PLC Unit 2-1 PDF
PLC Unit 2-1 PDF
Hardware
Software
The best Operating system ( OS ) is a Microsoft Window XP professional.It very user friendly
and compatible with all types of PLC programming software.It also not have issue
communication between Window Vista or Window 7 is also used for programming but some
PLC programming software not compatible with it.It also facing a connection port error.It need
another setting to avoid communication error with PLC.
4) PLC software
– This software is provide by PLC manufacture.They design the software to integrate computer
with PLC to easy programming task.I already discuss about several PLC software commonly
used in industry such as Mitsubishi,Omron,Keyence,Siemens,Allen Bradly and others
more.Please refer to my last post on PLC programming software.
OR
Various types of programming devices are used to enter, modify and troubleshoot a PLC
program. These programming terminal devices include handheld and PC based devices. In the
handheld programming device method, a proprietary device is connected to PLC through
a connecting cable. This device consists of a set of keys that allows to enter, edit and dump the
code into the PLC. These handheld devices consist of small display to make the instruction that
has been programmed visible. These are compact and easy to use devices, but these handheld
devices have limited capabilities.
Most popularly a Personal Computer (PC) is used for programming the PLC in conjunction with
the software given by the manufacturer. By using this PC we can run the program in either online
or offline mode, and can also edit, monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot the program of the PLC.
The way of transferring the program to the PLC is shown in the above figure wherein the PC
consists of program code corresponding to control application which is transferred to the PLC
CPU via programming cable.
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF PROGRAMMING
1)Ladder Diagram
This is the most common of the PLC Methods. The diagram looks like a wiring schematic for a
relay circuit with the power line on the left and the outputs on the right. This is the main
programming method for PLCs in industrial controls. It is referred to as a ladder diagram because
when you look at it, it looks like a ladder with the inputs and outputs of the program contained on
each rung. As an example, you have a proximity sensor that when triggered, sends 24VDC to the
PLC. In the program, you want that trigger to power on a motor. The rung for that sequence will
look like this: --||-----( )--, where --||-- represents the input from the proximity sensor and –(
)--represents the motor output. Ladder logic was based off the circuit diagrams used to run
relay logic hardware. The term stems from the look of the programming language and its
resemblance to ladders, with two vertical rails and series of horizontal rungs between them
The function block diagram method is also a pictorial method of programming. It consists of
blocks for each function that show the inputs and outputs for more complex sequences and lines
drawn between each block illustrating what each output will do and what will affect each input.
For example, you may have a scale in your process and if you want an alarm to sound if the
weight measured on the scale is too high or too low, then the scale will have a box with the line
drawn from the weight output to the variable input of the alarm box. The output of the alarm box
for either the too high or too low alarm will go to an alarm horn and/or ligh Function block
diagrams visualize signal and data flows in a block diagram and show the function between
input and output variables. A function is described as a set of blocks with the input and output
variables connected by connection lines. An input variable could be connected to an input of
block, and the output of that block could return an output variable or connect to another block.
The sequential function chart method is another pictorial method. It most closely resembles a
flow chart, only it’s more complex. There are three primary elements in a sequential function
chart: steps, actions and transitions. Each step contains the logic for a particular portion of the
process. As an example: weighing an item, checking for alarms and sounding the alarm if the
weight is out of limits. The actions are the individual activities of performing the steps.
Transitions move the process from one step to the next. The sequential function chart coordinates
large, complicated programming tasks into smaller, more manageable functions. It breaks a
sequential task down into steps, transitions and actions. Steps can be active or inactive, with
actions only executed when the step is active. Transitions define logical conditions that allow
the process to move from the existing step to the next one. Actions can defined as set, reset or
continuous.
4)Structured Text
This is a text language and is not used often with PLCs, though many manufacturers do allow for
this within their PLCs' programming software. It is very similar to Pascal or BASIC, and for
people trained with computer programming, it can be the easiest. Complex math or decision
making processes are often easier to accomplish with structured text as it can be done on one page
versus many rungs of a ladder diagram Structured text is block structured with syntax based on
the Pascal programming language. It is a high level text language that encourages structured
programming. The variables and function calls are defined by common elements shared
between them, which allows for different programming languages and methods to be used
together in the same program as long as they satisfy IEC 61131-3..
