Frequency Response: Key Concept: Small-Signal Models For Amplifiers Are Linear and Therefore
Frequency Response: Key Concept: Small-Signal Models For Amplifiers Are Linear and Therefore
Frequency Response
where v is the amplitude and φ is the phase of the sinusoidal signal v(t).
jφ
V = ve
jωt
v(t) = Re ( Ve )
which implies that the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current through a
capacitor (the impedance) is
V 1
Z(jω) = --- = ----------
I jωC
R
+
Vin + Vout
C
−
−
Replacing the capacitor by its impedance, 1 / (jωC), we can solve for the
ratio of the phasors Vout / Vin
V out 1/jωC
----------- = -------------------------
V in R + 1/jωC
V out 1
----------- = -----------------------
V in 1 + jωRC
■ Bode plots: magnitude and phase of the phasor ratio: Vout / Vin
the range of frequencies is very wide (DC --> 108 Hz, for example)
--> plot frequency axis on log scale
the range of magnitudes is also very wide (and we care about ratios of 0.001 in
some applications):
--> plot magnitude on log scale
define magnitude in decibels “dB” by
V out V out
----------- = 20 log -----------
V in dB V in
V out Im ( V out ⁄ V in )
∠----------- = atan -----------------------------------
V in Re ( V out ⁄ V in )
* Magnitudes:
2 2
Z1 Z1 X1 + Y1
------ = --------
Z2
- = ----------------------- , where
Z2 2 2
X2 + Y2
Z 1 = X 1 + jY 1 Z2 = X2 + Y2
* Phases:
Z1 Y1 Y2
∠------ = ∠Z 1 – ∠Z 2 = atan ------ – atan ------
Z2 X1 X2
* Examples:
■ |Vout / Vin | --> 1 for “low” frequencies; |Vout / Vin | --> 0 for “high” frequencies
Vout Vout
Vin Vin
log scale Break point
1 0 dB
scale
0.0001 −80
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 ω
RC RC RC RC RC RC log scale
(a)
V
∠ out
Vin
0° Break point
−45°
−90°
−135°
−180° ω
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
RC RC RC RC RC RC log scale
(b)
The “break point” is when the frequency is equal to ωο = 1 / RC, at which the
ratio of phasors has a magnitude of - 3 dB and the phase is -45o.
The break frequency defines “low” and “high” frequencies.
magnitude:
V out V in 100mV
----------- = – 3dB … V out = ----------- = ------------------ = 71mV
V in dB 2 2
phase:
V out
∠----------- = ∠1 – ∠( 1 + j ) = 0 – 45° ∠V out = – 45°
V in
– j45°
V out = ( 71mV )e
output waveform vout(t) is given by:
v out(t) = Re V out e
jω o t – j45° jω o t
= Re ( 71mVe e )
o
v out(t) = 71 mVcos ( ω o t – 45 )
where the τi are time constants -- (1/τi) are the break frequencies, which are
called poles when in the demoninator and zeroes when in the numerator
■ From complex algebra, the factors can be dealt with separately in the magnitude
and in the phase and the results added up to find |H(jω) | and phase (H(jω))
Three types of factors:
1. poles (binomial factors in the denominator)
2. zeroes (binomial factors in the numerator)
3. jω in the numerator (or denominator)
Example: