Лексикологія

1.Classifications of phraseological units.

Depending on the degree of their stability all word combinations are divided into:
- free (we can substitute for any word without causing any changes in other members of combination, e.g.
to go quickly);
- semi-free (the freedom of substitution is limited to certain semantic groups. e.g. to go hospital, school);

- fixed word combinations/set expressions (no substitution, word order is fixed.).

Phraseological unit is a word group with a fixed lexical composition and grammatical structure.
There are different approaches to studying and classifying phraseological units.

1. The classification of V.V. Vinogradov is synchronic and semantic. It is based upon the type of
motivation. He distinguishes:
a) phraseological fusions, e.g. tit for tat. They represent the highest stage of blending, are not motivated
nowadays, are specific for every language and cannot be literally translated;
b) phraseological unities , e.g. to know where a shoe pinches, to rise to the bait, etc. They are clearly
motivated, some of them are easily translated and even international;
c) phraseological combinations, e.g. to meet the demands, to make friends. They are not only clearly
motivated but also contain one component used in its direct meaning (demands, friends).
2. Larin’s classification is also semantic but diachronic.
He believes that each unit goes through three stages in its development. First it is a free word
combination, then a motivated metaphoric phrase and then an idiom with lost motivation, e.g. to give a
sack, to give a cold shoulder, to dance attendance on smb., etc.
Semantic classifications of Vinogradov and Larin are open to criticism since the degree of motivation
may be different for different speakers depending on their knowledge of history, customs and traditions,
level of education, etc. So they are subjective, not reliable enough.
3. N. Amosova’s approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed
context characterized by a specific word-order and peculiar semantic relationship between the
components. Phraseological units are divided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary.
One of their components has a phraseologically-bound meaning, the other serves as the determining
context, e.g. small change, small hours, small talk. In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole,
each element having its own meaning weakened or lost. Idioms may be motivated and demotivated.
4. Koonin’s classification is functional: depends on the functions phraseological units fulfil in
communication. There may be:
a) nominating (e.g. a man of straw, a bull in a china shop);
b) nominative communicative (verbal), e.g. to go round the bush, to pull one’s leg, etc.;
c) communicative (sentences by form), e.g. Curiosity killed the cat;
d) interjectional, e.g. Good heavens, a pretty kettle of fish, etc.
Further classification depends on whether the units are changeable or not, what their structure is, etc.

2. Etymologicalanalysis of the English vocabulary. The main sources of

borrowings. Classification of borrowings. Reasons for borrowing
The English vocabulary is divided into native words & borrowings.
Native words include:
- words of common Indo-European origin (words, common to all Indo-European languages) :
1) family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter;
2) parts of human body: foot, nose, heart;
3) animals: swine, goose, cow;
4)plants: tree, birch;
 5)times of day: day, night;
6)heavenly bodies: sun, star, moon;
7)adjectives: red, new, glad
8)numerals: from 1 to 100;
9) personal pronouns (except they);
10)verbs: be, eat, sit, stand.

- common Germanic words (words which are common to all Germanic languages); parts of the human
body: head, hand, arm, finger;
1) animals: fox, bear;
2) plants: oak, grass;
3) natural phenomena: rain, frost;
4) seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer;
5) landscape features: sea, land;
6) houses and furniture: house, room, bench;
7) ships: ship, boat;
8) adjectives: colours (green, grey, blue, white), small, high, old, good;
9) verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, make, give, drink.
A. - purely Anglo-Saxon words. lord, lady, boy, girl, bird, woman, daisy, always, etc.

Native words denote elementary notions without which communication isn’t possible.
Borrowed words are classified depending on the source of borrowing (the language from which it was
taken by the English language):
1) historically Celtic borrowings (bin, bard);
2) Latin borrowings (wall, street);
3) Greek (music, theatre);
4) Scandinavian (husband, sister, sky);
5) French (justice, table);
6) German (cobalt, rink);
7) Italian (bank, balcony);
8) Spanish (armada, paella);
9) Dutch (landscape);
10) Russian (samovar, Bolshevik);
11) Ukrainian (vareniki, Kazak).
Classification of borrowings
According to the degree of assimilation borrowed words are divided into:
1) completely assimilated;
Completely assimilated borrowings are usually old: street, husband, table. They follow all morphological,
phonetic and spelling standards of English. They are frequently used and stylistically neutral and usually
active in word formation.
2) partially assimilated;
Partially assimilated borrowings are further subdivided into groups depending on the aspect which the
words are not assimilated in:
a) not assimilated semantically: denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they came:
clothes(sombrero), titles and professions (shah, bei, toreador), food and drinks (pilaw, borsch, galushky),
money (rouble), etc.
b) not assimilated grammatically, e.g. original plural forms of Greek and Latin borrowings: crisis – crises,
criterion – criteria, stimulus – stimuli, datum – data, etc.
c) not assimilated phonetically: with the stress on the last syllable (police, routine), sounds and
combinations that are not standard in English (bourgeois, prestige, memoir), the whole phonetic pattern is
different, e.g. opera, soprano, confetti, etc.
d) not assimilated graphically: with diactric marks (café, cliché), special digraphs (bouquet, brioche),
some silent letters (ballet, corps).
Some words may have incomplete assimilation in more than one aspect.
3) unassimilated, or barbarisms.
Barbarisms are not assimilated in any way foreign words which are used by Englishmen in
communication though they have native equivalents, e.g. ciao, Anno Domini, etc.
Reasons for borrowing Borrowings play an important role in scientific terminology, industry, art. E.g.,
Italian borrowings in music, Latin borrowings in science, etc. There exist false translator’s friends, e.g.
magazine, champion, general, capital, etc. A common one is need, often a borrowed word is used to
express a certain idea or to describe items or objects, e.g. new fauna or flora. This fact makes it necessary
to adopt a new word. Another reason is the problem of an equivalent translation of a term or phrase which
expresses a special feeling or mood. A third cause can be the mastery of a culture over another, like the
Norman Conquest in England. People use borrowed words to show and define their social status. 

3. The word, its features and functions. Meaning and its types.
The word is the smallest meaningful unit possessing the following features:
1) isolatability, i.e. ability of a word to function in communication alone, to make a sentence,
e.g. ‘Help!’ This distinguishes a word from another meaningful unit – a morpheme, which
cannot be used in isolation. It can function only as a part of a word.
2) indivisibility, i.e. a word cannot be further divided without breaking its meaning. Cf. asleep
– a (sound) sleep, alive – a (quiet) life.
3) positional mobility, i.e. a word can change its position in a sentence. E.g. Suddenly they came
up to a house. They came up to a house suddenly. Up to a house they suddenly came.
The word performs the following functions:
1) denotational (denotes things, qualities, actions,etc);
2) generalizing function (e.g. tree, house, animal);
3) emotive function (expresses our feelings and emotions);
4) structural function (performs a certain syntactic function, is a part of a sentence).
The word is a two-facet unit combining meaning and form. The relationship between the two is
denoted by the term motivation. If the connection between the meaning of a word and its form is clear
and the form helps us to understand the meaning, the word is considered motivated. If the connection is
conventional, the word is said to be non-motivated at the present stage of language development.
 . Types of meaning.
The meaning is not homogeneous. It is a system of systems:
1). It combines lexical and grammatical meanings, e.g. actress is a personal noun.
2). Lexical meaning includes denotative and connotative ones.
3). Denotative meaning is conceptual (what a word denotes), it is divided into semantic
components called semes , e.g. Father is a male parent. Denotative components may
be culturally predetermined (cf. winter in Siberia and in Australia, it is a season
between autumn and spring but all other characteristics are different: duration,
temperature, etc.).
4). Connotative meanings express the speaker’s attitude to the subject of speech and may
be as follows:
a) stylistic: chap, fellow, associate; child, infant, kid;
b) emotive: cool, awesome, terrific;
c) expressive: to trudge, to march, to gobble;
d) evaluative: clever, silly, good, bad(rational evaluation), scoundrel (emotional
evaluation);
e) associative (a fir-tree – forest, New Year);
f) national and cultural (kilt – Scots);
g) pragmatic: Can you open the door?
5). A word may be polysemantic, i.e. it may have several interrelated denotative
meanings:
a) One of the meanings is called primary, this is the meaning in which the word made its
first appearance in the language, all the other meanings which developed later are
called secondary, e.g. chair as a piece of furniture (primary), chair as the head of some
meeting, conference or chair as a department (secondary meanings).
b) One of the meanings is central, others are peripheral. As a rule, primary and central
meanings coincide but it is not necessarily so. In the course of language development a
secondary meaning may become the central one ousting the primary meaning to the
periphery, e.g. revolution: primary meaning is that of rotary movement, revolving,
secondary – social change (now central).
c) Meaning can be direct and indirect (figurative, transferred), e.g. white collar, blue
collar, smoke screen, etc.

4. Homonymy. Sources of homonymy. Classifications of homonyms.

HOMONYMY
Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects, but
different in their meaning and distribution. The term is derived from Greek, i.e. the same name
combined with the difference of meaning, e. g. bank: 1) a shore, a river bank; 2) a financial
institution; ball: 1) any spherical body; 2) a large dancing party.
Homonyms exist in many languages but in English this language phenomenon is especially
frequent, mostly in monosyllabic words (nearly 90 % of homonyms).
There are several sources of homonymy.
1) Phonetic changes. In the course of the language development two or more words that were
pronounced differently may develop identical sound form, e.g. knight-night, sea-see, write-right.

2) Borrowing. A borrowed word may duplicate in form a native word or another borrowing,
 e.g. write (native) – rite (Latin ritus), fair (adj, native) – fair (noun, French), bank (shore, native) -
bank (institution, Italian).
3) Word-building:
a. conversion, e.g. pale-to pale, water –to water, comb-to comb;
b. shortening, e.g. fan – from fanatic, van – from vanguard and from caravan;
c. sound imitation, e.g. bang – to bang; mew –mew- mew.
Classifications of homonyms
Homonyms are divided into homonyms proper (identical in both sound and spelling), e.g. ball, bank;
homophones (identical in sound but different in spelling), e.g. piece-peace, knight-night, scent-sent-
cent; homographs (the same in spelling but different in sound), e.g. to bow – bow, lead – to lead.
Another classification is based on the part of speech homonyms belong to. If both homonyms
belong to the same part of speech, they are lexical, e.g. to read – read, knight –night, to lie – to lie.
Homonyms belonging to different parts of speech are called lexico-grammatical, e.g. left – left, eye –
I, knows – nose.
The third classification is based on the similarity of the paradigms (grammatical forms each
homonym possesses). E.g. match-matches: match – matches, such homonyms are called full.
Homonyms that coincide in one or two members (not in all members) of their paradigms are called
partial. E.g. to lie- lying-lied – lied : to lie-lying- lay-lain ; left : to leave-leaving-left-left.

