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Introduction
Electric Potential (E or V):
It is measured between two points and its unit is volt.
If the work done in moving a charge of one coulomb the two points is one joule, then the
potential of one point with reference to the second point is one volt.
𝑑𝑊
𝐸 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑑𝑄
V = IR
1
Energy dissipated in the resistor in the form of heat.
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = (𝐼𝑅) 𝐼 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅
Resistor converts amount of energy into heat during time ‘t’.
𝑡 𝑡
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
0 0
𝑡
𝑉2 𝑉2
Or 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡
0 𝑅 𝑅
𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑉𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
0
Capacitor:
It is a storage element which can store and deliver energy in electric field.
Any two metal plates between which an electric field can be maintained constitute a capacitor.
Inductor:
It is the element in which energy is stored in the form of electromagnetic field.
It is like a coil wound on a magnetic core (or) may be air core.
Network Definitions:
Any arrangement of the various electrical energy sources along with the different circuit
elements is called an electric network.
Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be connected to other circuit
element is called a network element.
Network elements are classified into two types i.e..active elements and passive elements.
Active elements - Voltage and current sources.
Passive elements - Resistor, capacitor and inductor.
2
Branch:
A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one another is called
a branch. The given figure A-C, C-E. E-F. etc., are called the branches of the network.
A point where two (or) more branches meet is called a junction point. The figure shows the
junction points are C and F.
A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node.
Mesh (or) Loop:
Mesh or loop is a set of branches forming a closed path in a network. The figure shows the
Mesh or loops are ACDBA, ACEFDBA and CEFDC.
Types of Electrical Networks:
Electrical network can be classified according to the network characteristics and behavior.
Linear Network:
A circuit whose parameters are always constant of the change in time. voltage, temperature
etc., is known as linear network. In linear network. the Ohm's law can applied and super position
theorem can used for solving mathematical equations.
Non Linear Network:
A circuit whose parameters are change their values with change in time, voltage,
temperature etc., is known as non linear network. Ohm's law can applied and super position
theorem do not apply for this network.
Bilateral Network:
A circuit whose characteristics, behavior is same irrespective of the direction of current
through various elements of it, is called bilateral network.
Unilateral Network:
A circuit whose operation, behavior is dependent on the direction of the current through
various elements is called unilateral network.
Active Network:
A circuit which contains a source of energy is called active network.
3
Passive Network:
A circuit which contains a no energy source is called passive network.
Lumped Network:
A network in which all the network elements are physically separable is known as lumped
network.
Distributed Network:
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance, etc., cannot be
physically separable for analysis purpose is called distributed network.
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Voltage Source to Current Source:
Current Source to Voltage Source:
Problem 1
Convert the given current source into a voltage source. [AU/EEE - MAY 2004]
Solution:
4
Problem 2
Convert the voltage source into a current source for the circuit given below. [AU/EEE - MAY
2008]
Solution:
10
I= = 2A
5
Problem 3
Convert the voltage source into current source for the circuit given below.
Solution:
V 120
I = 𝑅 = 10 = 12A
Problem 4
Convert the current source into a voltage source for the circuit given below.
5
Solution:
V = IR = 5 × 8 = 40
OHM’S LAW
When the temperature remains constant, current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional
to potential difference across the conductor.
The rate at which work is done is power and its unit is joule per second or watt.
When one coulomb of electric charge is moved through a potential difference of one volt
in one second, the rate of work is one joule per second or one watt.
Hence power in electric circuit is obtained as a product of the voltage and current.
Energy is the total amount of work done and hence is the product of power and time.
6
RESISTORS IN SERIES
When resistors are connected in series as shown in figure. Here the same current passes through
all of them, they are said to be in series.
Reff= ∑𝑛𝑠𝑒 = R se
E2 E2 E2
P1 = I2 R1 = (R1 ); P2 = I2 R2 = (R2 ); P3 = I2 R3 = (R3 )
1 2 3
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3
𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼
Problem 5
Figure shows 3 reistors RA, RB and RC connected in series to a 250V source: Given RC = 50Ω, and
EB = 80 Volts when the current is 2 amperes, calculate the RA and RB.
Solution:
𝐸𝐵 80
𝑅𝐵 = = = 40𝑊
𝐼 2
𝑉
Also , 𝐼 =
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝐸 250
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 = = = 125𝛺
𝐼 2
𝑅𝐴 + 40 + 50 = 125𝛺
𝑅𝐴 = 35𝛺
Problem 6
Two resistors connected in parallel across 200 V supply take 10A from the mains. If the power
dissipated in one resistor is 800 W, find the value of the other resistor.
