British Civilization Education 1

Higher College of Teachers

Department of English
British Civilization

5th year degree

Education
Education is a vital concern throughout Britain because a highly developed nation depends upon
educated professionals and a skilled workforce.
Local and central government began to show some regard for education in the early nineteenth century.
Grants were made to local authorities for school use in their areas and in 1833 Parliament funded the
construction of school buildings. But it was only in 1870 that the state became more actively involved. An
Education Act (the Forster Act) created local school boards in England and Wales, which provided schools in
their areas. State elementary schools now supplied non-denominational training and the existing religious
voluntary schools served denominational needs.
By 1880 this system provided free and compulsory elementary schooling in most parts of Britain for
children between the ages of five and ten (twelve in 1899). The Balfour Act (1902) later made the local
government responsible for state education and gave funding to voluntary schools. But, although schools
provided elementary education for children up to the age of thirteen by 1918, this was still limited to basic
skills.

The 1944 Education Act

In 1944, an Education Act (the Butler Act) reorganized state primary and secondary schools in England
and Wales (1947 in Scotland and Northern Ireland) and greatly influenced future generations of
schoolchildren. State schooling became free and compulsory up to the age of fifteen and was divided into
three stages: primary schools (five–twelve years old), secondary schools (twelve-fifteen) and further post-
school training. A decentralized system resulted, in which a Ministry of Education drew up policy guidelines
and local education authorities (LEAs) decided which forms of schooling would be used in their areas.

Two types of state schools resulted from the Act: county and voluntary. Primary and secondary county
schools were provided by LEAs in each county. Voluntary schools were mainly those elementary schools
which had been founded by religious and other groups and which were now partially financed or maintained
by LEAs, although they retained their religious affiliation. Non-denominational schools thus coexisted with
voluntary schools. This situation continues today: most state non-denominational schools are controlled by
LEAs and voluntary (faith) schools are controlled by religious groups.

Most state secondary schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland were divided into grammar
schools and secondary modern schools. Some grammar schools were new, while others were old foundations,
which now received direct state funding. Placement in this secondary system depended upon an examination
result. The eleven-plus examination was adopted by most LEAs, consisted of tests which covered linguistic,
mathematical and general knowledge and was taken in the last year of primary school at the age of eleven.
The object was to select between academic and non-academic children and introduced the notion of ‘selection’
based on ability. Those who passed the eleven-plus went to grammar school, while those who failed went to
the secondary modern school. Although schools were supposed to be equal in their respective educational
targets, the grammar schools were equated with a better (more academic) education; a socially more
respectable role; and qualified children (through national examinations) for better jobs and entry into higher
 British Civilization Education 2

education and the professions. Secondary modern schools were based on practical schooling, initially without
national examinations.
Education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of five and sixteen. An indisputable
fact set by laws which require that British children should receive an education until they are 16 years old.
When education is compulsory1, schools in counterpart are not since the British children are not required to
attend schools. They could be educated at home as clearly notified by the “1996 EDUCATION ACT of the
UK, section 7”:

« The parent of every child of compulsory school age shall cause him to receive efficient full- time education
suitable

a. to his age, ability, and aptitude, and

b. to any special educational needs he may have,
either by regular attendance at school or otherwise »

What is meant by « otherwise » in this act is the possibility of parents’ teachers’ role playing as to teach their
children at home and which is known in UK as ‘homeschooling’.
Education Stages:
Children’s education in England is normally divided into two separate stages. They begin with primary
education at the age of five and this usually lasts until they are eleven. Then they move to secondary school
(or High school) where they stay until they reach sixteen, seventeen or eighteen years of age depending on the
choice of the grade they opted for.

1. Nursery Schools [3 - 4years old]:

The statutory school age in England and Wales is from 5 years, even though, every three and four years
old in England is entitled to 12.5 hours of free early learning per week, in nurseries, playgroups, pre-schools
or at their childminders for 38 weeks of the year.

2. Primary Schools [5-11years old]:

Children normally start primary school or what is also known as ‘infant schools’ at the age of five right in
the next term after their fifth birthday. Children are put into year groups (grades). The whole class moves up
a year group each year in September. Once they enter for the first time, they are put in the reception class
which represents the ‘first grade’ in their learning process, but many schools today have a reception year also
for four years old. Children normally leave at the age of 11, which means seven years of attending the primary
school where they study English, arithmetic, science, Religious education, history, geography, music, art and
crafts, physical education and information technology. After seven years of intensive learning, they move to
secondary school.