5. Synonyms. Classifications of them. Sources of synonymy.

Synonyms are words having the same or nearly the same meaning as another in the language, as
happy, joyful, elated.
Synonymy is one of the most controversial points in linguistics. Roughly we may say that when two
or more different words are associated with the same or nearly the same denotative meaning, the
words are synonyms. Sometimes criterion of interchangeability has been applied to definition of
synonyms. Synonyms have been defined as words, which are interchangeable in at least some
contexts without any considerable changes in denotative meaning. Those synonyms that seem to be
interchangeable and are called total by Academician Vinogradov still differ in their distribution, use,
etc. e.g. cosmonaut is used in reference to European spacemen and astronaut – to American ones. Or
offer is followed by a noun while suggest – by a gerund. So the prevailing majority of synonyms are
partial. Synonyms are united into synonymous rows. In each row there is one word, which presents a
kind of center of the group of synonyms. Its semantic structure is usually simple. This is the dominant
synonym characterized by:
1) high frequency of usage;
2) broad combinability;
3) broad general meaning;
4) lack of connotations.
E.g. in the row: to look-to stare-to glare-to gaze-to peer-to peep-to glance-to glimpse-etc. the
dominant synonym is the word to look.
Synonyms can be classified as STYLISTIC and IDEOGRAPHIC. Stylistic synonyms differ in their
 stylistic connotations, e.g. father-parent-daddy; stomach-belly. Ideographic synonyms may differ in
the following connotations:
1) degree or intensity, e.g. to like-to admire –to love – to adore- to worship; to surprise – to astonish-
to amaze- to astound;
2) duration, e.g. to glance- to stare ; to say – to talk;
3) manner, e.g. to stagger – to trot – to pace – to march, etc.;
4) cause, e.g. to shiver –to shudder ; to blush – to redden;
5) emotive connotation, e.g. alone – lonely;
6) evaluative connotation, e.g. well-known – famous- celebrated- notorious, etc.
We can also single out contextual synonyms that are similar in meaning only under some specific
distributional conditions, e.g Go and buy some bread – Go and get some bread.
I cannot stand it any longer – I cannot bear it any longer. These words are not synonyms outside the
specified contexts.
SOURCES OF SYNONYMY.
1) Borrowings from other languages or from dialects and regional variants
e.g. to ask (native) – to question (French) – to interrogate (Latin)
girl – lass (Scottish), lake-loch (Scottish), wireless – radio (AmE);
2) Word-building:
a) conversion, e.g. a laugh (from to laugh) – laughter, to entame – to tame;
b) shortening, e.g. veteran –vet, refrigerator – fridge, to telephone – to phone;
3) Euphemisms, e.g. drunk – merry – elevated, lavatory – restroom, etc.;
4) Phraseology, e.g. naked – in one’s birthday suit; to die – to join the silent majority, to kick the
bucket, etc.

6. Antonyms in Modern English. Classifications of them.

Antonyms may be defined as two or more words of the same language belonging to the same part of
speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated
and often used together so that their denotative meanings render contradictory or contrary notions.
Contradictory notions are mutually opposed and deny each other, e.g. alive – not dead, illiterate – not
literate. Contrary notions are also mutually opposed but they are gradable, e.g. old and young are the most
distant poles on the scale: young – middle-aged- elderly-old or hot-warm-cool-cold.
Classification of antonyms is based on the way they are built. Root words form absolute antonyms
(having different roots), e.g. right-wrong, derivational antonyms are created by negative affixes added to
the same root, e.g. happy-unhappy, helpful-helpless.
In derivational antonyms morphological motivation is clear, there is no necessity in contexts containing
both members to prove the existence of derivational antonyms. The word unsuccessful presupposes the
existence of the word successful. But the patterns, though typical are not universal. Morphologically
similar formations may show different semantic relationships, e.g. disappoint is not the antonym to
appoint, to unman (to deprive of human qualities) is not the antonym of man (to furnish with personnel).
Another type of antonyms is contextual antonyms, i.e. words, which are contrasted in actual speech and
are not opposed outside certain contexts, e.g. Some people have much to live on but little to live for. On
and for are antonyms in this context.
 6. Semantic changes and their classification. Causes of semantic changes.
Semantic changes and their classification

1. Specialization, or narrowing of meaning, e.g. garage – a safe place, meat – any food;
2. Generalization, or widening of meaning, e.g. arrive – to land at a shore;
3. Elevation of meaning (getting better, going higher), e.g. queen (in O.E. – woman);
4. Degradation of meaning (getting worse, lower), e.g. a spinster – a woman that spins wool;
5. Transference of meaning. The name of one thing is used to name some other things.
Transference is further subdivided into metaphor, metonymy and euphemism.
a. Transference of meaning based on likeness is called a metaphor. Metaphors can be based on likeness of
form (a head of cabbage), of position (the foot of the mountain), function (Head of the Department), size,
quantity (ocean of troubles, storm of applause),etc. Sometimes a combination of several features makes
up the foundation for a metaphor (a leg of a table – function, position, shape). Metaphors may involve
transition from proper names to common ones, e.g. a Don Juan, Apollo, Vandals, Hooligans.
b. Transference of meaning based on associations of contiguity (being together) is called metonymy. We
can use the name of a container for the thing it contains (Will you have another cup?), instrument for the
agent (His pen knows no compromise), the place for the people who live or work there (Kharkov greets
the guests. The Kremlin agrees to the treaty), the name of a person for the things s/he made (He reads
Byron), the name of a part for the whole (Who’s the moustache?)
c. Transference of meaning dictated by social conventions, norms, rules of behavior is called euphemism.
A word or a word combination is used instead of the other word that is offensive, rude, or taboo.
e.g. to die: to perish, to pass away, to join the silent majority, to meet one’s maker, to be with the angels,
to cross the Great Divide, etc.

Causes of semantic changes may include linguistic and extra-linguistic ones.

The latter are connected with social, political, economic, cultural and scientific development e.g.
computer, space, feedback, bikini, villain, boor, etc.
The former embrace differentiation of synonyms (e.g. time and tide), borrowings (hound and dog),
preserving the old meaning in idioms (love token, token of respect), etc.

8. Derivation. Affixation. Classifications of affixes. Conversion as zero derivation.

Substantivation of adjectives.
Derivation is the origin of something, such as a word, from which another form has developed, or the
new form itself
Affixation is a way of forming new words by adding derivational affixes to the stem. Derivational affixes
are classified in a number of ways.
1. According to their position in a word affixes are divided into prefixes, which precede the root, suffixes,
which follow the root, and infixes inserted into the root (historically n in stand is an infix).
2. According to the degree of productivity affixes are divided into productive that help to form new words
nowadays and non-productive no longer used in word-formation at the present stage of language
development, e.g. –lock (as in the word wedlock).
3. According to their origin affixes are divided into native and borrowed. Native affixes are those, which
already existed in O.E. or were formed from O.E. words. A root morpheme in a compound word may
gradually develop into a suffix and become a bound form no longer homonymous with any Modern
English word. E.g. –dom (O.E. fate, power), -hood (O.E. state), etc. The most important native affixes
are: -d, -dom, -ed, -en, -fold, -ful, -hood, -ing, -ish, -less, -like, -let, -lock, -ly, -ness, -red,-ship, -some,-
teen, -ty, -th, -wise, -y.
Borrowed affixes are classified according to their origin: Latin (-able, -ible, -ant/ent), French (-age, -ance,
-ence, -ancy, -ency, -ard, -ate), Greek (-ist, -ism, -ite), etc. Affixes are borrowed only if a large number of
words with the same affix are borrowed, if both the meaning and the function of the affix are clear and if
the structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language. If all these
conditions are fulfilled, the foreign affix may even become productive and combine with native stems or
borrowed stems within the system of the English vocabulary. E.g. –able in laughable, unforgettable,
unforgivable. The English words balustrade, brigade, cascade are borrowed from French but the English
word blockade was coined by analogy from an English root with the borrowed suffix.
4. The next classification deals with suffixes and divides them according to the part of speech the words
they form belong to:
1) noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage, breakage), -ance/-ence (assistance, reference), -ant/-ent
(desinfectant, student), -dom (freedom, kingdom), -hood (widowhood, sisterhood), -ee (nominee, trainee,
employee), -er (teacher, writer), -ess (actress, lioness), -ing (building, moving), -ion (rebellion), -tion
(creation), -ation (explanation), -ism (heroism, criticism), -ist (novelist), -ment (government), -ness
(tenderness), -ship (scholarship), -ty (minority);
2) adjective-forming suffixes: -able (unbearable), -al (formal), -ant/ent (dependent), -ary
(revolutionary), -ate/ete (accurate, complete), -ful (delightful), -an (African), -ish (reddish, childish), -ive
(active), -less (useless), -ly (manly), -ous (curious), some (tiresome), -y (cloudy, dressy);
3) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -wards (northwards), -wise (likewise);
4) numeral-forming suffixes: -teen (fourteen), -ty (sixty), -th (seventh);
5) verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate), -er (twitter), -en (shorten), -fy (terrify), -ize (specialize), -ish
(establish).
5. As to their lexico-grammatical meanings suffixes can be further subdivided, for example, noun suffixes
into:
a) suffixes of abstract nouns: -dom, -hood, -ion, -ism, -ment, -ness.
b) suffixes of personal nouns which are emotionally neutral: -an(grammarian), -ent (student), -ant
(servant), -er (porter), -or (inspector), -ist (linguist), -ician (musician);
c) feminine suffixes as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes: -ess (actress, lioness, tigress, hostess), -ine
(heroine), -ette (cosmonette);
d) derogatory suffixes of personal nouns: -ard (drunkard), -ster (gangster), -ton (simpleton);
e) diminutive suffixes (used to name both persons and things): -y/ie (hanky, daddy, auntie, nightie),
-let(booklet), -ock (hillock), -ette (kitchenette).
In contrast to suffixes most prefixes do not radically change the basic lexico-grammatical meaning of the
stem but just modify it. So the prefixed derivative and its prototype usually belong to the same part of
speech. E.g. behave- misbehave, read – re-read, please – displease, grateful – ungrateful. Some prefixes
are used with words of one part of speech only, others – with several parts of speech, e.g. re- with verbs
and nouns, un- with adjectives, verbs and nouns. In some cases, however, prefixes may also change
general lexico-grammatical meaning and form words belonging to a different part of speech as compared
with the original word:
1) verb-forming prefixes be- (with adjective and noun stems), e.g. belittle, benumb, befriend, becloud,
behead; en-/em- (with adjective and noun stems), e.g. encamp, enable, enslave, encase, embed;
2) adjective-forming prefixes pre-, post-, non-, anti- (with noun stems): pre-war, post-war, anti-war, non-
party.
The meanings conveyed by prefixes are as follows:
1) negative or reversative: de-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, non-, un, anti- ; e.g. decentralize, disagree, impatient,
illiterate, irregular;
2) repetitive: re-; e.g. rearrange, remake, remarriage;
3) adverbial of size or degree: out-, over-, under-, super-; e.g. outdo, outnumber, overgrow, overfeed,
underestimate, superman; 4) adverbial of manner: mis-; e.g. misbehave, mistake;
5) adverbial of time: post-, pre-; e.g. post-mortem, postgraduate, prepay, pre-war;
6) adverbial of place: trans-, sub-, in-, out-, a-; e.g. transatlantic, subway, input, output, aboard.