Solution:
Total power taken
Power dissipated in one resistor P, = 800 W
8
Therefore power dissipated in the other resistor
P = V x i = 200 x 10 = 2000 W
P2 = 1200 W
Problem 7
A lamp rated 500 W, 100V is to be operated from 220V supply. Find the value of the resistor to
be connected in series with the lamp. What is the power lost in the resistor?
Solution:
𝑃 500
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 = = = 5𝐴
𝑉 100
Since voltage drop across the lamp is 100 V,
Voltage to be dropped in the series resistor = 220 - 100= 120 V.
120
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = = 24Ω
5
Power lost in this resistor = I2 x R = 52 x 24 = 600 W.
9
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
• When resistors are connected across one another such that the same voltage is applied to each,
then they are said to be in parallel.
• The current in each resistor is different and the current I taken from the supply divide among
all the three resistors.
• Each resistor has a current path is,
If there were only two resistors in parallel, then the effective resistance is,
1 1 1 𝑅1 𝑅2
= + =
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The voltage across each resistances of the parallel circuit is the same.
The current in each branch is given by ohm's law.
The total current is equal to the sum of branch currents.
Division of current in parallel circuit:
I = I1+ I2 and E = I1R1 = I2R2
10
So current in a branch is equal to total current multiplied by other branch resistance and
divided by sum of branch resistances.
Division of voltage in series circuit:
11
Problem 8
The effective resistance of two resistors connected in series, is 100 Q. When connected in parallel
the effective value is 24Ω. Determine the values of the two resistors.
Solution:
Problem 9
Three loads A, B and C are connected in parallel across a 250 V source. Load A takes 50 A. Load
B is a resistor of 10 Ω and load C takes 6.25 kW. Calculate (i) RA and Rc (ii) the currents IB and Ic
(iii). Power in loads A and B (iv) total current (v) total power and (vi) total effective resistance.
12
Solution:
Problem 10
Calculate the total power supplied by battery in the network shown in figure. (AU/March - Dec
2004)
13
Solution:
Problem 11
Determine the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B of figure shown below.
14
Solution :
15
Problem 12
Determine the total current taken from the source.(MKU/I YEAR - Apr 2002)
Solution:
50 Q and 50 Q are connected in series.
16
So, 50 + 50 = 100 Ω
17
18
Problem 13
19
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (I Law)
Statement
The sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing
away from it.
In figure 1.1, A is a junction (or node) formed by six conductors. The currents in these conductors
are I1, I2 ….. I6.
Some of these currents are flowing towards A and other away from it.
I1+I4+I5+I6 = I2+I3
Statement
In a closed circuit, the sum of the potential drops is equal to the sum of the potential rises.
20
In figure 1.2 ABCDA form a closed circuit. Assuming the current direction as shown, from A to
B, we have a potential drop of IR1 volts. Writing for the entire loopABCDA, we have,
Sign of EMFs
Problem 14
The power supplied to the load R and the voltage across it in figure are 500 W and 100 V.
Determine (i) the value of the VS, (ii) the power dissipated in each resistor. Also confirm that the
power delivered by the source equals the total power dissipated elsewhere.
(AU/EEE NOV 2003)
Solution: -
21
𝑉 100
𝐼3 = = = 5𝐴
𝑅 20
Current through 4 Ω is also I3i.e, 5A.
Vs = V1+V2=45+120=165V
VS=165V
= 92 × 5 + 42 × 30 + 52 × 4 + 52 × 20
= 1485 W
= l485W
Problem 15
In the circuit shown in figure, find the value of current through 100 Ω(Nov 2004)
22
Solution:
150×140
150 Ω and 140 Ω are connected in parallel. = 72.41Ω
150+140
𝑉 100
𝐼= = = 0.519𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 192.41
140 140
𝐼3 = 𝐼 × = 0.519 × = 0.25𝐴
150 + 140 290
23
Problem 16
Calculate the currents supplied by the batteries in the network shown in figure.(Dec 2003)
Solution
Here 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
−10𝐼2 − 25(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) + 90 = 0
25𝐼1 + 35𝐼2 = 90
5 7 𝐼1 18
[ ][ ] = [ ]
6 5 𝐼2 25
5 7
∆= | | = −17
6 5
24
18 7
∆𝐼1 = | | = −85
25 5
∆𝐼1 −85
𝐼1 = = = 5𝐴
∆ −17
5 18
∆𝐼2 = | | = 17
6 25
∆𝐼2 17
𝐼2 = = = −1𝐴
∆ −17
Here, negative sign indicates, the current direction is opposite to the original direction. It is
shown in figure.