5)Instruction List
The instruction list method is probably the most complicated method, as it most closely resembles
Assembly language. This can be useful for processes that repeat a small function often. Though it
is a powerful method, it is often easier to just program the process in a ladder diagram than it is to
learn how to program with an instruction list. Program control is acheived by jump instructions
and function calls, which are like subroutines with optional parameters.
This low level text language is similar to the assembly programming language. The variables
and function calls are defined by common elements, much like in the structured text method
outline above
5)Ground Test
Earlier, we drew a ladder diagram of some switch circuits which included the control transformer.
We connected the right side of the transformer to ground (the frame of the machine). For safety
reasons, it is necessary to occasionally test this ground to be sure that is it still connected because
loss of the ground circuit will not affect the performance of the machine and will therefore go
unnoticed. This test is done using a ground test circuit, and is shown in Figure 1-29.
7)Single Cycle
When actuated, the machine must perform only one cycle and then stop, even if the operator is
still depressing the RUN switches. This prevents surprises and possible injury for the operator
if the machine should inadvertently go through a second cycle. Therefore, circuitry is usually
needed to assure that once the machine has completed one cycle of operation, it stops and waits
for the RUN switch(es) to be released and then pressed again
Ladder Diagram :
• First Step : Translate all of the items we're using into symbols the PLC
understands.
First Step :
• The PLC doesn't understand terms like switch, relay, bell, etc.
• It doesn't care what the actual input or output device actually is. It only
cares that its an input or an output.
• These simply look like two vertical bars. One on each side of the
diagram. Think of the left one as being + voltage and the right one as
being ground. Further think of the current (logic) flow as being from left
to right.
• Next we give the inputs a symbol. In this basic example we have one
real world input. (i.e. the switch).
• We give the input that the switch will be connected to the symbol
shown below. This symbol can also be used as the contact of a relay.
• Next we give the outputs a symbol. In this example we use one output
(i.e. the bell).
• We give the output that the bell will be physically connected to the
symbol shown below. This symbol is used as the coil of a relay.
Second Step :
• Could you find your friends if you didn't know their address? You
know they live in the same town but which house? The plc town has a
lot of houses (inputs and outputs) but we have to figure out who lives
where (what device is connected where).
• We'll get further into the addressing scheme later. The PLC
manufacturers each do it a different way! For now let's say that our input
will be called "0000". The output will be called "500".
Final Step :
• Convert the schematic into a logical sequence of events.
• The program we're going to write tells the PLC what to do when
certain events take place.
• In our example we have to tell the plc what to do when the operator
turns on the switch.
1)Load :
2) Load Bar :
• This is used when an input signal does not need to be present for the
symbol to turn on.
• When the physical input is off we can say that the instruction is True.
• We examine the input for an off signal. If the input is physically off
then the symbol is on.
3) Out :
• The Out instruction is sometimes also called an Output Energize
instruction. The output instruction is like a relay coil. Its symbol looks
as shown below.
4) Out Bar :
• The Outbar instruction is like a normally closed relay coil. Its symbol
looks like that shown below.
3) Control Transformer
In order to make large powerful machines efficient and cost effective
and reduce line current, most are powered by high voltages (240VAC,
480VAC, or more). This means the line voltage must be reduced to
120VAC or less for the controls. This is done using a control
transformer.
Figure 1-1 shows the electrical diagram symbol for a control
transformer. The most obvious peculiarity here is that the symbol is
rotated 90° with the primaries on top and secondary on the bottom. As
will be seen later, this is done to make it easier to draw the remainder of
the ladder diagram. Notice that the transformer has two primary
windings. These are usually each rated at 240VAC. By connecting
them in parallel, we obtain a 240VAC primary, and by connecting them
in series, we have a 480VAC primary. The secondary windings are
generally rated at 120VAC, 48VAC or 24VAC.
4) Fuse
Control circuits are always fuse protected. This prevents damage to the control transformer in
the event of a short in the control circuitry. The electrical symbol for a fuse is shown in Figure
1-2. The fuse used in control circuits is generally a slo-blow fuse (i.e. it is generally immune
to current transients which occur when power is switched on) and it must be connected in series
with the transformer secondary.
b) The maintained pushbutton activates when pressed, but remains activated when it is released.
