Makum coalfield occurs in an area that has experienced
significant tectonic disturbance, indicates, the regional Margherita and Haflong Disang thrusts
form, respectively, the northern and southern boundaries of the coalfield.The coal contains shiny,
circular, oval, or elongated structures, which may parallel or cross the bedding planes.These
structures are believed to be the result of the tectonic deformation this region.
The main working coal mines of this field are:
1. Namdung colliery (27°16′ N: 95°51′ E) on the western end.
2. Boragolai colliery (27°16′ N: 95°51′ E) at the central position.
3. Ledo colliery (27°18′ N: 95°51′ E) at the central portion.
4. Tipong colliery (27°18′: 95°51′E) on the eastern extremity of the coal field.

STRUCTURE

The geological structure of the Makum coal field is represented by a well-defined asymmetric
syncline plunging towards north-east with a closure at the Namdang colliery and has been often
referred to as Namdang syncline. The syncline is bounded on north and south by two large thrust
namely, the Margherita Thrust in the north and Haflong- Disang thrust in the south. The coal
bearing Tikak-Parbat Formation in the southern limb of Namdang syncline abuts against
Halflong-Disang thrust and reappears again in the east near Lekhapani mine entry. The coal
bearing formation continues in the east and far east and the trace of the limb has been found near
Jairampur. The coal bearing Tikak Parbat Formation in the northern limb extends in a north
easterly direction from Namdang to Ledo and at Ledo-Tirap this limb is again folded into a north
easterly plunging anticline, commonly known as Ledo anticline. Further to the north, Ledo
anticline the strata are folded into a syncline which abuts against Margherita thrust. In short, the
Makum coal field is structurally complex with folding and two major thrust delineating the limits
of the coalfield towards north and south.
STRATIGRAPHY

The Makum coal field mainly composed of Tertiary to Quaternary rocks, alluvium and thick
highly carbonaceous sediments. The upper two conformable formations i.e. the Tikak Parbat and
Baragolai Formations, of the Barail Group are coal-bearing and were designated as "Coal-
Measure Sub-Series" by Mallet (1876). The Tikak Parbat Formation contains five coal seams in
the basal 200 m section.

The Tikak Parbat Formation comprises alternations of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, shale,
carbonaceous shale, clay and coal seams. Each such cycle commences from one sandstone band
to the next in the sequence. The frequency of alternations of finegrained sediments increases
when a coal seam is approaching (Misra, 1981). No coal seam/seam section of a composite seam
is in direct contact with a sandstone bed. The coal seams and associated carbonaceous shale,
shale, siltstone and mudstone beds contain specks of pyrite. Impure dolomitic limestone band is
also encountered above seam no. 3 eastwards beyond Ledo colliery area (Misra, 1981; Raja Rao,
1981). Five additional younger and impersistent coal seams (0.10-1.7 M thick) have been
recorded 127 meter above seam no. 3 in the eastern part of the area (Raja Rao, 1981). The
Baragolai Formation conformably underlies Seam no. 1 of Tikak Parbat Formation which serves
as the dividing stratum between the two formations. The Baragolai Formation is more arenaceous
in nature and contains several impersistent coal seams (< 1 m thick) in the upper middle to upper
sections of the sequence (Misra, 1981).

PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTER

Vitrinite is the dominant maceral.The modal percentage ranges from 82.8% to 86.6% and
averages 84.7% in these coals.Vitrinite occurs as groundmass, and only rarely occurs in
bands.The collinite variety is dominant; telinite is rarely observed.Fusinite occurs in bands and as
irregular bodies.It commonly shows "bogen" structure, and has the highest reflectance of any of
the macerals in these coals.Semifusinite occurs in bands or as irregular bodies inside the
vitrinite.It has a reflectance between that of vitrinite and fusinite.Sclerotinite occurs as oval and
circular shaped bodies that have high reflectance.This maceral is composed of the remains of
fungal resting spores.Inertodetrinite consists of the detrital grains of inertinite (generally fusinite)
that occur inside the vitrinite groundmass.They are found sporadically and are identified by their
higher reflectance.Inertinite group macerals in these coals ranges from 5.1% to 6.6% and averages
5.9%.On a visible, mineral-matter-free basis the percentage of inertinite ranges from 5.2% to
7.1% and averages 6.2%.Resinite is found as oval and irregularly shaped bodies within the
vitrinite groundmass.Sporinite occurs as long, slender, flattened, miospore bodies having very low
reflectance.The sporinite is largely enclosed in the vitrinite groundmass.Cutinite occurs as long,
thin bands with serrated edges.The exinite group macerals in these coals range from 3.9% to 5.2%
and averages 4.5% .On a visible, mineral-matter-free basis,it ranges from 4.0% to 5.5% and
averages 4.7%.Mineral matter is a dominant species and ranges from 3.3% to 6.7% and averages
4.9%.Pyrite is the dominant species and occurs as disseminated grains and framboids inside the
vitrinite groundmass.In places the pyrite occurs as discrete bands replacing vitrinite.On the basis
of observed percentages, the Makum coal can be called trimacerite (Stach et al., 1982; Ahmed and
Bharali, 1984).More specifically, the maceral composition of the coals indicates that they should
be classified as duroclarite-V and vitrinertite-V using the ternary classification scheme of Francis
(1961).Using the classifications established by Sen (1978), these coals can be classified as per-
vitrinous (B) on the basis of their vitrinite contents, which are between 85.1% and 95.0%, and
para-exinous and ortho-exinous (A) on the basis of their exinite contents, which are between 2.6%
and 10%.The vitrinite reflectance of the 18 m thick Makum coal beds ranges between 0.67% and
0.71% and averages 0.68% .This percentage reflectance indicates that the rank of the coal is high
volatile bituminous B/C.The percentage volatile matter in this bed, which is between 39.1% and
44.9%, and the heat content, which is between 13,386 and 14,662 Btu/lb also confirms the high
volatile bituminous rank.Compared to other coals mined in the upper Assam, and specifically
those from the Dilli-Jeypore coal field , the Makum coals have a higher percentage of vitrinite and
a lower percentage of inertinite .Compared to the Gondwanan coals from the Jharia coalfield
(which contains India's largest coking coal deposit), the percentage of vitrinite in the Makum
coals is much higher than in the Jharia coals.Consequently, a 20% blend of Makum coals with
coals from the Jharia, Bokaro, and Raniganj coalfields significantly improves the quality of the
resulting metallurgical coke.