𝐼3 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 5 − 1 = 4𝐴
Problem 17
The currents are marked as in figure, Kirchoff's voltage law is applied to the various loops. There
are three unknowns I1 I2 and I3.
25
Problem 18
What is the different in potential between points X and Y in the circuit shown in figure?
26
Solution:
The currents in the loops ABCX and DYGF are marked as shown. There can be no current
in the branch CD as otherwise the currents coming out of the positive terminals of the batteries (at
B and D) will not be the currents entering the negative terminals (at A and F).
For loop ABCXA
27
The following steps should be implemented to find out the mesh current and branch current.
Step-3: Write equation for each mesh in terms of mesh currents by applying KVL.
When writing mesh equations, we assign rise in potential as positive (+) sign and fall in
potential as negative (-) sign.
Step-4: Suppose any value of mesh current becomes negative in the solution, the actual or true
direction of the mesh current is anticlockwise, i.e., opposite to the clockwise direction.
To apply KVL to the given figure,
𝑅11 𝑅12 𝐼1 𝑉
[ ] [ ] = [ 1]
𝑅21 𝑅22 𝐼2 𝑉2
𝑅 + 𝑅2 −𝑅2 𝐼 𝑉
[ 1 ] [ 1] = [ 1 ]
−𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐼2 −𝑉2
Then solving this matrix, we can find out mesh currents 1, and I2.
Step-5: The branch current can be easily found out by using the mesh currents I1 and I2.
Problem 19
28
Solution:
First assign mesh currents I1, and I2 to meshes PQSP and QRSQ respectively. It is shown in
figure.
29
30
Problem 20
Use mesh analysis to determine the three mesh currents in the circuit of figure shown in below.
(AU/Mech - May 2012)
The three required mesh currents are assigned as shown in figure. Applying KVL, we can get
three mesh equations.
31
32
Problem 21
Determine the value of current through the branch DC of the network shown below in figure,
when the current through the branch BD is zero.
Solution:
We have marked in AB as I, and AD as I2. Since there is no current in BD, I, lows through BC
and I2 through DC.
33
Problem 22
In the circuit given in figure, obtain the load current and power delivered to the load.
Solution:
34
Applying KVL, we can get three mesh equations.
Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
By applying Cramer's rule, we can find out current through load (15 Ω). Mesh current I3
flows through 15 Ωresistor
35
Current through load resistor (15 Ω) is 2 A
Power delivered to the load = I2R = 22 x 15=60 Watts
Problem 23
Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in figure using mesh analysis.
Loop 2
36
Loop 3
Here we have to solve the mesh currents I,, I2 and I3 by applying Cramer's rule.
37
Current supplied by battery E1 is I1 =2.55 A
Current supplied by battery E2 is I1-I2 = 2.55 - 1.822 = 0.728 A
Current supplied by battery E3 is I2 = 1.822 A
Current supplied by battery E4 is I3 + I2 = 3.135 + 1.822 =4.957 A
Current supplied by battery E5 is I3 = 3.135 A
• Node is defined as junction (or) joining point of two or more component terminals.
• In nodal method, select one node as a reference-node, with respect to which the voltages
at all other nodes are measured. Thus the reference node acts as ground or common for
the circuits.
Step-1: First, convert all the voltage sources to current sources.
Step-2: The conductances of all branches connected to node 1 are added and denoted by G11. It
is called the self conductance of node.
Step-3: All the conductances connected to nodes 1 and 2 are added and denoted by G12. It is
called mutual conductance of node 1 and 2. This is written with negative sign. If no
conductance is connected between node 1 and 2 then
G12 = 0, G12 = G21.
Step-4: I1 denotes the value of the current source current to node 1 and is written on the right
hand side of the equation. The sign I1 is positive if it is flowing towards node I1 otherwise it is
negative. If no current source is connected to node 1, then I1 = 0.
38
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶1 = ; 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶2 =
𝑅1 𝑅3
This circuit consists of two nodes 1 and 2 and common (ref.) node
Conductance at node 1:
1 1 1 1
𝐺11 = + + ; 𝐺12 = − = 𝐺21
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅2
Conductance at node 2:
1 1 1
𝐺22 = + +
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅5
Then form the matrix model,
𝐺11 𝐺12 𝑉1 𝐼
[ ] [ ] = [ 1]
𝐺21 𝐺22 𝑉2 𝐼2
1 1 1 1
+ + −
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑉 𝐼
[ 1] = [ 1]
1 1 1 1 𝑉2 𝐼2
− + +
[ 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅5 ]
Then solving this matrix, we can find out nodal voltages v1 and v2.
Problem 24
Using nodal analysis, determine the current in the 20 Ω resistor.