Then to deactivate it, it must be pressed a second time. For this reason, this type of switch is
sometimes called a push-push switch. Note that it is the symbol for the momentary pushbutton
with a “see-saw” mechanism added to hold in the switch actuator until it is pressed a second
time.
c) flush pushbutton :The switch has an actuator that is aligned to be even with the sleeve. It is
called a flush pushbutton. It provides similar protection against accidental actuation
It is always red and the switch is used to shutoff power to the controls of a machine when the
switch is pressed in. Mushroom head switches have special schematic symbols as shown in
Figure 1-8. Notice that they are drawn as standard pushbutton switches but have a curved line
on the top of the actuators to indicate that the actuators have a mushroom head
3) Selector Switches
A selector switch is also known as a rotary switch. An automobile ignition switch, and an
oscilloscope’s vertical gain and horizontal time base switches are examples of selector switches.
Selector switches use the same symbol as a momentary pushbutton, except a lever is added to
the top of the actuator, as shown in Figure 1-9. The switch on the left is open when the
selector is turned to the left and closed when turned to the right. The switch on the right side
has two sets of contacts. The top contacts are closed when the switch selector is turned to the
left position and open when the selector is turned to the right. The bottom set of contacts work
exactly opposite. There is no electrical connection between the top and bottom pairs of
contacts. In most cases, we label the selector positions the same as the labeling on the panel
where the switch is located. For the switch on the right in Figure 1-9, the control panel would
be labeled with the STOP position to the left and the RUN position to the right.
4) Limit Switches
Limit switches are usually not operator accessible. Instead they are activated by moving parts
on the machine. They are usually mechanical switches, but can also be light activated (such as
the automatic door openers used by stores and supermarkets), or magnetically operated (such as
the magnetic switches used on home security systems that sense when a window has been
opened). An example of a mechanically operated limit switch is the switch on the refrigerator
door that turns on the light inside. They are sometimes called cam switches because many are
operated by a camming action when a moving part passes by the switch. The symbols for both
types of limit switches are shown in Figure 1-10. The N/O version is on the left and the N/C
version is on the right. One of the many types of limit switch is
pictured in Figure 1-11.
6)Indicator Lamps
All control panels include indicator lamps. They tell the operator when power is applied to
the machine and indicate the present operating status of the machine. Indicators are drawn as a
circle with “light rays” extending on the diagonals as shown in Figure 1-12. Although the light
bulbs used in indicators are generally incandescent (white), they are usually covered with
colored lenses. The colors are usually red, green, or amber, but other colors are also available.
Red lamps are reserved for safety critical indicators (power is on, the machine is running, an
access panel is open, or that a fault has occurred). Green usually indicates safe conditions
(power to the motor is off, brakes are on, etc.). Amber indicates conditions that are important
but not dangerous (fluid getting low, machine paused, machine warming up, etc
7) Relay
A relay, or contactor, is an electromagnetic device composed of a frame (or core) with an
electromagnet coil and contacts The movable contacts (and conductor that connects them) are
mounted via an insulator to a plunger which moves within a bobbin.
Referring to Figure 1-13, when the coil is de-energized, the movable contacts are connected to
the upper fixed contact pair. These fixed contacts are referred to as the normally closed
contact. Likewise, the movable contacts are not connected to the lower fixed contact pair when
the relay coil is de-energized. These fixed contacts are referred to as the normally open
contacts. The coil symbol shown in Figure represents the coil of the relay we have been
discussing. The coil, like the contacts, has two connection lines extending from either side.
These represent the physical wire connections to the coil on the actual relay.
The number of inputs (I1, I2, I3, I4, ……In) can link with different outputs (Q1,
Q2,…..Qn) by using series or parallel connection.
In the below figure, the three Inputs (I1, I2, and I3) are connecting in series and four
Inputs (I1, I2, I3 and I4) are connecting in parallel with the Single output (Q1 and
Q2) respectively.
Note: In the program, AND gate follows the series connections and OR gate
follows the parallel connection. For detail, do read logic gates in PLC ladder
programming.
Figure 1: Inputs Representations in series and parallel connection
2. Outputs (or coil) can be used only in parallel.
According to the second rule, outputs (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, ……Qn) are connected in
parallel along with the single input (I1). Refer the image below.
If the single input (I1) is normally closed (NC contact) then all outputs (Q1, Q2,
Q3, Q4,….Qn) will be activated (On).