Another type of derivation is conversion, or zero derivation. This is a process of coining a new word
belonging to a different part of speech without adding any derivative element to the original word. So the
basic form of the original word and that of the derived word are homonymous, e.g. Don’t forget to dust
the furniture.
As a type of word-building conversion exists in a lot of languages but in English it has developed
most intensely due to the lack of morphological signs indicating the part of speech a word belongs to, e.g.
home may be a noun (Home, sweet home), an adjective (home assignment), an adverb (go home), a verb
(A missile automatically homes the target).
Conversion is the predominant way of forming new verbs in Modern English. They may be
formed from nouns (to hand, to shoulder, to knee, to finger, to eye, to nose, etc.), from adjectives (to
busy, to slow), from adverbs (to down) and other parts of speech. Nouns may be formed from verbs (a
good catch, a short walk, a long drive), adverbs (ups and downs), etc.
A special case of conversion is substantivation of adjectives, i.e. conversion of adjectives into
nouns. The degree of substantivation may be full or partial. Fully substantivized adjectives share all the
characteristics of nouns: can be used in the singular and in the plural, in the common and possessive
cases, with the indefinite, definite or zero articles, e.g. a private, a group of privates, the private’s
uniform, privates’ duties. Words female, male, criminal, native, red, grown-up and some others belong to
the fully substantivated. Partially substantivated adjectives cannot add –s or ‘s, are always used with the
definite article and refer to a group of people, e.g. the blind, the dead, the wounded, the poor, etc.
 Most regularly conversion involves simple words but affixed and prefixed words may be
converted as well (though less commonly): commission- to commission. Conversion may be combined
with compounding, e.g. a drawback, a handout, a take-over, to pinpoint, to blacklist.

9. Compounding. Classifications of compound words. Criteria of

compounds.
Compounding is a way of forming new words by joining together two or more stems that occur in the
language as free forms (separate words). There are several classifications of compound words.
According to the type of stems we distinguish:
1) compounds consisting of simple stems, e.g. film-star, sun-beam;
2) compounds in which at least one of the stems is a derivative, e.g. chain-smoker, mill-owner;
3) compounds in which at least one of the stems is clipped (shortened), e.g. math-mistress, lab-test;
4) compounds in which at least one of the stems is a compound by itself, e.g. wastepaper-basket.
According to the way the stems are joined we distinguish:
1) compounds made by juxtaposition without any connecting elements, e.g. heartache, heart-beat, heart-
burn, heart-attack;
2) compounds with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element between the stems, e.g. speedometer,
handicraft, craftsman;
3) compounds with linking elements represented by prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns: son-in-law, up-
to-date, hide-and-seek, forget-me-not.
According to the semantic relations between the stems compounds are divided into endocentric and
exocentric. In endocentric compounds one of the stems is the main and the other describes, characterizes
it, serves to differentiate it from similar ones, e.g. a sun-beam (not moon-beam or torch-beam), text-book
(not exercise-book or note-book or reference book). The main component is also grammatically the most
important part which undergoes morphological changes: sunbeams, brothers-in-law, textbooks. In
exocentric compounds we cannot distinguish the main stem, the status of stems is equal, e.g. a killjoy.
According to their conformity to current grammatical patterns of the language, compounds are divided
into syntactic, which conform to the patterns and may be transformed into corresponding word
combinations, and asyntactic, which do not, e.g. syntactic: a sea-shore (a shore of the sea), bookselling
(selling books), a bookbinder (a person who binds books). Asyntactic: babysitting (not sitting babies),
bookmaker (not a person who makes books).
According to the degree of their idiometicity /motivation, compounds are divided into idiomatic and non-
idiomatic. Idiomatic compounds are different in meaning from the corresponding word combinations, e.g.
a blackboard is not necessarily black and may be not a board at all being made of plastic, linoleum, etc. In
non-idiomatic compounds the meaning is equal to the sum of the meanings of its components, e.g. text-
book, seagull.
Compound proper is a word the two parts of it are stems of notional words (*ice-cold(n+a), ill-
luck (a+n). Derivational compound is a word formed by compound stem and derivational affix ( blue-
eyed (a+n)+ed.
It is not always easy to differentiate a compound word from a word combination. There are
several criteria to help with this task. Unfortunately, no one type of criteria is normally sufficient for
establishing the status of a lexical unit, is relevant by itself. We need at least two of them to be sure.
1). Graphic criterion: solid or hyphenated spelling proves that the unit is a compound word.
However, English spelling is not consistent enough, e.g. airline, air-line, air line; textbook, phrase-book,
reference book.
2). Phonological criterion: compounds usually have a single stress on the first syllable: ice-cream,
blackboard (compare: a black board – each word is equally stressed). But the rule doesn’t hold with
adjectives which are always double-stressed (green-grey, snow-white), the stress may be logical (It’s an
express train, not a passenger train) or the stress may help to differentiate the meaning of compounds (e.g.
mankind).
 3). Semantic criterion: A compound expresses a single idea, which is not identical in meaning to
the sum of the meanings of its components in a free phrase (e.g. blackboard). But it cannot be applied to
clearly motivated compounds (e.g. sunrise) or to idiomatic phrases (e.g. it rains cats and dogs).
4). Syntactical criterion is based on comparing a compound and the phrase comprising the same
morphemes. E. g. black birds can be modified by very (very black birds) and it is impossible with the
compound blackbirds. However, the criterion cannot serve to distinguish compounds from set expressions
in which the words cannot be modified either: black market, black list (cannot say a very black list).
5). Morphological criteria include: a) formal integrity (e.g. shipwrecks may be wrecks ofa ship or
wreck of several ships or wrecks of several ships; window-cleaner does not clean just one window, the
same about cigar-smoker or lip-reading. The plural number present in the corresponding phrases is
neutralized in compounds.) But such examples are not numerous; b) connective elements (e.g. Anglo-
Saxon, craftsman). But there are very few words like that.
No criterion is sufficient by itself.

10. Shortening. Classification of shortened words. Abbreviations. Minor types

of word-building.
Shortening is a way of forming new words by clipping a part of their prototypes. The remaining part does
not usually change phonetically so it is sometimes necessary to change the spelling: mike (from
microphone), trank (from tranquilizer), dub (from double). The change of meaning may also take place:
a) shortened words are usually colloquial while their prototypes may be neutral (e.g. bike, mike, doc);
b) shortened words are as a rule monosemantic while their prototypes may be polysemantic
(e. g. to double has several meanings: 1) to increase twofold; 2) to multiply by two; 3) to add the same
note in the lower or higher octave; 4) to make another soundtrack of a film in a different language. The
shortened word to dub retains only the fourth meaning).
The correlation of a shortened word and its prototype may be as follows:
a) the curtailed form is a lexical variant or a synonym differing from the prototype stylistically or
emotionally (e.g. exam: examination, doc: doctor);
b) the connection can be established only etymologically, e.g. fan: fanatic, fancy: fantasy.
Unlike conversion shortening produces new words belonging to the same part of speech as their
prototypes. The bulk of shortened words is constituted by nouns. Verbs are hardly ever shortened (e.g. to
rev from revolve). Shortened adjectives are few and mostly reveal a combined effect of shortening and
affixation, e.g. comfy from comfortable, mizzy from miserable.
Shortened words are often homonymous with other shortened words, e.g. van (the short for caravan and
for vanguard), gym (gymnastics and gymnasium), vet (veterinary and veteran).
Classification of shortened words is based on the position of the clipped part. We distinguish:
1) final clipping (the end is cut off, the beginning of the prototype is retained), e.g. ad (advertisement), ed
(editor), coke (coca-cola);
2) initial clipping (the final part of the prototype is retained), e.g. story (history), phone (telephone),
drome (airdrome);
3) final and initial clipping combined, e.g. fridge (refrigerator), tec (detective), flu (influenza);
4) medial clipping (the central part of a word falls out), e.g. specs (spectacles), ma’am (madam), maths
(mathematics), fancy (fantasy).
Shortened words are opposed to shortened phrases, which result from a combined effect of clipping,
ellipsis and substantivization, e.g. weekly (weekly paper), finals (final exams), pub (public house).
Blending- formation of a new word with a distinctive meaning out of two or more other words
(smog=smoke+fog), hangry= hungry+angry)
Abbreviations are words formed by initial letters of some other words. Depending on the way they are
read abbreviations are divided into:
a) those preserving alphabetical reading, e.g. BBC, SOS, TV;
b) acronyms read as though they were ordinary English words, e.g. UNO, NATO, NOW.
A specific group is represented by Latin abbreviations which may be read:
a) alphabetically, e.g. a.m., p.m.
b) as corresponding Latin words, e.g.- exampli gratia, p.m. – post meridium, a.m.- ante meridium.
c) as corresponding English words, e.g.- for example, a.m. – in the morning, p.m.- in the afternoon.