Solution:
Convert all the sources into their equivalent current sources.
10
𝐼1 = = 1𝐴;
10
39
20
𝐼2 = = 2𝐴;
10
Then apply KCL to node V1
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
2+1= + +
10 20 10
1 1 1
3 = 𝑉1 ( + + )
10 20 10
0.25𝑉1 = 3
𝑉1 = 12𝑉
𝑉1
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 20Ω = = 0.6𝐴
20
Problem 25
Using nodal analysis, obtain the currents flowing in all the resistors of the circuit shown in figure.
(June 2007)
Solution:
Convert all the voltage sources into their equivalent current sources.
40
Then apply KCL to node V1
Problem 26
Calculate the voltage across the 15 Ω resistor in the network shown in figure below using
nodal analysis.
Solution:
Convert all the voltage sources into their equivalent current sources.
41
Then the circuit becomes
1 1 1 1
+ + − 𝑉 5
[20 10 15 15 ] [ 1] = [ ]
1 1 1 1 𝑉2 −8
− + +
15 10 10 15
0.216 −0.066 𝑉1 5
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−0.066 0.216 𝑉2 −8
Problem 27
42
(AU, Chennai / Mech - May 2009)
Solution:
Convert all the voltage sources into its equivalent current sources.
4
𝐼1 = = 0.8𝐴
5
6
𝐼2 = = 0.5𝐴
12
Now, the circuit becomes
43
Problem 28
Use nodal analysis to determine the voltage across 5Q resistance and the current in the 12 V
source. (AU, Chennai / Mech - Dec 2009)
Solution:
44
12
𝐼= = 3𝐴
4
Now the circuit becomes
45
= 1 (6.39) + 0.5 (-4.5)-6 (0.1 + 0.1775) = 2.475
Problem 29
Describe Kirchhoff’s laws. For the circuit shown in the figure below, determine the current through
6Ω resistor and the power supplied by the current source.
(A.U Chennai,June 2010)
Solution:
Kirchhoff’s laws:
Step 1:
46
3Ω and 6 Ω are in parallel and hence
3 × 6 18
R𝐴 = = = 2Ω
3+6 9
This circuit can be redrawn as
Step 2:
3Ω and 2 Ω are in series and hence
RA = 3Ω +2Ω = 5Ω
21 × 2
I5 = = 6𝐴
2+5
6×3
𝐼6 = = 2𝐴
6+3
Problem 30
47
Solution:
(i)Loop ABGHA
-5I1-15(I1-I2) + 4=0
20I1-15I2=4 (1)
(ii)Loop BCFGB
-10I2-8(I2+I3)+15(I1-I2)=0
15I1-10I2-8I2-15I2-8I3=0
15I1-33I2-8I3=0 (2)
(iii)Loop CDEFC
12I3-6=8(I2+I3) = 0
8I2+20I3-6 (3)
I1=0.22A
I2=0.03A
I3=0.29A
Here current flowing through the 8Ω resistor is assumed to be the sum of I2 and I3 .so,
I8Ω =I2+I3=0.32A
48
Problem 31
Find the current in the 8Ω resistor in the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws.
(May 2013)
Solution:
49
Solution:
(a) Equivalent resistance across the terminal of the supply
Req=4 + 16 + 4 = 24Ω
12 × 24
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 8𝛺
12 + 24
50
Step: iv) 12 Ω & 20Ω are in Parallel
12 × 20
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 7.5𝛺
12 + 20
51
Problem 33
Determine the current, power in the 4Ω resistance of the circuit. (May/June 2014 &
Dec2015)
Solution:
Loop-1
12=2I1+10(I1+ I2) +1(I1+ I3)
12=2I1+ 10I1+ 10I2+I1+ I3
12=13I1+ 10I2+ I3 ------- (1)
Loop-2
10=2I2+10(I2+ I1) +3(I2-I3)
10=2I2+10I2+10I1+3I2-3I3
10=10I1+15I2-3I3 -----(2)
Loop-3
24=4I3+3(I3-I2) +1(I3+I1)
24=4I3+3I3-3I2+I3+I1
24=I1-3I2+8I3 -------(3)
On solving the above equations, we get
I1=-1 A
I2=2.13A
I3=3.39A
Problem 34
For the given circuit, determine the current in 5Ω resistor(Nov/Dec 2016)
Mesh equation
8 − 1(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) − 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 0
8 − 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 2𝑖1 + 2𝑖3 = 0
Mesh equation
−3 1 2 𝑖1 8