3. Secondary Schools [11-16]:

It is the second stage of the studying process and which lasts five years. At the age of 16, students in
England, Wales and Northern Ireland take an examination called the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary
Education). In Scotland, the equivalent of the GCSE is the Standard Grade. Study of GSCE subjects begins at

1
In England and Wales: a person is no longer of compulsory school age after the last Friday of June of the
school year in which their 16th birthday occurs. Current government proposals are to raise the age until which
students must continue to receive some form of education or training to 18. This is expected to be phased in
by 2015.
 British Civilization Education 3

the start of Year 10(age 14-15), and final examinations are then taken at the end of Year 11(15-16). In state
schools, English, mathematics, science, religious education and physical education are studied during Key
Stage 4(the GCSE which corresponds to the 10th year of schooling). In England some form of ICT and
citizenship must be studied and, in Wales, Welsh must be studied. Other subjects, chosen by individual pupil,
are also studied.
After completing the GCSE, some students leave school, others go onto technical colleges, while others
continue at high school for two additional years to take a further set of standardized exams, known as A levels
(the equivalent of Baccalaureate exam in other countries all over the world like Algeria, France…), in three
or four subjects. These exams determine whether a student is eligible for university or not. All along their
studying stage, both British pupils (in the primary school) and students (in the secondary school) are required
to wear a school uniform in almost all schools. The uniform is as follows:

 Boys
Long grey or black trousers (shorts may be worn in the Summer) + White Shirt +School tie (optional in
most primary schools, obligatory in the high school) +Jumper or sweater with the school logo on+ Black
shoes.

 Girls
Like the boys’ uniforms by the exception that girls may wear skirts if they prefer them to trousers. During
the summer term girls often wear summer school dresses.

The color is the choice of the schools and even represents it, which reflects the importance of wearing
the school uniform. In as far as one of the reasons to wear it, is that once outside the school, on a school trip,
for instance, all pupils look all the same and so can’t get lost or mixed with other pupils from other schools.
Other reasons are more ‘humanistic’ in that all students are equal, so to not to distinguish the rich from the
poor, others are more practical, so to facilitate the school life for both children and parents alike as to stop kids
worrying about what to wear each day, hence to lose time and energy, also to avoid to parents to shop for
expensive and varied wardrobes for their children to keep up with or show-off to other children. Even though
wearing a uniform instills a sense of pride and discipline in students, however, some reluctance and opposition
emerged in the later years as it denies students their right to personal identity and self-expression.

Types of Schools in Britain:

In England, there are two main categories of schools which are:
State Schools: These schools are non-fee-paying, maintained and organised by the Local Authorities (LA).
Funded mainly from taxes, and are free to all children between the ages of 5-to 16. All government-run
schools, state schools, follow the same National Curriculum. In the UK 93% of the children in England and
Wales go to ‘State Schools’. Parents are expected to make sure that their child has a pen, pencil, ruler, etc. But
the cost of other more specialized equipment, books, examination fees are covered by the school. But they
are, however, expected instead to pay for their child’s school uniform and items of sportswear. Charges may
also be made for music lessons and for board and lodgings on residential trips. Schools on another hand may
ask for voluntary contributions for school time activities-but no pupil may be left out of an activity if their
parents or guardian cannot or do not contribute.
State Schools includes:

 Primary Schools (5-11 years old): In the UK, the first level of education is known as primary education.
These are almost always mixed-sex, and usually located close to the child’s home. Children tend to be
with the same group throughout the day, and one teacher has responsibility for most of the work they
 British Civilization Education 4

do. Parents are strongly encouraged to help their children, particularly with reading and writing, and
small amounts of work are set to all children, even during the early years at school.

 Secondary Schools (11-16 years old): Most children transfer at the age of 11- usually to their nearest
secondary school, though the law allows parents in England and Wales to express preferences for other
schools too. A place has to be offered at the parents’ preferred school unless the school has more
applicants than places; in that case, it will admit the children who have the highest priority under its
published admission arrangements which can vary a little in different places. Most secondary schools
cater for both sexes. They tend to be larger than the primary schools. In UK, there are two different types
of State secondary schools in respect to the kind of knowledge they provide children with:

 Comprehensive schools: Where nearly 88 per cent of secondary school pupils in England go to,
as do all pupils in Wales. These take children of all abilities and provide a wide range of
secondary education for all or most of the children in a district from 11 to 16 or 18.