Minor types of word-building.

1. Sound interchange.
It is a way of forming new words by changing some sound(s) in the root, e.g. food: feed, life: live, speak:
speech. It can be combined with affixation, e.g. strong: strength or with affixation and shift of stress, e.g.
democrat: democracy.
2. Distinctive stress.
It is a way of coining new words by changing the place of stress, e.g. import (n, v), conduct (n, v),
research (n, v in AmE).
3. Sound imitation.
It is a way of forming new words by imitating sounds associated with the objects or actions the words
denote, e.g. to splash, to giggle, to buzz, whisper, cuckoo, etc.
4. Back formation.
It is a way of coining new words by cutting a supposed or real suffix from existing words, e.g. to butle
(from butler), to beg (from beggar), to housekeep (from house-keeper), etc.

Історія англійської мови

1.The main periods in the development of English (general characteristics).
The main periods in the development of English (general characteristics).
There are 2 main classifications in the History of English. The first one is based on morphology, which was
suggested by Henry Sweet. He paid attention to the state of unstressed endings, and according to this he developed 3
periods:
The second classification is based on historical events.
1. 5 – 11 century – period of full endings; Old English Period.
2. 11 – 15 century – period of levelled endings Middle English Period;
3. 15 – nowadays – period of lost endings. – New English Period

Chronological limits. The historical events that determined them.

The second classification is based on historical events.
1. 5 – 11 century – Old English Period.
In the 5th century Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain, they possessed Runic alphabet. They were pagans (Tuesday – the
name of their god). Barbarians ruined previous culture. From that time English language started. In 7th century
Christianity was introduced. Also it’s time of introduction of the Latin alphabet. The next invaders were
Scandinavian. The distinct North Germanic speech of the Norsemen had great influence on English, most obviously
seen in the words that English has borrowed from this source. These include some very basic words such as take and
even grammatical words such as they. + (want, need, husband, ugly). The common Germanic base of the two
languages meant that there were still many similarities between Old English and the language of the invaders. 1400
place names in England have Scandinavian roots.
2. 11 – 15 century – Middle English Period.
In the course of what is called the Middle English period, the fairly rich inflectional system of Old English broke
down. It was replaced by what is broadly speaking, the same system English has today, which unlike Old English
makes very little use of distinctive word endings in the grammar of the language. 1066 – Norman Conquest. William
brought old French to Britain. It became official language (parliament, the rich). English was neglected and used by
the poor. Latin was used by Church. 10 000 words were adopted (French borrowings), 8 000 are still in use.
3. 15 – nowadays – New English Period (Early English Period -15-16 cen., Modern English Period). In the 15th
century English national language was formed. London dialect became the leading one. It combined southern and
east-midland dialects. During the medieval and early modern periods the influence of English spread throughout the
British Isles, and from the early seventeenth century onwards its influence began to be felt throughout the world.
The complex processes of exploration, colonization and overseas trade that characterized Britain’s external relations
for several centuries became agents for change in the English language. More recently still, English has become a
lingua franca, a global language, regularly used and understood by many nations for whom English is not their first
language.

The criterion of the state of endings and its importance for phonological and
morphological processes.
1. 5 – 11 century – period of full endings; Old English Period.
2. 11 – 15 century – period of levelled endings Middle English Period;
3. 15 – nowadays – period of lost endings. – New English Period

This classification is based on Morphology which was suggested by Henry Sweet.

He paid attention to the state of unstressed endings and according to this he
developed 3 periods.

2. The historical development of the English noun.

The historical development of the English noun.
The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but
gender was not a grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into
morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two members: singular and plural. The noun had four
cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative.
The Nominative can be defined as the case of the active agent, for it was the case of the subject mainly used with
verbs denoting activity; the Nom. could also indicate the subject characterized by a certain quality or state; could
serve as a predicative and as the case of address.
The Genitive case was primarily the case of nouns and pronouns serving as attributes to other nouns. The meanings
of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen.
Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated
with what is termed “partitive meaning” as in sum hund scipa ‘a hundred of ships’.
The Dative was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’
The Accusative case was the form that indicated a relationship to a verb. Being the direct object it denoted the
recipient of an action, the result of the action and other meanings.
There were 8 declensions: 4 strong (a, o, I, u, n), 3 minor (r, s, root).
- a-stem declension was the most important in the History of English because the 2 productive affixes of modern
English nouns “s” and “ ’s” go down to the paradigm of the a-stem declension.
- n-stem declension
- u-stem declension
- root-stem declension (i-mutation (the change of the root vowel) is characteristic to this declension.
- o-stem declension – only for feminine
- r-stem declension – denotes family relations
- s-stem declension – belong to children and cubs
- i-stem declension – names of tribes.
ME noun.
There remained only 2 cases: Nominative and Genitive. Declensions were unified and gradually most of the nouns
got the endings of a-stem declension. The role of prepositions grew more and more (to show the relation between
words in the sentence).
ENE noun.
In the NE Genitive case is known as possessive case and its meaning became narrower because it is used exclusively
with the nouns which denote living beings.
In the 18th century the apostrophe wasn’t reduced to denote the possessive case in spelling.
The category of number proved to be the most stable category of the noun.

3. The historical development of the English verb.

OE verb had 2 tenses – present and past. OE inherited the verb system from I.-E. Different conjugations: 2
main groups – weak and strong, also there were 2 numbers, 3 moods, 3 persons (in singular).
Strong conjugation
Strong conjugation included verbs which formed their past forms with the help of gradation (change of the root
vowel). They were not numerous, but very frequently used. They had 4 basic forms in OE:
1) the infinitive
2) the past singular
3) the past plural
4) the past participle.
There were 7 classes of strong verbs, different by the pattern of gradation (each class had its own variation of
the vowel change). The number of classes is greater nowadays.
Weak conjugation
These verbs form their past participle with the help of a dental suffix. In OE were 3 classes of weak verbs
slightly different by the form of the dental suffix and the stem vowel that joined this suffix to the root. These
weak verbs had 3 forms: 1) infinitive 2) preterite 3) participle II.
Mixed or preterite-present verb
They had vowel gradation in their present tense forms, corresponding to the vowel gradation of the strong
verbs their past was formed according to the pattern of weak verbs combined some characteristics from both
strong and weak verbs. Many of them survive as our modal verbs (can, shall, will, must).
There was a small group of irregular verbs teach (taught), write (wrote, written), go (went), be (am, are, is,
was, were).
Non-finite forms
2 non-finite forms: 2 infinitive, 2 participles. The infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Inflected
(dative) infinitive was used in the independent syntactic positions, mainly as the adverbial modifier of purpose.

Inflective infinitive was used in combinations with preterite-present verbs and other verbal collocations, the 2
infinitives were often but not always interchanging.
2 types of participles
Participle I had the ending –ende, it was declined according to the weak adjectival declensions. It might be
used both as predicate, attribute.
Participle II had a stem of its own. In strong verbs it was marked by a certain grade of the root vowel
interchange and by - en. In weak verbs the Participle II ended in –d or –t.
Participle II was declined as an adjective and also could be used in syntactic functions of attribute and
predicative.

All types of verbs which existed in OE (strong\weak) were preserved in ME. Non-finite forms have changed in
the direction from nominal to verbal parts of speech. They are no longer decline nor are they agreed with the
nouns. The infinitive loses the category of case and acquires a particle “to”. Participle I which has an active
meaning and expresses process of doing sth in ME changes its shape (ende-inde-inge).
Changes in various classes of ME verbs.
Strong verbs. The number of basic forms remained the same but due to the reduction of endings we may find
homonymy of forms.
Weak verbs. The number of weak verbs grows significantly in ME. Almost all the new born or borrowed verbs
became weak. The changes were phonetical. The productive weak type was formed by the verbs of a second
class and some verbs of the first class. The endings became ed and de. The irregular verbs still form a separate
group, though there were some differences.
The preterit-present verbs were grouped in the same way as in OE except that could function as auxiliaries for
the future and subjunctive mood. There were constant migration in these verbs, and then it stopped.
Several new categories developed on the basis of OE verbal phrases. This development gave to analytical
forms.
1) the category of voice: developed as a result of combination of bēon (to be)/ weorpan (to get, become) +
Participle II of transitive verbs – the opposition of (non) passive appeared.
2) the category of order: habban + Participle II of transitive verbs / bēon + Participle II of intransitive verbs -
the opposition of perfect/non-perfect developed.
3) Future tense forms: sculan/willan + infinitive. The analytical forms of future forms developed - the category
of tense became a 3 member opposition.
ENE changes:
The verb lost the ending of the infinitive, all the endings of the present tense but 3-person singular. All verb
except “to be” lost the distinction between the past tense singular and past tense plural.
Thus the 4 basic forms of strong forms were reduced to 3.The continuous form of the verb developed on the
basis of phrasal combination of the verb bēon + Participle I thus a new category developed (category of
aspect).
Gerund developed in the NE as a result of the verbal noun which ended in – ing and Participle I.
The Infinitive, Gerund and Participle have developed analytical perfect and passive forms. In addition to that
the Infinitive has also developed Continuous forms.

4. The historical background of Modern English spelling.

OE spelling was close to pronunciation.
All OE vowels were monofunctional (one letter – one sound).
In OE diphthongs were digraphs (2 letters).
In ME spelling changes were mostly caused by French: 4 letters went out of use, 6 letters were borrowed
from French. Most unstressed vowels were leveled and reduced to a sound [ ] denoted by e.
Four main groups of spelling changes:
1) Changes connected with loss endings after short ending. After the syllable with a long vowel the
ending e remained just to show the pronunciation of previous vowel. OE takon – Me taken
2) Changes connected with double consonants. In a lot of words double consonants preceding to final
weak [ ] became simplified. In some words double consonants remained, mostly they were ss, ff, ll, ck,
kk. The same consonants were doubled by analogy in other words. Medially all consonants were doubled
after a short vowel in order to show that this vowel was shot.
3) Changes connected with latinization of spelling (period of Renaissance) letters were not pronounced.
4) Changes connected with introduction of new digraphs ea, oa.
After 15th century no great changes in spelling can be found because all the changes in NE were on the
phonetic level.