(1 −6 2 ) (𝑖2 ) = [−10]
2 2 −9 𝑖3 −12
=-109
I1=-0.936
53
I2=2.037
I3=1.578
Problem 35
6×4 24
R AB = = = 1.6Ω
6 + 4 + 5 15
6 × 5 30
RB = = = 2Ω
15 15
20
RC = = 1.33Ω
15
54
2 + 1.6 = 3.6Ω
3 + 1.33 Ω = 4.33Ω
R eq = 1 + 1.96 + 1.33
= 4.29 Ω
3.6 × 4.33
3.6 parallel with 4.38: =
3.6 + 4.33
15.588
= = 1.96Ω
7.93
10
𝐼𝐿′ = = 2.33A
4.29
If 6V is an active:
Loop – 1:
−I1 − 2(I1 − I2 ) − 4(I1 − I3 ) = 0
−I1 − 2I1 + 2I2 − 4I1 + 4I3 = 0
−7I1 + 2I2 + 4I3 = 0
7I1 − 2I2 − 4I3 = 0 − − − − − −(1)
Loop – 2:
−2(I2 − I1 ) − 3I2 + 6 − 6(I2 − I3 ) = 0
−2I2 + 2I1 − 3I2 − 6I2 + 6I3 = −6
55
2I1 − 11I2 + 6I3 = −6 − − − − − (2)
Loop – 3:
−6(I3 − I2 ) − 6 − 5I3 − 4(I3 − I1 ) = 0
−6I3 + 6I2 − 6−5I3 − 4I3 + 4I1 = 0
4I1 + 6I2 − 15I3 = 6 − − − − − −(3)
I1 = −0.02 A (Current flow in opp. direction)
I2 = 0.40 A
I3 = −0.24 A (Current flow in opp. direction)
By applying superposition theorem the current through:
I = 𝐼𝐿′ + 𝐼𝐿′′
= 2.23 + 0.02
I = 2.25 A
Problem 36
Find the current through 5 Ω resistor using superposition theorem, in the circuit shown in
figure. (Nov’14)
Solution:
Converting all the current source to voltage source
Step 1:
-4I1 – 2 (I1+I2) +32=0
6I1 + 2 I2=32 - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - (1)
-5I2 -10I2 – 2 (I2+I1) +32=0
2I1 + 17 I2=32- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - (2)
Therefore I2’=1.306A
56
Step 2:
Step 3:
Problem 37
Solve for current in 5 Ω resistor by principle of superposition theorem. (Apr’03)
Solution:
Step: 1
R T = 10 + 5 parallel with 21
5 × 21
= 10 + = 14.04 Ω
5 + 21
57
R T = 14.04 Ω
20
IT = = 1.425 A
14.04
21
I1 = 1.425 × = 1.151 A
26
Step – 2: Allow 1A source to act. 20 V is removed.
10 × 5
= = 3.33 A
15
1×1
I1 = = 0.041A
1 + 20 + 3.3
10
III = 0.041 × = 0.027 A
15
Problem 38
Calculate the current in the 4Ω resistor of figure using superposition.(May’14)
58
Step 1: I4Ω due to 10Vsource
4 ×4
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3 + =5Ω
4+4
𝑉 10
𝐼𝑇1 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 5
𝐼𝑇1 × 4 2 × 4
𝐼4Ω (10V) = = = 1A
4+4 4+4
3 ×4
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + = 5.714Ω
3+4
𝑉 2
𝐼𝑇2 = = = 0.35𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 5.714
𝐼𝑇2 × 3 0.35 × 3
𝐼4Ω (2V) = = = 0.15A
4+3 7
Problem 39
Compute the current in the 23 Ω resistor of the following figure shown below by applying
the super position principle.(Apr’15)
59
Solution:
Step 1: Considering 200V voltage source alone,
Problem 40
For the circuit shown in figure, using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in the 10Ω resistor.
(May’14)
Solution:
Step 1: To calculate Vth – let us disconnecting RL
10
𝐼1 = = 2𝐴
2+3
Voltage drop across 12 Ω resistor 𝑉1 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑉
4
𝐼2 = = 1𝐴
3+1
61
Voltage drop across 3 Ω resistor𝑉2 = 1 × 3 = 3𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 6 − 3 = 3𝑉
Step 2: To find Rth
2×3
= 1.2𝐴
2+3
3×1
= 0.75𝐴
3+1
Therefore Rth = 1.2+0.75 = 1.95Ω
Step 3:The equivalent circuit will be
Problem 41
A Wheatstone bridge PQRS has the following details, PQ =1000Ω, QR = 100 Ω, RS = 450 Ω, SP
= 5000 Ω. A galvanometer of resistance 500Ω is connected between Q and S. A 4.5 Volt battery
of negligible resistance is connected between P and R with P positive. Find the magnitude and
direction of current through the galvanometer (Apr’03).
