Unit - 2 Principles of

Ecology
What is the Environment?

• The physical and biological habitat

surrounding us is the environment
• Abiotic Environment:
Air, land, water, rocks

• Biotic Environment: Living

\organisms such as plants,
Segments of the Environment
• Lithosphere: Earth’s Crust, rocks, minerals. Huge
reservoir, less transport (conveyer)
• Pedosphere: soil
• Hydrosphere: oceans and water,
huge reservoir and transporter
• Biosphere: small reservoir,
moderate transporter;
huge impact on the environment.
• Atmosphere: small reservoir,
efficient transporter.
 Zones of the Atmosphere
• Exosphere: 500 – 1000 km up to 10,000 km,
• Thermosphere: from 80 – 85 km to 640+ km
temperature increasing with height.
• Ionosphere: auroras, long distance radiowave
propagation.
• Mesosphere: 50 km to 80 to 85 km temperature
decreasing with height. Meteors burn up when
entering the atmosphere.
• Stratosphere: 7 to 17 km range to about 50 km
Temperature increases with height. Ozone—few
ppm (Mainly 15 to 35 km)
• Troposphere: Surface to between 7 km at the
poles and 17 km at equator,
• Weather variations , vertical mixing
Atmosphere

http://view.ge/page/sience/15-atmosphere-of-earth?lang=english
http://www.theozonehole.com/atmosphere.htm
 Principles of Ecology
- Segments of the Environment
- Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Biosphere
- Ecosystem: Biotic and Abiotic Factors
- Structure of the Ecosystem
- Ecological Pyramids
- Functions of Ecosystems
- Productivity
- Food Production
- Energy Flow
- Food Chain and Food Web
- Nutrient Recycling
- Biogeochemical Cycles - Water Cycle, C, N, P, S
Cycles
- Development and Stabilization
- Community Associations
- Community Adaptations
- Ecological Succession
Structure of the Ecosystem - Ecological
Pyramids or Trophic Pyramids

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web
Types of Ecological Pyramids or Trophic
Pyramids: Terrestrial Vs Aquatic Ecosystem

http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/ecology/food.html
Variations in Ecological Pyramid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web
Ecosystem Functions[ref], [ref]
Productivity - Food Production

Energy Flow - Food Chain, Food Web

Nutrient recycling - Biogeochemical Cycles

Development and Stabilization - Associations,

Adaptations, Succession
Productivity - Food Production

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Phot
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis
osynthesis_Block_diag.gif
Energy Flow

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thu
mb/3/3a/Ecological_Pyramid.svg/2000px-
Ecological_Pyramid.svg.png

https://encrypted-
tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRzjOz_0Z0
hjtz-
ioqM43GrS3M9qDzOnXmtwQPp0BA6TFDfDpFC7g
https://encrypted-
tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTsDoYoxXGLYH2SGytHwsD2fyUZEuA232wDRu4pn9AfnbGF-xRh8w
Flow of Chemical and Pollutants through Food
Chain

http://iasmania.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Bioacc-VS-Biomag1.png
Detritus Food Chain
●Less dependent on direct sunlight
●Depends on influx of organic matter from
another system
●Generally small
●E.g. Mangrove leaves (detritus)—
microorganisms—crabs
●E.g. Caves: bat colonies—guano—organisms
(salamanders)
●E.g. Ocean floor—dead carcasses—organisms
feeding on it.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web
Nutrient recycling - Biogeochemical Cycles

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sSscHv8Kmtw/VUQHMBL1rSI/AAAAAAAAB18/YKOplqNSdTM/s1600/1A%2B-
%2BBiogeochemical%2BCycle%2BComponents.jpg
Hydrological Cycle
Hydrological Cycle & Earth’s Albedo

● Evaporation—cloud
formation
● Increased albedo or
reflection coefficient is a
measure of the ‘whiteness’ of
the earth when viewed
through space.
● Greater the albedo→lower is
the solar radiation absorbed
by the earth→lower is the
temperature of the globe
(Greater cooling).
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Albedo-e_hg.svg/549px-Albedo-e_hg.svg.png
Albedo and Tree Cover
● Trees tend to have a low albedo
○ Deciduous trees: 0.15-0.18 (15-18%)
○ Coniferous trees 0.09-0.15 (9-15%)
● Hence, removing forests → increases albedo →localized
climate cooling.
● However, trees also provide local evaporative cooling and
carbon sequestration; loss of trees reduces these cooling
effects.
● Cloud feedbacks and snow cover further complicate the
issue.
● Studies of new forests indicate:
○ A net cooling effect in tropical and mid-latitude areas
○ A net neutral or slightly warming effect in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia)