 Grammar Schools: are selective, they offer academically oriented general education. Entrance
is based on a test of ability, usually at 11. Grammar schools are single sexed schools i.e. Children
either go to a boys Grammar School or a Girls Grammar School. There are grammar schools in
Northern Ireland and some parts of England.
Private/Public Schools or Fee-paying schools: These are independent schools where parents pay for their
children’s education.7% of the children in England go to independent schools. They are divided into:

 Nursery/Kindergarten 2 to 4 years
 Pre-preparatory 4 to 8 years
 Preparatory 8 to 13 years: This is a school to prepare pupils to go to a public school.
 Public 13 to 18 years: It is an independent secondary school, not run by the government. The entrance
exams are used by most public schools and are known as Common Entrance exams and are taken at
the age of 11 for girls and the age of 13 for boys.

Some 250 public schools (private, not state), such as Eton, Harrow and Winchester, are the most famous
of the independent schools and are usually defined by their membership of the Headmasters’ Conference.
They were created (often by monarchs) to provide education for the sons of the rich and aristocratic. Such
schools are mainly boarding establishments, where the pupils live and are educated during term time, although
many of them now also take day-pupils who do not board in.
Public and other independent schools play a significant role in British education, and many leading figures
have been educated at them. The entry today is competitive, normally by an entrance examination, and is not
confined to social class, connections or wealth, although the ability to pay the fees is important. Independent
preparatory schools (primary level) prepare their pupils for independent secondary school entrance and parents
who decide to send their children to an independent school will often give them a ‘prep school’ education
first.

The independent sector is criticized for being elitist, socially divisive and based on the ability to pay for
education. In this view it perpetuates the class system. The Labour Party in opposition historically argued for
the abolition of independent schools and the removal of their tax and charitable status, which the Labour
government is currently evaluating. But independent schools are now firmly established and for many provide
an element of choice in what would otherwise be a state monopoly on education.
 British Civilization Education 5

School organization
Similar to what is done in many countries all over the world, the school year in England runs from
September to July, hence 39 weeks long. For many areas, the year is divided into six terms, whereas many
other counties still follow the traditional three terms a year. The dates for school terms and holidays are
decided by the local authority (LA) or the governing body of a school, or by the school itself if the latter is
independent.

The children attend school from Monday to Friday, from 9.00 a.m. until 4.00 p.m. except for holidays.
In England as in many other parts of the world, holidays are generally related to Religious feasts and
celebrations. As a result, there are two kinds of holidays the main long-term ones like:

• Christmas -2 weeks
• Easter (Spring)-2 weeks
• Summer-6 weeks (July/August)

There is also a break at mid-term which usually lasts for about a week, which occurs either in:

 End of October
 Mid-February
 End of May

Teachers
Most teachers are trained at universities and other colleges. There is a serious shortage of teachers in
Britain in all subjects, but especially in mathematics, technology, physics and foreign languages. Potential
teachers increasingly see the profession as unattractive and many practicing teachers leave for better-paid jobs
or retire early. Teachers at present are suffering from low morale after battles with the government over pay,
conditions and educational reforms, and from what they perceive as the low status afforded them by
government and the general public. The teaching profession has become very stressful and subject to greater
pressures, such as assaults upon teachers by pupils and increased bureaucracy. The quality of teaching in state
schools has attracted much criticism in recent years and the Labour government is committed to raising
standards, removing incompetent and underperforming teachers and closing ‘failing schools’.

Previous Conservative governments introduced school reforms, which remain under Labour. Attainment
tests were set to establish what children should be reasonably expected to know at the ages of seven, eleven
and fourteen. The progress of each schoolchild can then be measured against national standards, assessed and
reported. But many teachers were opposed to the extra work involved, doubted the validity of the tests and
have boycotted them in recent years.

Another radical reform was the creation of a National Curriculum in England and Wales (with similar
developments in Northern Ireland but not Scotland). The aim was to create a curriculum that was standardized,
centrally devised and appropriate to the needs and demands of the contemporary world. It covers all age groups
and includes the ‘core subjects’ of English, mathematics, science, technology, physical education and religious
education. History, geography, music and art are taught in the earlier stages of the curriculum before becoming
optional, while a modern foreign language is added later. This reform has generated much controversy,
opposition, difficulties of implementation and problems about the content and scope of course material (such
as a recent additional subject called ‘citizenship’).
 British Civilization Education 6

The National Curriculum (which does not apply to independent schools although they follow the
subject structure) is tied to a system of examinations at the secondary level. They may be taken in all types of
schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Examinations
The main examinations are the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), which is taken
usually by sixteen-year-olds; Advanced Subsidiary (AS) qualifications in the first year of the sixth form; and
the General Certificate of Education at Advanced Level (GCE A-level), which is normally taken at the end of
the second year in the sixth form by eighteen-year-olds. Results in all exams tend to be better in single-sex
girls’ schools.