Solution:
4.5 × 1000
V1000 = = 4.09 V
1000 + 100
4.5 × 5000
V5000 = = 4.128 V
5000 + 450
62
VQS = Vth = V1000 − V5000
= 4.09 − 4.128 = −0.0375 V = 0.0375 V
Step – 2: To calculateR th , from the circuit in step 2, kill the source (short circuit)
Vth 0.0375
IL = Ig = =
R th + R L 504 + 500
= 37.4 × 10−6 A = 37.4 μA
Problem 42
Find the thevenin’s equivalent circuit at (a, b) (May’09)
63
Solution: Apply delta – star transformation.
R AB R CA 4 × 10
RA = = ⟹ 1.67 Ω
R AB + R BC + R CA 4 + 10 + 10
R AB R BC 4 × 10
RB = = ⟹ 1.67 Ω
R AB + R BC + R CA 4 + 10 + 10
R CA R BC 10 × 10
RC = = ⟹ 4.17 Ω
R AB + R BC + R CA 4 + 10 + 10
Problem 43
Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent across AB.(Jun’09)
10 × 5 50
R th = 10 parallel with 5 = = = 3.33 Ω
10 + 5 15
To find Vth :
50 − 10I − 5I − 25 = 0
−15I = −25
25
I= = 1.67 A
15
∴ 50 − 10I = 0
50 − 10(1.67) = 0
I = 33.3 A
65
Problem 44
Calculate I in 2 Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem.(Nov’10)
Solution: To find R th
1×1 1
R th = = = 0.5 Ω
1+1 2
To find Vth :
2−I−I= 0
−2I = −2
I=1A
VAB = Vth = 1 × 2
= 2 Volts
Vth
∴ IL =
R th + R c
2 2
= = = 0.8 A
0.5 + 2 2.5
Problem 45
Find the current through the 5 Ω resistor by Thevenin’s theorem. (Nov’10)
Solution: To find R th
66
R th = (2 parallel with 3) + 1
2×3
= +1
2+3
6
= + 1 = 2.2 Ω
5
To findVth :
10 − 2I − 3I = 0
−5I = −10
I = 2A
Vth = I × R = 2 × 3 = 6
Vth = 6 Volts
To findIL :
Vth 6
IL = =
R L + R th 5 + 2.2
6
= = 0.83 A
7.2
Problem 46
Find the current I, through the 20Ω resistor shown in figure using Thevenin’s theorem.
(Nov’14).
Solution:
Remove the 20Ω resistor
67
To find Rth:
2 Ω is parallel to 5 Ω,
5×2
= = 1.428 Ω
5+2
a. Ω is in series with 10 Ω,
1.428 + 10 = 11.428 Ω
11.428 Ω is parallel to 1 Ω,
11.428 × 1
= = 0.919 Ω
11.428 + 1
To find Voc:
𝐼2 − 9 + 1.428[𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ] + 10[𝐼2 + 𝐼1 ] = 0
10𝐼1 + 12.428𝐼2 − 1.428𝐼3 = 9 − − − − − − − − − −(2)
68
−10 + 1.428[𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ] = 0
1.428𝐼2 − 1.428𝐼3 = −10 − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(3)
∴ 𝐼2 = −0.047 𝐴
Problem 47
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the network shown in fig. (Nov’15)
In matrix form
3+2 −2 𝐼 10 − 10
[ ] [ 1] = [ ]
−2 2 + 1 + 2 2 𝐼 10 + 5 + 10
5 −2 𝐼1 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−2 5 𝐼2 25
5 −2
∆=[ ] = 25 − 4 = 21
−2 5
5 0
∆ 𝐼2 = [ ] = 125 − 0 = 125
−2 25
∆ 𝐼2 125
𝐼2 = = = 5.95 𝐴
∆ 21
∴ 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉2Ω − 10
= (5.95 × 2) − 10 = 1.9 𝑉
To find Rth:
69
3 Ω is parallel to 2 Ω,
3×2
= = 1.2 Ω
3+2
1.2 Ω is in series with 1 Ω,
= 1.2 + 1 = 2.1 Ω
2.1 Ω is parallel to 2 Ω,
2.1 × 2
= = 1.02 Ω
2.1 + 2
Thevenin’s equivalent:
Problem 48
Using Norton’s theorem find current through 6Ω resistance shown in figure. (May’06)
70
Solution:
To find R TH .
5 × 10
5Ω and 10Ω are in parallel R TH = = 3.33 Ω
5 + 10
To find IN :
4 × 3.33
IL = = 1.427 A
3.33 + 6
Current through 6 Ω = 1.427 A
Problem 49
Evaluate the current I. flowing through the 1 ohm resistance by applying Norton’s theorem.