As per the third rule, a single input can be used to repeatedly in the different rungs.
From the below image, the program has different outputs but the same input
(switch) connected.
Figure 3: Single input with different outputs
4. One output cannot be used multiple times in one program, except in
set/reset and latch/ unlatch functions.
In the function set/reset, the same output address is used. And it can be connected to
the same or different inputs.
As per the below image, different inputs (I1 and I2) are linked with the single
output (Q1) using the set and reset function.
When the Input (I1) is pressed, the output coil will be set ( i.e. Q1 on activate
mode). And when the input (I2) is pressed, the output coil will be reset ( i.e. Q1 on
deactivate mode).
The same input address can be used as multiple inputs. And it can not be used as
output.
LATCH INSTRUCTION :
• The latching instructions let us use momentary switches and program the plc so
that when we push one the output turns on and when we push another the output
turns off.
• Picture the remote control for your TV. It has a button for ON and another for
OFF :
• I don't have to keep pushing the ON button to keep the TV on. This would be
the function of a latching instruction.
• The unlatch instruction is often called a RES (reset), OUT (output unlatch) or
RST (reset). The diagram below shows how to use them in a program.
Here we are using 2 momentary push button switches. One is physically
connected to input 0000 while the other is physically connected to input 0001.
When the operator pushes switch 0000 the instruction "set 0500" will become true
and output 0500 physically turns on. Even after the operator stops pushing the
switch, the output (0500) will remain on. It is latched on. The only way to turn off
output 0500 is turn on input 0001. This will cause the instruction "res 0500" to
become true thereby unlatching or resetting output 0500.
• What would happen if input 0000 and 0001 both turn on at the exact same time.
• To answer this question we have to think about the scanning sequence. The
ladder is always scanned from top to bottom, left to right.
• Starting from the top left, input 0000 is true therefore it should set 0500.
• Next it goes to the next rung and since input 0001 is true it should reset 0500.
• The last thing it said was to reset 0500. Therefore on the last part of the scan
when it updates the outputs it will keep 0500 off. (i.e. reset 0500).
Counters :
• There are up-counters(they only count up 1,2,3...). These are called CTU,(count
up) CNT,C, or CTR.
• There are down counters(they only count down 9,8,7,...). These are typically
called CTD (count down).
• Where the pulses that we want to count are coming from. Typically this is from
one of the inputs.(a sensor connected to input 0000 for example).
• How many pulses we want to count before we react. Let's count 5 widgets
before we box them, for example.
• When/how we will reset the counter so it can count again. After we count 5
widgets lets reset the counter, for example.
• In this counter we need 2 inputs :
- One goes before the reset line. When this input turns on the current
(accumulated) count value will return to zero.
- The second input is the address where the pulses we are counting are coming
from.
• Cxxx is the name of the counter. If we want to call it counter 000 then we would
put "C000" here.
On-Delay Timer :
• After sensor (input) turns ON, wait x-seconds before activating a solenoid
valve(output).
Off-Delay Timer :
• When the sensor no longer sees the target it hold the solenoid on for x-seconds
before turning it off.
- Typically this is one of the inputs,(a sensor connected to input 0000 for
example).
On-Delay Timer :
• When it ticks yyyyy (the preset value) times, it will turn on its contacts that we
will use later in the program.
• Timer T000 (a 100ms increment timer) starts ticking. It will tick 100 times.
Each tick (increment) is 100ms so the timer will be a 10000ms (i.e. 10 second)
timer.
• When 10 seconds have elapsed, the T000 contacts close and 500 turns on.
• When input 0001 turns off (false) the timer T000 will reset back to 0 causing its
contacts to turn off (become false) thereby making output 500 turn back off.
One Shot :
Master Controls :
• An emergency stop switch typically is a big red button on a machine that will
shut it off in cases of emergency.
• The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control
reset.
Shift Registers :
• To store many previous events and act upon them later.
• SFT (ShiFT), BSL (Bit Shift Left), SFR (Shift Forward Register).
• BSR (Bit Shift Right) and SFRN (Shift Forward Register Not).
Symbol needs 3 inputs and has some data inside the symbol : 1000:
First Bit, 1003 : Last Bit.
• Data : The data input gathers the true/false statuses that will be shifted
down the train. When the data input is true the first bit (car) in the
register (train) will be a 1. This data is only entered into the register
(train) on the rising edge of the clock input.