OE Spelling

o based on phonetic principle;

o employed Latin characters;
o one letter = one sound;
Exceptions: ζ, f, s, ð (1 letter = 2 or more sounds).

ME Spelling

o based on conventional principle;

o more ambiguous and less stable (printing was not introduced yet and the
manuscripts contained numerous variants of spelling – practically each
scribe had its own way to spell the words);
o digraphs(2 letters = 1 sound) appear + 1 letter = several sounds, several
letters/combinations of letters = 1 sound (these were the deviations from
phonetic principle):

1 letter = several sounds several letters/combinations of letters = 1 soun

letter sounds letters sound

o [o], [u], [o:], [ǿ] g, dg, j [dζ]

c [s], [k] k, c, q [k]

g [g], [dζ]

u [u], [v]

NE Spelling

o based on conventional principle was preserved;

o new digraphs appeared (indicated borrowings from other languages) – ph,
ps, ch;
o spelling became fixed.

There reasons for such stabilisation were as follows:

o Introduction of Printing (1475)  one obligatory standard!

o Normalisation of the language (17th – 18th c.) (see Lecture 9) one
obligatory standard!

ModE Spelling

Modern English spelling reflects pronunciation of the 14th – 15th c.

Теоретична граматика

1 The noun. Its features and classification. The categories of number and
case.
The noun is one of the most numerous parts of speech, the lexico-grammatical meaning of which is
denoting "substance".
noun is the main nominative part of speech and the central nominative lexemic unit of language.
The noun can be defined as a part of speech that has the following features:
1) lexico-grammatical meaning of thingness or substance;
2) typical stem-building elements; the noun is characterized by a specific set of word-building
affixes and word-building models, which unmistakably mark a noun, among them: suffixes of the doer
(worker, naturalist, etc.), suffixes of abstract notions (laziness, rotation, security, elegance, etc.),
3) categories of number and case; (boy-boys), case (boy-boy’s),
4) syntactic functions (subject, object, attribute, adverbial modifier, part of the predicate).
5) The combinability is variable. They form left-hand connection with articles, some pronouns, most
adjectives, numerals, prepositions, other nouns but only left-hand connections make a feature of the noun
as a part of speech since most parts of speech have only right-hand connections with prepositions.
Classification:
proper/common,
countable/uncountable,
concrete/abstract,
animate/inanimate,
declinable Pete’s friend, sister’s copybook. the committee’s decision.
/indeclinable. Foreign words
Common nouns present a general name of anything belonging to a certain class of things, e.g.: river –
any river, boy – any boy, while the proper nouns have no generalized meaning; they serve as a label, a
nickname of a separate individual being or thing, e.g.: Mississippi, John, New York, etc.
On the basis of “form of existence” of the referents animate nouns are opposed to inanimate nouns, the
former denoting living beings (man, woman, dog), the latter denoting things and phenomena (tree, table).
On the basis of “personal quality” human animate nouns (person nouns), denoting human beings, or
persons, are opposed to non-human (animate and inanimate) nouns (non-person nouns), denoting all
the other referents. This lexico-semantic subdivision of nouns is traditionally overlooked in practical and
theoretical courses on grammar, but it is grammatically relevant because only human nouns in English
can distinguish masculine or feminine genders, e.g.: man – he, woman – she, while the non-human nouns,
both animate and inanimate, are substituted by the neuter gender pronoun ‘it’. The exceptions take place
only in cases of transposition of the noun from one group into another, e.g., in cases of personification,
e.g.: the sun - he, the moon - she, etc.
On the basis of “quantitative structure” of the referent countable (variable) nouns are opposed to
uncountable (invariable) nouns, the former denoting discrete, separate things which can be counted and
form discrete multitudes, e.g.: table – tables, the latter denoting either substances (sugar), or multitudes
as a whole (police), or abstract notions (if you cannot see, hear, taste, touch or smell something, and
then it is not a concrete noun. ) (anger) and some others entities. A concrete noun is a thing that you
can perceive through the five senses; sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch ( e.g. a mother).
The category of number.
The category of number is expressed by the paradigmatic opposition of two forms: the singular and the plural
The strong member in this opposition, the plural, is marked by special formal marks, the main of which is the
productive suffix –(e)s which exists in three allomorphs - [s], [z], [iz], e.g.: cats, boys, roses.
The category of case of nouns is the system of opposemes such as boy-boy’s showing the relations of the
noun to other words in speech. Case relations reflect the relations of the substances the nouns name to
other substances, actions, states, etc. in the world of reality. An English noun can have 2 case opposemes
at most. Some nouns have only 1 case opposeme and a lot of nouns don’t have case opposemes at all.
Those nouns that have the category of case are called declinable, those that don’t – indeclinable. The class
of declinable nouns is very limited, it comprises several groups:
1) animate nouns denoting persons and animals
2) nouns denoting time and distance
3) the names of countries and towns
4) the names of newspapers and nouns denoting different organizations
5) with the nouns ‘world, nation, country, city, town’
6) the nouns ‘ship, boat, car’
7) the nouns denoting plants
8) nouns used in the Genitive in idioms.
There are a lot of theories; not all linguists believe that there is a Genitive case.
1) positional case theory – case depends of the position of a noun in a sentence (N, G, D, A);
2) prepositional case theory – case relations are expressed with the help of prepositions and word order
3) limited case theory – Nominative and Genitive
4) theory of possessive post-position – this theory denied the existence of the morphological case in Eng.

2. The adjective. Its features and classification. The category of the degrees of
comparison.

The adjective as a word denoting the property of a substance.

The adjective expresses the categorial meaning of property of a substance, e.g.: hard work. That means that
semantically the adjective is a bound word of partial nominative value: it can not be used without a word denoting
the substance which it characterizes. Even in contexts where no substance is named, it is presupposed (implied) or
denoted by a substitutive word “one”, e.g.: Red is my favourite colour; The blouse is a bit small. Have you got a
bigger one?

The adjective is a part of speech that can be characterized by the following features:
1) lexico-grammatical meaning of property of a substance;
2) typical adjectival lexico-grammatical morphemes (-ful, -al, -less, -able, -ous, -some, -ible);
3) category of degrees of comparison;
4) combinability (right-hand: capable of, large house; left-hand: time immemorial);
5) syntactic functions (attribute, part of predicative).
Classification:
- qualitative and relative;
Relative adjectives are derived adjectives showing the relation between the phenomenon which is denoted by the modifying noun
and the phenomenon denoted by the stem of the adjective.
- comparable and non-comparable;
Comparables are qualitative adjectives that admit quantitative estimation.
There are some qualitative adjectives that don’t have the degrees of comparison (e.g. final, fixed, deaf, dead, pregnant). There are
some relative adjectives that have degrees (e.g. a purely grammatical topic).
The category of degrees of comparison.
Adjective - a describing word, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase
The category of comparison expresses the quantitative characteristics of the quality rendered by the adjective. Three
forms constitute this category: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree.
Synthetic and analytical forms of the degrees of comparison
 The basic form, known as the positive degree, has no special formal mark, e.g.: tall, beautiful; the comparative
degree is marked by two kinds of forms; synthetical forms with the suffix “-er” and analytical forms with the
auxiliary word more, e.g.: taller, more beautiful; the superlative degree is also formed either synthetically with
the help of the grammatical suffix “-est”, or analytically with the help of the auxiliary word most, e.g.: tallest,
most beautiful. Also, there are suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison, e.g.: bad – worse – worst.
3. The article. Functions of articles.

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following
examples:

After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.

The indefinite article

1.nominating *it nominates the thing

This is a table, I can see a table

2.. classifying

He is a student

Classification to a certain class or group.

3.numeric * one, one more, another

I cannot hear a word. There should be a second way out.

4 generalizing ( any typical member of class*

A giraffe has a long neck. An elephant has long ears.

4.Aspective* certain and peculiar

There was a sickness in her that made her cancel the meeting. He felt a certain tension between
the two ladies.

Definite article

1 Specifying function

The table is new

It singles out an object from a group of similar.

2 Generic
It refers the noun to the whole class of objects of the same kind.

The elephant is often used as means of transport. The cat was domesticated long ago

3 Restricting * specifying
 I want some milk. Bring me the milk from the fridge.

Zero article
1.nominating
I prefer to read poetry
Milk is useful for children.

4. The pronoun. Its features and classification.

Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.

Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun
stands).
The feature of pronouns as a class of words is that they are not united by any of the features used for part-
of-speech classification. What united them is the way they denote reality. Pronouns are words that serve
to denote substances, qualities, quantities etc. not by naming or describing them but by indicating them.
As words of the vocabulary, pronouns have extremely general meanings. Pronouns can be defined as
words whose meanings are very general and stable but whose meanings in speech are particular, variable
and relative with regard to the speaker and the situation of speech. Pronouns correlate with different parts
of speech which account for their not being united by any morphological categories or syntactic
functions.