Solution:
Let remove the load resistor 1Ω and short circuit it.
71
Convert the voltage sources into equivalent current sources.
IN = 1 + 1.5 + 1 = 3.5 A
To calculateRth:
2×2
R TH = =1Ω
2+2
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:
IN R TH 3.5 × 1
IL = = = 1.75 A
R TH + R L 1+1
Problem 50
Find the voltage across 12 Ω resistor by using Norton’s theorem.(Apr’11)
Solution:
To find R TH :
72
12 × 4 48
12 ∥l 4 = = = 3Ω
12 + 4 16
2×3 6
2 ∥l 3 = = = 1.2 Ω
2+3 5
1.2 + 4 = 5.2 Ω
To find ISC ;
Loop – 1:
4 − 4I1 − 2(I1 − I2 ) = 0
4 − 4I1 − 2I1 + 2I2 = 0
4 − 6I1 + 2I2 = 0
6I1 − 2I2 = 4 − − − − − (1)
Loop – 2:
−4 − 4I2 − 2(I3 − I1 ) = 0
−4I2 − 2I2 + 2I1 = 4
2I1 − 6I2 = 4 − − − (2)
By solving, (1) and (2)
I1 = 0.5 A
I2 = −0.5 A
Problem 51
Obtain the Norton’s model and find the maximum power that can be transferred to the 100 Ω
load resistance, in the circuit shown in figure.[May’16]
Solution:
To find Rth:
Let us remove the load resistor RL= 100 Ω.
74
And 330 Ω is in parallel with 200 Ω,
330 × 200
= 330 +200 = 124.52 Ω
To find IN:
By Inspection method:
220 + 470 −470 0 𝐼1 10
[ −470 470 + 330 −330 ] [𝐼2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −330 200 + 330 𝐼3 −5
690 −470 0 𝐼1 10
[−470 800 −330] [𝐼2 ] = [ 0 ]
0 −330 530 𝐼3 −5
690 −470 0 𝐼1
∆ = [−470 800 −330] [𝐼2 ]
0 −330 530 𝐼3
To find the Norton’s Current IN, the current flowing across it is I2.
690 10 0 𝐼1
∆2 = [−470 0 −330] [𝐼2 ]
0 −5 530 𝐼3
∆2 = 690[[0 × 530] − [−330 × −5]] − 10 [[−470 × 530] − [−330 × 0]]
+ 0[[−470 × −5] − [0 × 0]]
∆2 = 690 [0 − 1650] − 10 [[−249100] − 0] + 0
∆2 = −1138500 + 2491000
∆2 = 1352500
75
∆2 1352500
𝐼2 = = = 0.0135 𝐴
∆ 100342000
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼2 = 0.0135 𝐴
76
−30
𝐼= = 3.33 𝐴
−9
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 10 + 6 𝐼 = 10 + (6 × 3.33) = 29.98𝑉
To find Rth
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + = 2Ω
3 6
∴ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 2 + 3 = 5Ω
Thevenin equivalent circuit:
77
Maximum power transfer theorem:
In DC circuits maximum power is transferred from a source to the load when a load
resistance is made equal to the resistance of the network. As we would from the load terminals
with load removed and all the sources replaced by the internal resistance.
Problem 53
Find the value of RL for maximum power delivered to it:
Solution:
According to maximum power transfer theorem R L must be equal to the resistance between
A and B with R L disconnected and all the sources killed (=R th ). The corresponding circuit is as
follow.
5 × 5 25
5 Ω is in parallelwith 5Ω = = = 2.5 Ω
5 + 5 10
R th = R AB = (10 + 2.5) Ω parallel with 20 Ω
78
12.5 × 20
=
12.5 + 20
R L = R th = 7.7 Ω
Problem 54
Determine the value of resistance that may be connected across A and B so that maximum power
is transferred from the circuit to the resistance. Also, estimate the maximum power transferred to
the resistance shown in fig.(Nov’15)
To find Vth:
10Ω is in series with 4 Ω,
= 10 + 4 = 14Ω
14 Ω is parallel to 8 Ω,
14 × 8
= = 5.09 Ω
14 + 8
5.09Ω is in series with 2Ω,
= 5.09 + 2 = 7.09Ω
20
𝐼2 Ω = = 2.82 𝐴
7.09
8
𝐼10 Ω = 𝐼2 Ω ×
8 + 4 + 10
8
= 2.82 × = 1.025 𝐴
8 + 4 + 10
2 Ω is parallel to 8 Ω,
2×8
= = 1.6 Ω
2+8
1.6Ω is in series with 4Ω,
= 1.6 + 4 = 5.6Ω
5.6Ω is parallel to 10 Ω,
79
5.6 × 10
= = 3.59 Ω
5.6 + 10
Problem 55
Find the value of R L which maximum power transferred toR L and hence the maximum power
transferred to R L figure.(May’13)
Solution:
To findR th :
1 Ω is parallel to 3 Ω
1×3 3
= = 0.75 Ω
3+1 4
0.75 Ω is in series with 2Ω
VOC2 (3.42)2
Pmax = =
4R th 4 × 3.25
11.696
=
13
= 0.899 Watts
Problem 56
Calculate the value of R L so that maximum power is transferred from battery. (Apr’09)
Solution:
Thevenin’s resistance (Rth): Remove the load resistor and Short circuit the voltage source.
