Chapter 3

DATA PRESENTATION

Meaningful understanding of the content of data lies in the fundamental aspects of data
presentation. In order for the reader to continue reading the data analysis is the way the data are
presented. This chapter will be dealing with the variety of way the data is presented. For this
purpose, the following topics will be discussed:

1. Tabular Presentation
a. Frequency Distribution
b. Grouped Frequency Distribution of Interval Data
2. Graphical Presentation
✓ Graphical Presentation
✓ Pie Chart
✓ Histogram
✓ Frequency Polygon
✓ Ogive
✓ Relative Frequency
3. Textual Presentation
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module the students are expected to:
1. tabulate data systematically;
2. create a frequency distribution based on the given set of data;
3. enumerate the rules on the construction of graphs;
4. correctly interpret the rules on the graphical representation of data;
5. apply rules on graphical presentation of data;
6. choose which type of graph is best for certain types of data; and
7. draw appropriate graph for a set of data.

Tables and graphs are both ways to organize and arrange data so that it is more easily
understood by the viewer. Tables and graphs are related in the sense that the information used in
tables is frequently also used for the basis of graphs.
It is important to know how to create and interpret tables and graphs as they are used in
many important areas of research, and used to help people in decision making.

TABULAR PRESENTATION
Tables are an excellent way to show data or information in an organized manner. By
putting data in tables one can easily from there set up a graph to illustrate the data.
Guidelines in Constructing Table Representation (Deauna, 1999):
1. Every table must be self-explanatory.
2. The title should be clear and descriptive. The title gives information about what, where, how
and when the data were taken.
3. Each characteristic may be summarized and compared separately by using percentage or
any other appropriate procedure.
4. If there are more than one information available for one subject several columns may be
constructed in one table. Each column should be properly labeled.
5. Footnotes (when necessary) should be placed at the bottom of the table briefly explains
details of the given information.

1
Example 1
Table 1
MSEUF Senior High School Department
School Year 2019 -2020
Level Number of Students

Grade 11 1239

Grade 12 2025

Frequency Distribution
Frequency Distribution is defined as the arrangement of gathered data by categories with
their corresponding frequencies.

Frequency Distribution for Grouped Data:

Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution:
1. Arrange the given data into an array. Array is an arrangement of data from the highest to
lowest or from lowest to highest. Given the following scores of 50 students in Basic
Statistics examination.
Data:
91 97 79 78 75 73 76 76 88 78
87 96 78 73 78 77 70 94 76 87
73 78 77 70 94 76 87 86 78 96
79 76 93 71 68 77 79 84 92 93
79 84 69 77 90 75 66 55 69 64

2. Find the range of the score in the above data. Range is the difference between the highest
and the lowest score.
Range = HS – LS Where: HS = Highest Score
Range = 97 – 55 LS = Lowest Score
= 42
3. Divide the range by the size of the class interval desired.
Note: Few intervals will spread out the data while a big interval would crowd.
Range = 42
10 = 4.2
4. Prepare the class interval and class frequency columns. The lowest class limit must be
divisible by the class interval size.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
The data can be graphically presented according to their scale or level of measurements. A
graphic presentation shows numerical data in pictures such a pie chart or circle graph, histogram
or bar graph and polygon or line graph.

2
Pie Chart or Circle Graph
Circle or pie graphs are particularly good in comparing the parts with the whole. A pie
chart is a type of graph that is used to compare statistics. It is called a pie chart because it is a
circle with smaller sections that resemble slices of a pie. It shows portions of a total percentage in
an easily-understood way and can be a phenomenal tool when it comes to sharing complicated
data

To construct Circle or Pie Chart

1. Organize the data on the table by providing columns to

➢ Fractional parts or percent each quantity is of the whole.

➢ The number of degrees representing each fractional part, obtained by multiplying

360˚ by the fractional part.

2. On a circle, construct successive central angles using the number of degrees

representing each part.