classification.
1) personal – form the nucleus of the class, they indicate all persons and things from the POV of the
speaker. The idea of substitution shouldn’t be applied literary. Personal pronouns are believed to have
nominative and objective case (e.g. I – me, we – us). Some linguists suggest there are 3 cases: subjective,
objective and genitive.
Blokh is convinced that personal pronouns don’t have a category of case, instead he distinguishes 4
individual groups of pronouns, names them “nominative”, “objective”, “possessive” – “conjoined” (my)
and “absolute” (mine).
2) possessive – are usually treated as adjective-pronouns whereas in reality they are noun-pronouns in the
possessive case, e.g. her book – Mary’s book.
2 forms: conjoined and absolute.
One of the tendencies in ModE is the extensive use of conjoined possessive pronouns as noun specifiers
or noun determiners. Very often their possessive meaning is so weak that they could easily interchange
with the definite article. The meaning of the definite article is much more genitive.
3) reflexive – compound pronouns; the 2nd element “self” expresses anaphorical relations of the first
element; it shows that the 1st element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence.
4) demonstrative – include “this”, “these”, “that”, “those”, “such”, “(the) same”
“this”, “these” – the space and time close to the speaker;
“that”, “those” – time and space farther away from the speaker and the moment of speech;
“such”, “same” have no correlatives, they indicate objects and qualities by comparison with those pointed
by the speaker.
5) interrogative – the meaning that unites these pronouns is an enquiry about some object (“what”,
“who”), its properties (“whose”, “which”, “what”), place of some event (“where”), its time (“when”),
cause (“why”) and manner of existence (“how”).
“who”, “what” are used to distinguish persons and non-persons.
“who” – the only interrogative pronoun that has a case opposite “whom”.
6) connective – the pronouns “who”, “what”, “which”, “where”, “how”, “when”, “why” serve to connect
clauses in complex sentences. At the same time, they retain their meanings and functions of pro-nouns,
pro-adjectives and pro-adverbs and this combination of function is their feature.
Conjunctive pronouns introduce subject and predicative clauses. They present a combination of a
demonstrative meaning with that of a conjunction, e.g. What he knows is no longer a secret.
Relative pronouns are also used to introduce subordinate clauses. What makes them different from
conjunctive pronouns is that they serve to introduce attributive clauses and they are always correlated
with some antecedent in the principal clause. Both conjunctive and relative pronouns fulfil a double
syntactical function – used as a some part of subordinate clause and as a connective structural element at
the same time.
7) reciprocal – the group pronouns, include “each other” (2 persons) and “one another” (more than 2).
They serve to express mutuality. Share the noun case system. Are used anaphorically, usually with the
reference to the subject of the sentence which is always plural. Functions of objects and attributes.
8) indefinite – “some”, “any” and their components.
Can be pronouns like “somebody”, “something”, pro-adjectives, pro-numerals, pro-adverbs.
Compound indefinite pronouns ending in “one”, “body” and “thing” distinguish person and non-person,
share the noun case system.
9) negative – compound pronouns “nobody”, “nowhere”, “nothing”, “none”.
10) generalizing – include “every”, “each”, “all”, “everybody”, “everywhere”.
Uniting meaning (e.g. all) and discrete meaning (e.g. each, every).
11) quantitative – include “few”, “a few”, “little”, “a little”.
12) contrasting – make contrasting pairs with demonstrative pronouns, “other”, “another”, “the other”.

5.The verb. Its features and classification.

The verb as a notional word denoting process.
The verb is a notional part of speech that has the categorial meaning of dynamic process, or process developing in time,
including not only actions as such (to work, to build), but also states, forms of existence (to be, to become, to lie), various
types of attitude, feelings (to love, to appreciate), etc
The verb is a part of speech that can be characterized by the following features:
1) lexico-grammatical meaning of action, state, process;
2) typical stem-building suffixes (-ize, -en, -ify);
3) categories of aspect, tense, voice, correlation/order, mood, person, number;
4) combinability (both types with nouns and pronouns, predominantly right-hand combinability with adverbs);
5) syntactic function (predicate).
Classification:
1) finite-non-finite
2) transitive-intransitive
3) regular-irregular
Formal criteria (-ed or suppletivity).
4) notional-semi-notional
The majority is notional – they have full lexical meaning.
Can form a sentence alone, e.g. Answer.
Semi-notional verbs have very general “faded” lexical meaning.
Include link verbs (denote states or transitions, combine with adjectives) and modal verbs (denote attitude to
actions).
5) subjective-objective (divided upon their combinability with words denoting subjects and objects).
Objective verbs are associated with 2 nouns or noun equivalents denoting subject and object.
Subjective verbs are associated only with nouns denoting subject.
Objective verbs that are connected with their object verbs directly are called transitive, all other subjective and
objective verbs are intransitive.
e.g. He opened the door – objective transitive.
e.g. The door opened – subjective intransitive.
6) terminative-non-terminative (aspective nature of their lexical meanings)
Terminative verbs denote actions which cannot develop beyond a certain inherent limit, e.g. stop. Verbs that do not
have this limit are non-terminative, e.g. work, live, love, continue.
e.g. I’ve been working hard – non-terminative; The storm worked – terminative.

6.The verb. The category of voice, aspect, and mood.

The verb is a notional part of speech that has the categorial meaning of dynamic process, or process developing in
time, including not only actions as such (to work, to build), but also states, forms of existence (to be, to become, to
lie), various types of attitude, feelings (to love, to appreciate), etc
The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation
reflected in the syntactic structure of the sentence. Voice is a very specific verbal category: first, it does not reflect the
actual properties of the process denoted, but the speaker’s appraisal of it; the speaker chooses which of the participants
in the situation – the agent (the subject, the doer of the action) or the patient (the object, the receiver of the action, the
experiencer) – should be presented as the subject of the syntactic construction. Second, though it is expressed through
the morphological forms of the verb, voice is closely connected with the structural organization of the syntactic
construction: the use of passive or active forms of the verb involves the use of the passive or active syntactic
construction.

Opposition of active and passive forms of the verb.

The category of voice is expressed by the opposition of the passive and active forms of the verb; the active form
of the verb is the unmarked, weak member of the opposition, and the passive is the strong member marked by the
combination of the auxiliary verb to be (or the verbs to get, to become in colloquial speech) and participle II of the
notional verb. It denotes the action received or a state experienced by the referent of the subject of the syntactic
construction. Passive constructions are used when the agent is unknown or irrelevant, e.g.: He was killed during the war;
The cup has been broken.
The category of aspect in ModE is a system of 2-member opposeme like works-is working that shows the character of the
action that is whether the action is viewed in its development, progress (continuous aspect) or it is simply stated and its nature is
not specified (non-continuous aspect). The marked member denotes a particular action in progress while the unmarked leaves the
action unspecified.
Views:
1) aspect is interpreted as a category of semantics rather than a grammatical category;
2) aspect is not recognized at all;
3) aspect is blended with the category of tense and regarded as a part of the tense aspect system; 4) aspect and tense are
recognized as 2 distinct grammatical categories.
- terminate aspect is found in e.g. He went to town – completed action;
- ingressive aspect points to the beginning of the action, e.g. He began to speak;
- durative aspect is found in e.g. He still works here;
- iterative aspect would express a habit of characteristic behave, e.g. He would wait for her.
Some linguists treat continuous forms as the so-called progressive tense forms presenting actions as simultaneous with some
other actions or situations but it is quite obvious that the forms like “worked” and “was working” are not opposed as tense forms
(both refer to the past). On the other hand, the principle of mutual exclusiveness of categorial meanings does not allow for one
forms carrying more than one meaning of the same category. The terms like “present progressive tense” would be contradictory
suggesting that one form carries two tense meanings. Tense and aspect should be treated as two different grammatical categories.
Verbs that don’t have the category of aspect:
1) link verbs;
2) physical and meaning perception;
3) point action verbs
Practically any verb can be used in the aspect, e.g. She was not hating him anymore.
The category of aspect (continuous / non-continuous) and cases of its neutralization.
I. The first category is realized through the paradigmatic opposition of the continuous (progressive) forms and
the non-continuous (indefinite, simple) forms of the verb; this category can be called the category of development: I am
working.
II. The second aspective category is formed by the opposition of the perfect and the non-perfect forms of the
verb; this category can be called “the category of retrospective coordination”: I have done this work.
The neutralization of the category regularly takes place with unlimitive verbs, especially statal verbs like
to be, to have, verbs of sense perception, relation, etc., e.g.: I have a problem; I love you. Their indefinite forms are
used instead of the continuous for semantic reasons: statal verbs denote developing processes by their own meaning,
Since such cases are systemically fixed in English grammar. The neutralization of the category of development
can take place for a purely formal reason: to avoid the use of two ing-forms together; for example, no
continuous forms are used if there is a participial construction to follow, e.g.: He stood there staring at
me.

Indicative mood is more morphologically marked or developed.

Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to
reality from the speakers’ POV, that is whether the action is presented as a fact.
The majority of linguists consider 3 types: Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive. The meanings of the 3
moods are distinguished not by the opposition of individual verbal forms but by the opposition of system
of forms each mood has.
One of the most important differences between the Indicative Mood and the other is that the meaning of
tense doesn’t go with the meanings of Subjunctive and Imperative (no category of tense). The Imperative
and Subjunctive moods represent the action not as real but as desired or imagined and the notions of real
time are neglected.
The Indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. : She helped me Only in the system of the Indicative
mood all the verbal categories are realized. Semantically the Indicative mood is a fact mood, it presents
an action as a fact of reality and conveys minimum personal attitude to the fact.
The Subjunctive Mood represents an action as a non-fact, as something imaginary, desirable, problematic,
contrary to reality. The system of the Subjunctive mood is still not stable. The verbal forms like “be”,
“have”, “go”, “do” etc. which were originally forms of the present tense subjunctive mood are now
seldom used in colloquial English. They have become archaic and survived in poetry, official documents
and certain set expressions, e.g. suffice it to say.
The former past tense subjunctive like “did”, “read”, “went” has lost its past meaning and its forms are
used to denote an action not preceding the moment of speech, e.g. if I knew.
The new analytical forms with “should” have replaced the former present subjunctive in colloquial
speech. Some new elements have come into the system of the Subjunctive mood, e.g. in OE the
Subjunctive mood system did not contain any person opposemes, they were introduced later together with
“should” and “would”. With the loss of –en suffix in plural, the Subjunctive mood system lost all number
opposemes in ME. At present such opposemes are being introduced together with “was” as opposed
“were”, e.g. you’d be glad if I were/was dead.
The Subjunctive mood system of ModE uses those verbal forms which express a past tense meaning in
the Indicative mood system, e.g. worked-had worked, since these forms are not opposed to the present
tense and future tense verbal forms, they do not convey any tense meaning. What unites these forms is the
meaning of unreality as opposed to the meaning of reality common to all the Indicative mood verbal
forms.
Since the Subjunctive mood has no tense opposemes, it uses extensively order opposemes.
The perfect forms are used to express an action imagined as prior to some other action or event. The non-
perfect forms do not express priority, the action they denote may be thought of as simultaneous with some
event or even following it.
The Imperative Mood represents an action as a command, urging, request addressed to one’s interlocutor.
It is a direct expression of one’s will, therefore it’s much more subjective as the Indicative mood and its
modal meaning is very strong. Morphologically it’s the least developed mood. In fact, the verbal forms
like “read”, “say”, “do” are the only verbal forms used in the system of Imperative mood. The continuous
and passive are very rare, e.g. be searching for the sensation.
All the Imperative mood verbal forms are united by the meaning of 2 nd person because it is always to his
interlocutor that the speaker addresses his or her order or request. This fact makes it unnecessary to use
the subject “you” with predicate verbs in the Imperative mood. Sometimes it can be used for emphasis,
e.g. don’t you go.
Some linguists believe that ModE possesses analytical forms of the Imperative mood for the 1 st and 3rd
person built up with the help of the semantically weak unstressed “let”, e.g. let him come. They believe
that “let” loses its lexical meaning.