10 × 10
R th = = 5Ω
10 + 10
50 × 10
Voc = VAB =
50 + 10
= 25V
81
The maximum power is transferred to the load resistor only when the load resistance equals
the thevenin’s resistance.
Voc2 252
Maximum power Pmax = = = 31.25
4R th 4 × 5
Pmax = 31.25 W
Problem 57
(a) Find the value of R for maximum power to R.
Solution:
CalculateR th
Short circuit the voltage source.
Remove the load resistor.
5×5
R th = + 5 = 7.5Ω
5+5
The maximum power is transferred to the load resistor only when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin’s resistance.
82
R L = R th = 7.5Ω
Calculation of Pmax :
Voc2
Pmax =
4R th
(10)2
=
4 × (7.5)
= 3.33W
Problem 58
In figure IRabsorbs maximum power. Find the value of R and the maximum power. (Apr’05)
Solution: Calculate R th :
Calculate Voc :
Remove the load resistor R.
36 × 5
Voc = VPQ =
5+6
= 16.36 V
The maximum power is transferred to the load resistor only when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin’s resistance.
R L = R th = 2.72 Ω
83
Voc2
Pmax =
4R th
(16.36)2
=
4 × 2.72
= 24.6 W
Problem 59
Find the load resistance for maximum power across it as shown in figure. What is the maximum
power?(Aug’07)
Solution:
To find R th :
R th = 10 + 5
R th = 15Ω
To find Voc :
By inspection method,
16 −12 I1 120
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−12 54 I2 0
16 −12
∆=[ ]
−12 54
= 864 − 144
∆ = 720
16 120
∆I2 = [ ]
−12 0
= 0 + 1440
84
∆I2 = 1440
∆I2
I2 =
∆
1440
=
720
I2 = 2A
Solution:
To find R th :
5 × 15 10 × 20
R th = +
5 + 15 10 + 20
= 3.75 + 6.66
R th = 10.41 Ω
To find Voc :
85
Voltage at point A is
50 × 15
VA = = 37.5 V
15 + 5
Voltage at point B is
50 × 20
VB = = 33.33 V
20 + 10
Voc = VAB = VA − VB
= 37.5 − 33.33
Voc = 4.17 V
Voc2
Maximum power Pmax =
4R th
(4.17)2
= = 0.4176 W
4 × 10.41
Pmax = 0.4176 W
Problem 61
In the circuit of figure find the value of R for maximum power transfer. Also, calculate the
maximum power.(May’14)
86
Step 2: Calculate Rth- Remove the load resistor and short circuit the voltage source
15 × 10
=
15 + 10
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 6Ω
Loop 1:
15 × 10
= = 6Ω
15 + 10
𝑉1 = 6 × 0.8
= 4.8 𝑉
Loop 2:
15 + 10 = 25 Ω
𝑉2 = 25 × 2 = 50 𝑉
Therefore V= V1 + V2
= 4.8 + 50
V = 54.8V
87
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:
RL = Rth = 6Ω
Step 4:
Calculate
2
𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ
54.82
=
4 ×6
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 125 𝑊
Problem 62
Find the value of RL in figure for maximum power to RL and calculate the maximum power. [
Nov’16]
To find Rth:
Let the current source 6 A be open circuited and voltage source be short circuited.
88
3 Ωand 10 Ωare in parallel,
3 × 10
= 2.307 Ω
3 + 10
2.307 Ωand 2 Ωare in parallel,
2.307 × 2
= 1.069 Ω
2.307 + 2
Rth = 1.069 Ω
To find Vth:
89
Converting the Current source toVoltage source,
Vth = I x R
= 28.6 x 1.069
Vth= 30.57 V
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ
[30.57]2
=
4 × 1.069
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 218.85 𝑊
90