3. Label each part and write an appropriate title for the graph.

Histogram or Bar Graph

Bar charts and histograms are used to compare the sizes of different groups.

Bar Graph

➢ A bar graph is made up of columns plotted on a graph. It is used to show relative sizes of
data.
➢ Bar graphs are used to show the comparison of nominal data and numerical data.
➢ Are used with qualitative (or non-metric) data.

How to construct bar graph?

1. Write the appropriate title for the graph indicating important information.
2. Label both axes. Zero point should be clearly indicated.
3. Bars must be proportional to the quantities they are representing. The width of the bars must
be equal.
4. There must be a uniform space between bars.
5. If necessary, highlight sources and footnotes.

3
Here is how to read a bar chart.
• The columns are positioned over a label that represents a categorical variable.
• The height of the column indicates the size of the group defined by the column label.

Frequency of Therapy Seeking in Folks

of Different Occupations

Histogram
A histogram is made up of columns plotted on a graph. Usually, there is no space between
adjacent columns.
Here is how to read a histogram.
• The columns are located over a label that represents a quantitative variable.
• The column label can be a single value or a range of values.
• The height of the column indicates the size of the group defined by the column label.
Steps in Preparing a Histogram
1. Prepare the x and y – axis.
2. Mark x and y scale, x representing the scores and y, the frequencies.
3. The bases of the bars are plotted on the x-axis where the width of the base corresponds to
the real limits or class boundaries of the class interval. The center of the base falls on the
midpoint of the class interval.

The histogram below shows the heights (in cm) distribution of 30 people.
a) How many people have heights between 159.5 and 169.5 cm?
b) How many people have heights less than 159.5 cm?
c) How many people have heights more than 169.5 cm?
d) What percentage of people have heights between 149.5 and 179.5 cm

4
Frequency Polygon or Line Graph
A frequency polygon is almost identical to a histogram, which is used to compare sets of data or to
display a cumulative frequency distribution. It uses a line graph to represent quantitative data

To draw frequency polygons, first we need to draw histogram and then follow the below steps:
Step 1-
Choose the class interval and mark the values on the horizontal axes
Step 2-
Mark the mid value of each interval on the horizontal axes.
Step 3-
Mark the frequency of the class on the vertical axes.
Step 4-
Corresponding to the frequency of each class interval, mark a point at the height
in the middle of the class interval
Step 5- Connect these points using the line segment.
Step 6- The obtained representation is a frequency polygon.

Example 1: In a batch of 400 students, the height of students is given in the following table.
Represent it through a frequency polygon.

Solution: Following steps are to be followed to construct a histogram from the given data:

• The heights are represented on the horizontal axes on a suitable scale as shown.
• The number of students is represented on the vertical axes on a suitable scale as shown.
• Now rectangular bars of widths equal to the class- size and the length of the bars
corresponding to a frequency of the class interval is drawn.
ABCDEF represents the given data graphically in form of frequency polygon as:

Height of 400 Students

5
A line graph is most useful in displaying data or information that changes continuously over time.
Steps in making a line graph:
1. Label the points on the base line.
2. Plot the midpoints; scores within the interval are concentrated on the midpoint.
3. When all midpoints are located, join them by a series of short lines, additional at both ends
are needed.

Ogive

The ogive or cumulative frequency is a cumulative frequency distribution which can

represent graphically by a cumulative frequency curve or ogive or S – shaped distribution. The
word Ogive is a term used in architecture to describe curves or curved shapes. Ogives are graphs
that are used to estimate how many numbers lie below or above a particular variable or value in
data. To construct an Ogive, firstly, the cumulative frequency of the variables is calculated using a
frequency table. It is done by adding the frequencies of all the previous variables in the given data
set. The result or the last number in the cumulative frequency table is always equal to the total
frequencies of the variables. The most commonly used graphs of the frequency distribution are
histogram, frequency polygon, frequency curve, Ogives (cumulative frequency curves).

Ogive Example

Question 1:

Construct the more than cumulative frequency table and draw the Ogive for the below-given data.