7. Non-finite forms of the verb. Their features.

Non-finite forms of the verb, the infinitive, the gerund, participle I (present participle) and
participle II (past participle), are otherwise called “verbals”, or “verbids”. The first category is
realized through the paradigmatic opposition of the continuous (progressive) forms and the non-
continuous (indefinite, simple) forms  of the verb; The second aspective category is formed by
the opposition of the perfect  and the non-perfect forms of the verb; this category can be called
“the category of retrospective coordination”. 
Both aspective categories have a verbid representation, the continuous expressing the same
categorial meaning of development and the perfect expressing the meaning of retrospective
coordination, cf.: It was pleasant to be driving the car again; Having finished their coffee, they
went out to the porch; She was believed to have been feeling unwell for some time.

The verbal features of verbids are as follows:

 their grammatical meaning is basically processual;

 like finites, they have aspect and voice forms;
 they can express predication in specific semi-predicative constructions.
The non-verbal features of verbids are as follows:

 they do not denote pure processes, but present them as specific kinds of substances and
properties;
 they have no tense or mood forms;
 they never function as independent predicates;

There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking),
participle I (taking), participle II (taken). These forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal
features. The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can be used as
part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.) Lexically non-finites
do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between the two types of forms lies
in the fact that non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to that expressed by
the finite verb. Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the
categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have morphological features of
non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial. In the sphere of syntax,
however, non-finites possess both verbal and non-verbal features. Their non
verbal character reveals itself in their syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund
perform the main syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and
predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; participle II as
attribute and predicative.
 8. Types of phrases and their classification.
A phrase is any syntactically organized group of words. It is characterized by the following features:
1) the semantics of a phrase is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components, it is a complex
combination of the lexical meanings of the elements combined and is determined by the
following factors:
- the semantics of components and their order, e.g. beer keg – keg beer;
- the interrelations between the meanings of the components (semantic dependence) – the components can
be the same but the relations between them can be different, e.g. a fruit salad – a
fruit knife;
2) according to the ways in which phrases are used and organized 2 types are distinguished (L.
Bloomfield):
- exocentric;
- endocentric.
Phrases that belong to the same form-class as one or both of its components are endocentric. All the
grammatical functions of the endocentric phrase can be fulfilled by 1 or both of its
components which can be substituted for a whole phrase. The phrase that doesn’t belong to any of the
form-classes is exocentric. The classification is based on the function of the phrase in
a larger structure and does not take into account its inner arrangement.
e.g. Poor John ran away – endocentric. John and Mary ran away – endocentric. Poor John ran away –
exocentric.
3) as to the character of the syntactic arrangement between the immediate constituent components - 3
groups:
- subordinate
In terms of grammatical organization subordinate phrases are binary structures in which one of the
components is a syntactically leading element of the phrase. No matter how complicated
the structure may be, it can always be divided into 2 constituents: one functioning as center (nucleus) and
another functioning as modifier (adjunct). Modifiers serve to describe, qualify,
complete, specify, extend or affect the meaning, e.g. summer holiday. Subordinate phrases can be either
regressive or progressive. In regressive subordinate phrases the modifiers are to the
left of the head, and in progressive the modifiers are to the right of the head. There are also subordinate
phrases in which the head is framed from the both sides, e.g. a folded sheet of paper.
- coordinate
Coordinate phrases consist of 2 or more syntactically equivalent components joined in a cluster which
functions as a single unit. The units so joined can be any of the parts of speech or
more complex structures taking part in grammatical organizations. The joining can be accomplished
either with the help of conjunctions or with the help of word-order and intonation, e.g.
John and Mary.
- predicative (nexus phrase)
Predicative or nexus phrases comprise 2 interdependent constituents both participating in expressing
predicativity, that is the relation of the content of the utterance to the situation of speech.
They can be of various kinds, e.g. predicative phrases with a finite verb, infinitival, objective predicative,
etc.

9.The sentence, its features. Classifications of sentences.

The sentence as a language sign is characterized by 3 aspects: structure, semantics, pragmatics.
Pragmatically, the sentence is the smallest unit of speech communication.
Semantically, the sentence denotes a certain situation which is actualized (referred to reality). As a
syntactic phenomenon, it is called predicativity and is formed by the categories of tense and mood.
Structurally, sentences are based on certain patterns, the number of which in each language is definite and
specific.
The sentence can be defined as the basic syntactical unit used in the acts of speech communication,
characterized by predicativity and realizing a certain structural pattern. The three aspects of the sentence
determine three bases for sentence classification according to their structure, semantic and pragmatic
properties.
The structural classification depends on the character of a sentence’s predicativity. In as much as
sentences differ as to the way of their reference to their content or reality, they have definite structural
features. Types:
1. Declarative sentences assert or deny something, e.g. I don’t know this. I agree with you.
2. Interrogative sentences ask a question. They can be divided into:
a) sentences requiring to express a certain thought, to confirm or negate what has been asked by the
speaker, e.g. Isn’t it funny? – Rather.
Formal characteristics – the absence of interrogative pronouns and specific rising intonation;
b) sentences requiring additional information about the thing asked. Such sentences show what info is
required and may refer to any part of the sentence, e.g. What did you mean?
Formal characteristics – the use of interrogative pronouns and falling tone.
3. Imperative sentences express requests which in different contexts rage from categorical orders to
commands and entreaties. The necessary meaning is signaled by the context and intonation.
From the POV of their grammatical structure, sentences can be:
1) simple and composite. The difference between the simple sentence and the composite sentence is in the
fact that the former contains only 1 subject-predicate unit and the latter – more than 1. Composites are
divided into compound and complex. The difference between the compound and the complex sentence is
in the relations between the clauses that constitute them;
2) complete and incomplete (elliptical). Complete and incomplete sentences are distinguished by the
presence or absence of word-forms in the principal positions of two-member sentence. In a complete
sentence, both the principal positions are filled with word-forms. In an incomplete sentence, one or both
of the main positions are not filled but they can be easily restored.
There are several types of elliptical sentences in English:
- without the word-forms in the subject position;
- the position of the subject and part of the predicate is not filled;
- part of the predicate position is not filled;
- in the predicate and subject positions;
- without word-forms in the predicate position;
3) two-member (double nucleus) and one-member (single nucleus).

10.The predicate. Its classification.

The predicate denotes an action or property of the person or thing expressed by a subject.

Predicates are classified according to their structure into:

- simple (expressed by one notional verb, e.g. I study German)
- compound (expressed more than 1 verb, e.g. you must study well)

According to their morphological composition (according to what part of speech the predicate is
expressed by):
- verbal (expressed by a verb)
- nominal (expressed by a noun, an adjective, a pronoun or a numeral).
Thus, 4 types are distinguished:
1) simple verbal predicate, e.g. I study Spanish;
2) simple nominal predicate, e.g. She, jealous, he, a gentleman; → the meaning of incompatibility of
what is expressed by the subject and the predicate);
3) compound verbal predicate;
- compound verbal phasal predicate – consists of a phasal verb (denotes a certain phase of an action) +
infinitive/gerund.
e.g. She started crying with joy. The orchestra ceased playing;
- compound verbal modal predicate – consists of a modal verb + infinitive;
e.g. You could have done it. You can’t speak Spanish;
- compound verbal predicate of double orientation;
e.g. The plane is reported (state) to have landed (action);
4) compound nominal predicate – consists of a link verb (denotes states or transitions to states,
combines with adjectives) and a predicative.
e.g. It’s getting dark.
According to Khaimovich & Rogovskaya, there are some other types of predicates:
- Phraseological predicate – comprises a noun with the meaning of an action and a transitive verb.
e.g. He gave a laugh. They had a smoke. They paid a visit. – momentary action of a short duration;
- Contaminative predicate (verbal-nominal) – has the features of a simple verbal predicate and those of
a compound nominal predicate.
e.g. The Moon rose red (=when the Moon rose, it was red). She married young (=when she got married,
she was young).

Стилістика
1.Types of functional styles. General classification.
The term “functional styles” is used to denote a system of interrelated language means which serves a
particular aim of communication.
1 Official style is represented in all kinds of official documents and papers. It is the most conservative
one. It preserves cast iron forms of structuring and uses syntactical constructions and words long known
as archaic and not observed anywhere else. The main function of OS is to reach an understanding or
agreement between the parts involved. All emotiveness and subjective modality are completely banned
out of this style. Genres: socio polit, diplomatic , military, commercial documents.
Lexical features
1 stylistically neutral and bookish vocabulary.
2 use of terminology e.g. testimony свидетельские показания
4 conventional and archaic forms and words ilk kind
5 special clichés provided that
Syntactical level
1use of passive and participial constructions
2use of lengthy sentences
3 conjunctions and double conjunctions
Compositional features
1 subdivision into paragraphs
Impersonal style, unemotional
2. Scientific style is found in such genres as articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and
academic publications. It is employed in professional communication. Function is to give information
/precision
/intelligibility
/ logical cohesion.
Lexical features
+Extensive use of bookish words
+ numerous neologisms
+ restricted usage of emotive coloring, interjections
Syntactical features
+strict paragraphing
 +passive voice, impersonal structures
Compositional features
+ formulae
+ tables
+ diagrams
3. Media style is further subdivided into publicist proper covering such genres as essay, feature article,
broadcasting, sports commentary, advertising, public speeches and newspaper information. Political,
ideological, ethical, social beliefs and statements are mainly expressed in the written form which was
called publicist. Function is persuasion directed at influencing the reader in accordance with the
argumentation of the author.
Genres: public speeches interviews talk shows reality shows
Features
+ a blend of logical reasoning reflecting the objective state of things
+ a strong subjectivity reflecting the author's personal feelings and emotions.
Lexical features
Learned words
Abbreviations
clichés
+Syntactic structure depends on genre and form
Usage of stylistic devices depends on genre
4. Colloquial style : literary colloquial and familiar colloquial—immediate communication, personal
correspondence and diaries. The communicative situation is spontaneous and informal.
5. Belles lettres style embraces numerous and versatile genres of creative writing. Function is aesthetic
It is emotive prose, poetry and drama. There are also informative and persuasive functions. Using
unlimited amount of stylistic devices. There is well-developed syntactic structure. Syntactic structure
depends on the author's individual manner and intentions, genres and form.
6. Newspaper style is the style where special graphical means are used to attract the reader’s attention.
Main functions are information, communication, to evaluate and discuss the facts expressed in brief
items. Genres: newspaper and magazine articles editorials and reviews.
Lexical features:
Emotionally colored words
Words of elevated and bookish character
Metaphor, alliteration and irony
Syntactical features
Gerund and participle and infinitive
Omission of articles
 2. Epithets and their classification.