The GCSE is taken in a range of subjects, the questions and marking of which are undertaken by
independent examination boards whose standards have attracted criticism in recent years. In addition to written
examinations, project work and continuous assessment of pupils are taken into account in arriving at a final
grade. It can be taken in any subject(s) according to individual choice. But most candidates will attempt six
or seven subjects and the basic subjects required for jobs and further education are English, mathematics (or
science) and a foreign language. The GCSE was intended as a better evaluation of pupils’ abilities than pure
examinations and would give prospective employers some idea of the candidate’s ability. But, although
standards continue to improve, a third of students did not achieve high passes and some 8% did not pass a
single subject in 1999.

The GCE A-level is associated with more academic children, who are aiming for entry to higher
education or the professions and who spend two years on their studies in the sixth form or in sixth-form
colleges. Good passes are now essential because the competition for popular courses in the universities and
other colleges has become stiffer. This system was controversially changed in 2000 by the Labour government,
which wanted to broaden the syllabus. Four AS level subjects are taken in the first year in addition to key
skills tests, before a concentration on three A2 (A-level) subjects, and pupils may mix arts and science subjects.
AS subjects may serve as a lower-level alternative for students who do not wish to go on to A2 levels. The
standards achieved continue to rise. But there is continuing discussion about the format and content of A-
levels, and the new system has been criticized for over-examining students, reducing the time for other school
activities and leading to teacher overwork.

Higher Education
Around 30% of the 18 to 19 years old enter full-time higher education. The formal entry requirements
to most degree courses are two A-levels at grade E or above. In practice, most offers of places require
qualifications above this.

The universities can be broadly classified into four types:

 The ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge (composed of their many colleges) date from the
twelfth century. But until the nineteenth century, they were virtually the only English universities and
offered no places to women. However, other older universities were founded in Scotland, such as St
Andrews (1411), Glasgow (1450), Aberdeen (1494) and Edinburgh (1583).
 A second group comprises the ‘redbrick’ or civic universities such as Leeds, Liverpool and
Manchester, which were created between 1850 and 1930.
 The third group consists of universities founded after the Second World War and in the 1960s. Many
of the latter, such as Sussex, York and East Anglia, are associated with towns rather than big cities.
 The fourth group comprises the ‘new universities’ created in 1992 when polytechnics and some other
colleges attained university status.
 British Civilization Education 7

Universities are supposed to have uniform standards, although there are centres of excellence in
particular subjects and there has been recent criticism about levels in some universities and some subjects.
Students can choose from an impressive array of subject areas and teaching is mainly by the lecture system,
supported by tutorials (small groups) and seminars. The student–lecturer ratio at British universities has
increased because of expanded recruitment. Most students tend to live on campus in university
accommodation, while others choose to live in rented property outside the university. Until recently few
British students chose universities near their parents’ homes and many seemed to prefer those in the south of
England. But financial reasons now persuade many students to live at home or locally.

Universities are independent institutions created by royal charter, enjoy academic freedom, appoint
their own staff, award their own degrees and decide which students to admit. But they are in practice dependent
upon government money. This derives mainly from finance (dependent upon the number of students recruited)
given by the government to Universities Funding Councils for distribution to the universities through
university Vice-Chancellors who are the chief executive officers of the universities.

Both Conservative and Labour governments have been concerned to make the universities more accountable
in the national interest; have tightly controlled their budgets; and have encouraged them to seek alternative
private sources of finance from business and industry. The universities have lost staff and research money;
have been forced to adopt more effective management and accounting procedures; must market their resources
more efficiently; must attract and recruit students in order to obtain government finance; must pay greater
attention to teaching and research performance; and must justify their positions financially and educationally.

Distance Education:
Methods of instruction that utilize different communications technologies, to carry teaching to learners in
different places. Distance education programs enable learners and teachers to interact with each other using
computers, artificial satellites, telephones, radio or television broadcasting, or other technologies. Instruction
conducted through the mail is often referred to as correspondence education, although many educators simply
consider this the forerunner to distance education. Distance education is also sometimes called distance
learning. While distance learning can refer to either formal or informal learning experiences, distance
education refers specifically to formal instruction conducted at a distance by a teacher who plans, guides, and
evaluates the learning process. As new communications technologies become more efficient and more widely
available, increasing numbers of elementary schools, secondary schools, universities, and businesses offer
distance education programs.

Terms:
Public schools -- grammar schools – comprehensive schools -- eleven-plus -- GCE A level – GCSE -- the
Butler Act -- the Forster Act – the Balfour Act -- LEAs -- 1996 EDUCATION ACT -- GCE A-level
Suggested Reading:
Oakland, John, 2002. British Civilization An Introduction. 5th ed. London: Routledge. (Chapter 8)