Marks 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80

Frequency 3 8 12 14 10 6 5 2

6
Solution:

“More than” Cumulative Frequency Table:

Marks Frequency Class Boundaries More than Less that

Cumulative Cumulative
Lower Class Upper Class
Frequency Frequency
1-10 3 0.5 10.5 60 3
11 - 20 8 10.5 20.5 57 11
21 - 30 12 20.5 30.5 49 23
31 - 40 14 30.5 40.5 37 37
41 - 50 10 40.5 50.5 23 47
51 - 60 6 50.5 60.5 13 53
61 - 70 5 60.5 70.5 7 58
71 - 80 2 70.5 80.5 2 60
Plotting an Ogive:

Plot the points with coordinates such as (70.5, 2), (60.5, 7), (50.5, 13), (40.5, 23), (30.5, 37),
(20.5, 49), (10.5, 57), (0.5, 60). More than
Plot the points with coordinates such as (0.5, 3), (10.5, 11), (20.5, 23), (30.5, 37), (40.5, 47),
(50.5, 53), (60.5, 58), (70.5, 60). Less than
An Ogive is connected to a point on the x-axis, that represents the actual upper limit of the last
class, i.e.,( 80.5, 0)

Take x-axis, 1 cm = 10 marks

Y-axis = 1 cm – 10 c.f

More than and less than cumulative

Relative Frequency

Relative frequency is the measurement of data through a table showing the percentage in
proportion of every frequency to the total frequency.

7
References

Foster, L., et.al. (2015). Beginning Statistics: an introduction for social scientists. 2nd edition. SAGE
Publicatin Ltd.

Lambajon, Jr. F.M. et.al. (2017) Psychological Statistics. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Manila.

Mamhot, M. R., et.al (2013). Statistics for general education: keypad approach. Purelybooks Trading and
Publishing Corp. Intarmuros Manila.

McCall, R. B. (2001). Fundamental Statistics for Behavioral Sciences (8-th edition). CA: Brooks Cole.

Pagala, R.C., (2011). Statistics Revised Edition. Mindshapers Co., Inc. Manila

Plonsky, M. (2015). Psychological Statistics: An Online Hypertext (Vers. 4.02) . Retrieved from the Web
January 5, 2018. http://www4.uwsp.edu/psych/stat.

Fraenkel, J.R., &Wallen, N.E. (1996). How to design and evaluate research in education (3rd Ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Foster, G.C.; Lane, D.;Scott, D.; Hebl, M.; Guerra, R.;Osherson, D.; & Zimmer, H., “An Introduction to
Psychological Statistics” (2018). Open Educational Resources Collection.4.

Davidian, M. & Louis, T.A. (2012). Science.http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1218685.

Introduction to Statistics, Module 1, Nova Southeastern University (nd.)

Howell, D.C., “Statistical Methods for Psychology Seventh Edition (2010). Cengage Wadsworth, USA.

https://www.verywellmind.com/why-are-statistics-necessary-in-psychology-2795146

https://www.registerednursing.org/teas/interpreting-relevant-information-tables-charts-graphs/

8
Exercises

1. Use the given data and do the following:

The following set of data is the scores of 50 students in a major examination in Psychological
Statistics

91 97 79 78 75 73 76 76 88 78
87 96 78 73 78 77 70 94 76 87
73 78 77 70 94 76 87 86 78 96
79 76 93 71 68 77 79 84 92 93
79 84 69 77 90 75 66 55 69 64

a. constructs an appropriate frequency distribution table;

b. determines the range of the given data;

c. determines the class interval and the number of classes and;

d. presents the data in an appropriate graphic representation

e. provides a textual discussion

2. The following are the proportion of monthly expenses of Santos family. They allotted 45,000
budget for the following 25% for foods and groceries, 10% for transportation, 15 % for house
rentals, 35 % for education, 8 % for 7 % miscellaneous.

a. presents the data in tabular form

b. represents the data in appropriate graphical representation