●Betts, Richard A. (2000). "Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo". Nature 408 (6809): 187–190.
doi:10.1038/35041545.PMID 11089969.
Phytoplankton, Clouds, Albedo

● Phytoplankton produce dimethylsulfoniopropionate

(DMSP)
● Converted to Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) in ocean
● Escapes to atmosphere, oxidizes to SO2 and
nucleates clouds.
● This is an example of how the biosphere (plankton)
regulates the hydosphere (global precipitation),
earth’s albedo and global temperature.
● CLAW Hypothesis: negative feedback; regulation of
global temperature.
● Anti-CLAW Hypothesis: positive feedback;
escalation of global warming.
warm oceans→more phytoplankton → more DMS → More clouds
→ cooling (negative feedback; regulation)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f5/CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_1_AYool.png/598px-
CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_1_AYool.png
warm oceans → stalling of thermohaline ocean currents→ocean
stratification → less nutrients from ocean bottom in euphotic zone
→ less phytoplankton → less DMS → less clouds → more heating
(positive feedback; escalation)
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cc/CLAW_hypothesis_graphic_2_AYool.png
Global Conveyer Belt

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png
Plants: Significance in Water Cycle
• Taproots go up to 100x deeper than canopy

Short-circuit pathways for soil water redistribution

• In dry spells, water from below brought to surface,
to increase nutrient extraction, photosysnthesis
and transpiration.
• In wet spells, promote percolation
Plants: Significance in Water Cycle
• Plants pump huge quantities of water from soil to
air.
• Regulate T and humidity. In a clearing in Nigeria, soil
T up to 5°C higher; humidity reduced by 50%
compared to adjacent forest.

• Evapo-transpiration of trees—nature’s pump and

cooler
Importance of Rainforests

● 25% of rain never reaches the ground.; wets canopy

and evaporates
● 25% of total—runoff
● 50% of total pumped up and transpired by plants.
● 75% of rainwater is returned to the atmosphere; new
clouds, new rain,
● Colossal heat pump—energy of six million atom
bombs/day; redistributes energy to higher latitudes
● Up to 80% incident solar energy carried by hot, humid
air;
○ rises rapidly and develops into thunder clouds that
simultaneously
○ ater areas further downwind
○ releases latent heat
Importance of Rainforests
● Absorb 2 billion tonnes of CO2/yr; about 20-30%
of fossil C emissions
● Destruction of the Amazon:
○ May stall the heat pump
○ Accelerate drought and desertification (positive
feedback)
○ Loss of CO2 sink; accelerate global warming.
○ Reforestation cannot replace natural stands. Loss of
soil carbon.
Sources:
Prof. Eneas Salati from the University of São Paulo, Piracicaba – Brasil http://www.fgaia.org.br/texts/e-
rainforests.html
http://www.hydrogen.co.uk/h2_now/journal/articles/1_global_warming.htm
http://www.hydrogen.co.uk/h2_now/journal/articles/2_global_warming.htm
http://www.greendiary.com/entry/increasing-global-warming-decreases-forests-co2-absorption-capacity
http://www.i-sis.org.uk/LOG4.php
Availability of Carbon
● Earth’s C content = 0.19% (0.032% in
lithosphere)
● Atmospheric CO2 is the main utilizable
reservoir
● 18% in biomass
● Main reservoirs air, rocks (carbonates),
oceans.
http://image.slidesharecdn.com/biogeochemicalcycles-120914165417-phpapp01/95/biogeochemical-cycles-6-
728.jpg?cb=1347641775
Potential contributors to climate change

● Complex interactions in the climate puzzle

● Feedback mechanisms
● Some interesting twists
○ Increasing temp. reduces CO2 solubility (reduced C-sink
capacity of the ocean)
○ Ocean Acidification reduces C-sequestration in the form
of CaCO3
○ 740ppm CO2 in water by 2100. Reduction in population of
mussels by 25% and oysters by 10%
○ At 1800ppm, shells will dissolve
Human Impacts on Carbon Cycle