• Clock : The clock input tells the shift register to "do its thing". On the
rising edge of this input, the shift register shifts the data one location
over inside the register and enters the status of the data input into the
first bit. On each rising edge of this input the process will repeat.
• Reset : The reset input does just what it says. It clears all the bits inside
the register we're using to 0.
• If the cone is broken we obviously don't want to add ice cream and the
other items. Therefore we have to track the bad cone down our process
line so that we can tell the machine not to add each item.
• We use a sensor to look at the bottom of the cone (input 0000). If its on
then the cone is perfect and if its off then the cone is broken.
• An encoder tracks the cone going down the conveyor. (input 0001). A
push button on the machine will clear the register. (input 0002).
A good cone comes in front of the sensor (input 0000). The sensor (data
input) turns on. 1000 will not turn on until the rising edge of the encoder
(input 0001). Finally the encoder now generates a pulse and the status of
the data input (cone sensor input 0000) is transferred to bit 1000. The
register now looks like :
As the conveying system moves on, another cone comes in front of the
sensor. This time it's a broken cone and the sensor remains off. Now the
encoder generates another pulse. The old status of bit 1000 is transferred
to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status of 1002
shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is
transferred to bit 1000. The register now looks like :
Since the register shows that 1001 is now on, the ladder says that output
0500 will turn on and ice cream is put in the cone. As the conveying
system continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor.
This time it's a good cone and the sensor turns on. Now the encoder
generates another pulse. The old status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit
1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status of 1002 shifts
to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred
to bit 1000. The register now looks like :
Since the register shows that 1002 is now on the ladder says that output
0501 will turn on and peanuts are put on the cone. Since 1001 now holds
the status of a broken cone, 500 remains off in the ladder above and no
ice-cream is inserted into this cone.
• Since the register shows that 1003 is now on the ladder says that output
0502 will turn on and sprinkles are put on the cone.
• Since 1002 now holds the status of a broken cone, 501 remains off in
the ladder above and no peanuts are put onto this cone.
• Since the register shows that 1001 is now on the ladder says that output
0500 will turn on and ice cream is put in that cone.
OR
The same approach may be taken for the OR function. The circuit shown in Figure 1-23
illustrates two switches wired as an OR function controlling a lamp, LAMP2. As can be seen
from the circuit, the lamp will illuminate if SWITCH 1 OR SWITCH 2 is closed; that is,
depressing either of the switches will cause the lamp LAMP2 to illuminate.
SEQUENCERS
A sequencer (SEQ) block is a powerful instruction that simulates a drum timer. A sequencer is
analogous to a music box mechanism, in which each peg produces a tone as the cylinder rotates
and strikes the resonators. In a sequencer, each peg (bit) can be interpreted as a logic 1 and no peg
as a logic 0. A sequencer table, which is similar to a spread-out music box cylinder, provides
sequencer information. Figure 9-111 illustrates a cylinder and sequencer table comparison. The
number of bits in a sequencer can vary from 8 to 64 or more. The width of the table may also vary,
as may the size of a cylinder. Through I/O registers, which map real output points, each step in a
sequencer table can become an output representing one of the pegs. Figure 9-112 shows a typical
sequencer functional block. An OFF-to-ON transition of the control input initiates this block,
causing the contents of the sequencer table to be output in a sequential manner. The pointer
register points to each step being output (i.e., the table register location). Every time the control
input is energized, the pointer register is automatically incremented, thus pointing to the next
table location. Depending on the PLC, either an event or time may drive the control input line;
therefore, sequencers may be either event driven or time driven. A reset pointer input can reset the
pointer register to zero (point to step 1), if needed. The sequence length and width specify how
many steps and bits are in the table, respectively. Whenever the sequencer instruction is enabled,
it energizes the block’s first output. The second output indicates the end of the sequencer table.
EXAMPLE 9-12
A PLC application calls for the implementation of ten different steps that take place in a
sequential manner. For the purpose of detecting a fault in a troubleshooting condition, the
process step code, as shown in Figure 9-113, should be revealed in a seven-segment display to
the operator. Implement an instruction block that will satisfy this application.