● Burning of Fossil fuels

● Deforestation and Poor Agricultural practices

● Increase in atmospheric greenhouse gasses

such as CO2, methane, SOX, NOX, etc. leads to

Greenhouse effect, global warming and climate
change.
Nitrogen Reservoir

● N is an essential component of proteins,

nucleic acids and other cellular constituents.
● Reservoirs – 79% of the atmosphere is N2
gas.
● The N=N triple bond is relatively difficult to
break, requires special conditions. As a result
most ecosystems are N-limited.
● N2 dissolves in water, cycles through air, water
and living tissue.
Nitrogen Fixation

● Abiotic: lightning (very high T and P) 107 metric

tons yr-1 ~ 5-8% of total annual N fixation.
(weathering of rocks is insignificant)
● Biotic: Nitrogen fixation by microbes, 1.75 x108
metric tons yr-1 (symbiotic bacteria: azobacter or
rhizobium- legumes
● Industrial: The Haber-Bosch process (1909) 5x107
metric tons yr-1 – high P & T, Fe catalyst to
convert N2 to NH3;& NH4NO3
● Combustion Side Effect: 2x107 metric tons yr-1.
High T and P oxidizes N2 to NOx
Nitrification-Denitrification

● Nitrification by chemoautotrophs
○Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize
NH3 to NO2
-
○Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the
nitrites to NO3
-
●
-
Denitrication Anaerobic respiration of NO3 to
dinitrogen gas by several species of
Pseudomonas, Alkaligenes, and Bacillus
Human Impacts on Nitrogen Cycle
● Burning of Fossil fuels add Nitrogen Oxides
(NO2) and Nitric Acid vapor (HNO3).
● Nitrous Oxide (N2O) released by the action of

anaerobic bacteria on Livestock waste.

● Nitrogen stored in Soil and Plants released by

destruction of forestlands, grassland and

wetlands.
● Upset the nitrogen cycle in aquatic ecosystem

by adding excess of nitrates to the body

● Harvest nitrogen-rich crops, irrigate crops, wash

out nitrogen from topsoils

Fate of N
● Sources of anthropogenic N loads: Fertilizers,
Legume Crops, Combustion and forest burning,
livestock.
● In most terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems N is a
limiting nutrient, gets cycled efficiently.
● What happens when plants have enough N (i.e.
greater 16:1 N:P ratio)?
● When N saturation of ecosystem occurs, excess N
tends to leave the system in the form of nitrate.
● Flushing/erosion – dissolved and particulate matter in
streamwater, (DIN, DON, TN, Org N)
●
-
Leaching to groundwater – NO3 poor sorption to
clays, highly water soluble.
Effects of Increased N loading
Since 1940s amount of N available for uptake has
more than doubled. Anthropogenic N inputs are
now equal to biological fixation.
● Eutrophication in aquatic systems, coastal algal
blooms and “Dead Zone”, fish kills, increased turbidity

Eutrophication
(1.54mm)

Credit:Fuse School - Global Education Source https://youtu.be/6LAT1gLMPu4

● Selective pressures in terrestrial systems favoring
species-poor grasslands and forests
● Nitrate MCL – 10 mg/L …
● Nitric oxide – precursor of acid rain and smog
● Nitrous oxide – long lived greenhouse gas that can
trap 200 times as much heat as CO2
Phosphorus Cycle

Ref
● One of the longest cycles
● Essential nutrient; DNA, ATP, ADP, fat, cell
membranes

Human Impacts on Phosphorus

Cycle
● P-containing detergents
● Mining phosphate rock

● P-containing fertilizer use

●P in water leads to eutrophication

Sulphur Cycle
Human Impacts on Sulfur Cycle
● SO2 from industry and combustion (e.g. coal,
petrol).

● SO2 from Refine industry convert the Petroleum

to Gasoline Products
● SO2 from Metallic ore Industries.
● SO2 from Mining industries - Acid mine
drainage
Group Work 1 - Discuss human
influence on Biogeochemical Cycles
and Impacts to our Environment

Group Work 2 - How do we maintain

the Biogeochemical Cycles to
balance our ecosystem
Gaia Theory
● By James Lovelock; Greek Earth Goddess
● Earth with all intricate and interacting systems is like
a Super-Organism

Gaia Hypothesis -
James Lovelock
(28.46mm)

Credit:Naked Science. Source https://youtu.be/GIFRg2skuDI

● Self regulation: chemistry of oceans, atmosphere,
temperature, living beings
● Earth behaves as if it had a purpose
● Purpose is to nurture life and maintain life-friendly
conditions.
● This perspective brings a new awareness that can
be the foundation of all future development
● It will enable the further evolution of mankind
Thank You