SOLUTION
Figure 9-114 shows a way to display the code number using a 16-bit register output connected
to a four-digit, seven-segment display. A sequencer instruction transfers the codes from the
sequencer table to the output register. The output register matches (i.e., is mapped to) the
location of the 16-bit output interface (i.e., rack 0, slot 7, corresponding to word 07). Every time
the Start of Process Step signal goes from OFF to ON, the sequencer will output the process
code to the indicator.
Assuming that it is designated to operate from its own rung, we can imagine it to be located in the
power line in the position shown, and so rungs 2 and 3 are off. When input In 1 contacts close, the
master relay MC 1 is energized. When this happens, all the rungs between it and the rung with its
reset MCR 1 are switched on. Thus outputs Out 1 and Out 2 cannot be switched on by inputs In 2
and In 3 until the master control relay has been switched on. The master control relay MC 1 acts
only over the region between the rung it is designated to operate from and the rung on which
MCR 1 is located. With a Mitsubishi PLC, an internal relay can be designated as a master control
relay by programming it accordingly. Thus to program an internal relay M100 to act as a master
control relay, the program instruction is:MC M100
Thus for the ladder diagram shown in Figure which is Figure with Mitsubishi addresses, the
program instructions are:
LD X400 OUT M100 MC M100 LD X401 OUT Y430 LD X402 OUT Y431 MC M100
ZONE CONTROL LAST STATE
A zone control last state (ZCL) instruction is similar to an MCR instruction— it determines
whether or not a group of ladder rungs will be evaluated. In this instruction, a ZCL output with
conditional inputs occurs at the start of the fenced zone, while an END ZCL output with no
conditional inputs occurs at the end of the zone. When the referenced ZCL output is activated, the
outputs within the zone are controlled by their respective input conditions. When the ZCL output
is turned OFF, the outputs within the zone stay in their last state.
the zone control last state (ZCL) instruction provides a similar function to the MCR. The
ZCL uses two output instructions to set up a barrier around a number of rungs that are
to be controlled. When the first ZCL rung is false, the zone control instruction freezes all
of the outputs inside the zone to their last state. This means that all outputs in the zone that are
on will remain energized, and all outputs in the zone that are off will remain dc-energized. One
function of using the ZCL instruction is to provide a means to use outputs more than once in a
program. This programming feature is especially useful where the program has multiple
functions such as a pallatizing system that can pack 4, 8, or 12 boxes per layer.
ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS
Arithmetic instructions in a PLC include the basic four operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. In addition to these four math functions, large PLCs may also
include square root operations. Table 9-7 lists these typical arithmetic instructions and their
symbols.
Like other instructions, arithmetic instructions may be in either the basic ladder format or the
functional block format; however, operation in either format is essentially the same. Figure 9-58
illustrates these formats. Most arithmetic instructions require three reference registers, which
define the two operand registers and the destination register of the operation. Some instructions,
such as multiplication and division, may use four registers. Most arithmetic operations in a PLC
require only single-precision arithmetic, meaning that the values of the operands and the result
can be held in one register each. If operations dealing with larger numbers are required, a PLC
may offer double-precision arithmetic instructions. Double precision means that the system
uses double the number of registers to hold the operands and result, because it must store larger
numbers. For example, a double-precision addition instruction would use a total of six registers,
two for each operand and two for the result.
As discussed earlier, a register can hold a maximum value of 65,535 in 16 bits (all 1s) if there is
no sign bit. If the most significant bit is used as the sign bit, then a register may hold a maximum
value of +32,767 and a minimum value of –37,767. If the result value of the operation is larger
than the value a register can hold, an overflow condition will exist, and the instruction will turn
ON an overflow bit or output. The numerical format used in math operations will vary depending
on the PLC but is usually three, four, or five
digits (BCD or binary). Note that in single-precision BCD, the maximum register value is 9999
(unsigned) or ±999 (signed). In the following discussion, we will present arithmetic instructions
in both ladder and block formats to familiarize you with the differences between them. Note that
the ladder format may require other ladder data transfer
instructions to obtain the arithmetic operands. In functional block format, some manufacturers
offer the ability to “cascade” block functions (see Figure
9-59). Cascading is very useful when dealing with multiple arithmetic operations, since one
instruction will activate the next one when finished. Other manufacturers allow arithmetic
operations to be performed in block form (see Figure 9-60); that is, using blocks of several
contiguous registers as the operands and storing the results in another block of registers.