Epithets are words, phrases or clauses which in attributive or adverbial use disclose the individual
emotionally colored attitude of the author to the object they describe. Sometimes we can deal with fixed
epithets  a valiant youth. , they are often repeated. The structure and semantics of epithets are extremely
variable, semantically they should be differentiated in 2 main groups of epithets. The biggest of them is
called emotive proper "gorgeous, nasty , magnificent .these epithets serve to convey the emotional
evaluation of the object by the speaker. The second group is called figurative epithets.*The pick headed
fool, a dreamlike experience* It is formed by metaphors, metonymies and similes expressed by
adjectives. The majority of epithets is expressed by adjectives and adverbs, nouns (they are used either as
exclamatory sentence for utterances or as postpositive attributes Richard of the lion heart). Epithets are
used singly, in pairs, in chains, in two-steps structures and as phrase attributes. Pairs of epithets are
represented by 2 epithets joined by a conjuction or asyndetically*wonderful and incomparable beauty.
Chains of epithets you are a scolding, unjust abusive aggravating bad old creature present a group of
homogenous attributes varying in number from 3 up to 20 and even more. Not all attributes should be
considered as epithets.. IF AN ATTRIBUTE DESCRIBES THE OBJECTIVE STATE OF THING WE
DEAL WITH A LOGICAL ATTRIBUTE, NOT EPITHET.
Two-step epithets are those ones which describe the qualification of the object and the qualification of the
qualification. [adjective + adjective + n] a move if you dare expression

From the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:

1) Simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animal panic.

2) Compound: e.g. apple - faced man;

3) Sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it – yourself attitude.

4) Reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an of phrase: e.g. “a shadow of

a smile”.

Semantically epithets according to I.R.Galperin are:

1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the
objects they describe: dark forest; careful attention.

2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and
which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

According to another classification of epithets (V.A.Kucharenko):

2) Evaluative epithets: “a pompously majestic female”

3) Descriptive epithets: “an unnaturally mild day”

4) Metaphorical epithets: “the smiling sun”

5) Metonymical epithets: “the sleepless pillow”

3. Figures of quality. Metaphor and personification. Similes and their

characteristics. Figures of inequality. Hyperbole, zeugma.
Metaphor – words or phrases denoting one object are transferred to the others in order to indicate
resemblance between them. [Henry was a lion on a battlefield – A(human being) is in terms of
B(animal)]. The clouds sailed across the sky. Metaphors which are used for the first time can be fresh
and original but if they are repeated they gradually lose their expressiveness and become just another
entry into the dictionary. E.g. The leg of the chair
Personification – animals or things are given human characteristics. A is in terms of B where B is human
being. Money is the only one friend that I can count on.
Similes and their characteristics.
Simile – a comparison between 2 things in one or more aspect. As…as, like, as if/as though, as like etc.
[She is like a mother – logical, not simile; she is like a rose – simile]. A is like B. Object A and B should
belong to semantic classes of people and flowers. Similies in which the link between their parts is
expressed by notional verbs to resemble to seem to remember to recollect to look like to appear are called
disguised similies. She resembles an old cat.
. Hyperbole – deliberate exaggeration, larger then life affect [haven’t seen you for thousand
years].
. Zeugma – two adjectives or adverbs apply to one noun but cover different ideas. [time and her
aunt moved slowly].

4.Figures of contrast. Oxymoron, irony, antithesis. Figures of identity. Periphrasis,

euphemism.
Oxymoron– the use of epithet that contradicts the phrase it describes [hot snow].
Irony the contextual evaluative meaning is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. Mocking.
[A piece of good luck – poor test results].
Antithesis contrast of ideas. [Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven].
Periphrasis description instead of name, roundabout way of speaking. [products of fighting –
wounded].
euphemism. a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word. [to pass away]
5. Types of repetition. Syntactic stylistic devices.
Repetition is a major rhetorical strategy for producing emphasis, clarity or emotional effect. Repetition
is recurrence of the same word or phrase for 2 or more times. According to the place which repeated
unit occupies in the sentence, repetition classifies several types:
 Anaphora – the beginning of some successive sentences or clauses is repeated. [a…, a…, a….]
The main stylistic function of anaphora is not to emphasize the repeated unit but to create a background
for the non-repeated unit which through its novelty becomes foregrounded.
 Epiphora – the end of some successive sentences or clauses is repeated. […a, …a, …a.] The
function of epiphora is to add stress to the final words of the sentence.
 Framing – the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end of the sentence forming the
frame for non-repeated unit. [a…a] Function is to elucidate the notion mentioned in the beginng of the
sentence.
 Catch – the end of the sentence is repeated in the beginning of the successive sentence. […
a, a…] Function – specification of the semantic occurs here, but on a more modest level.
 Chain – presents several catch repetitions. […a, a…b, b…] Function – smoothly developing
logical reasoning.
 Ordinary – has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various
positions. […a, …a…, a…] It emphasizes both the logical and the emotional meanings of the repeated
unit.
 Successive – stream of closely following each other repeated units. […a, a, a…] The most
emphatic type of repetition which signifies the pick of emotions of the speaker.
The following SD is closely connected with repetition and accompanies every type of it. It is called
parallel structure – purely syntactical type of repetition in which we deal with a repetition of structure,
not of lexical items. It produces a very strong effect foregrounding at the same time logical, rhythmic,
emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance.

Syntactic stylistic devices.

Abrupt changes – from short to long sentences.
We should take into account the structure of the sentence. If a sentence opens with a main clause which
is followed by dependent units such structure is called “loose”. It’s less emphatic and is highly
characteristic of an informal style.
In periodic sentences subordinate elements preceed the main clause and the main idea is delayed until
the end of the sentence. Thus holding the reader’s interest until the final word. It promotes energy and
concentrates the sentence strength in a single point.
Balanced sentences are made up of 2 parts that are roughly equal in length importance and grammatical
structure. Beyond highlighting specific words and ideas, a balanced structure has a deeper significance.
It expresses the way of looking at the world and implies a sense of objectivity, control and proportion.
 6. Types of narration. Compositional forms of narration.
Types of narration
The point of view of a literary work is the perspective from which the reader views the action and
character.
First person narrator – the story is told by “I” who may be a main character of the story or a minor
character.
The choice of the 1st person can bring the reader very close to the personality of the narrator and can
also make events seem more vivid because they are described by an eye-witness. Of course, the 1 st
person narrator is supposed to be an ordinary person, they can’t know what’s going on inside the heads
of other characters or know all the facts of a situation, but this limited knowledge has its advantages; it’s
often used in novels about growing up where the psychological development of the narrator is the
central element. It’s also common choice for detective novels where the detective narrator is trying to
find something out and suspense and surprise depend on gradual revelation of facts.
Third person narrator – the story is told by a narrator outside the story, who refers to the characters by
their names or “he/she/they”. Within this point of view 3 rd person narrator they are differentiated 2
main points of view – omniscient and the limited point of view.
The omniscient point of view means that the narrator knows everything about the events and the
characters and knows all the thoughts and motives, but how much of all this to reveal to the reader is
the narrator’s choice. Extremes: omniscient objective and omniscient intrusive.
An intrusive narrator explicitly tells the reader things commenting on the characters and explaining
events.
An objective narrator simply shows things without commenting or explaining (more room for creativity).
They are more like a cameraman.
The limited point of view means that although the narrator tells the story in the 3 rd person he confides
himself to the impressions and feelings of one character in the novel. They present only one point of
view of events. The effect of this can be similar to that created by a first person narrator. Although the
narrator still has greater liberty to move around in time space.
Multiple narrators and multiple points of view – experimenting with various effects produced by
different narrators and points of view is the most significant development in the modern novel. It
reflects typically the 21st century’s concerns. They are: the complex nature of reality (life is not a
 fairytale), the decline of belief in absolute truth , a fascination with psychological analysis (Z. Freud is the
founder of this analysis), a belief in the importance of individual experience and opinion.

The traditional  -compositional forms are narration about events (narrative proper),

description, dialogue, argumentation.
I. Narrative proper exists as:
 The author’s narrative supplies the reader with direct information about the author’s preferences
and objections, beliefs and contradictions, i.e. serves the major source of shaping up the author’s image
(the unfolding of the plot is mainly concentrated here, personages are given characteristics, the time and
the place of action are also described here, as the author sees them). 
 The figural narrative situation has no visible narrator and presents events
through a character’s perspective. The entrusted narrative takes place when the
author’s function is entrusted to one of the personages. It makes the writing more
plausible, impresses with the effect of authenticity of the described events. Thus, in H.
Melville’s Moby Dick (1851) the entrusted narrative is presented in the first person
singular. 
Represented inner speech conveys feelings and thoughts of the character that remain
unuttered. Study how Susan Hill represents the inner speech in A Bit of Singing and
Dancing (1973): “She thought, I can stay out here just as long as I like. I can do anything I
choose, anything at all, for now I am answerable only to myself”
II. Description gives a mental picture of something that can be seen or perceived through
the other senses. Description is used to depict scenery (landscape, seascape,
townscape), premises (interior), appearance (portrait), things of material world.
Description is static, it may be detailed and direct or impressionistic, giving few but
striking details. The order of writing description can be spatial or the order of importance.
The emphasis is usually laid on attributes. Pay attention to the vivid description given by
Tony Parsons in Man and Boy (1999): 
III. III. Dialogue (the neutral scenic narrative) reports the conversation of two or more
people; the speaker’s exact words are reported or imagined. Dialogue brings the action
nearer to the reader, makes it seem more swift and intense. Dialogue is the main
component of drama, but it also can be seen in the emotive prose. Writers use dialogues
to give their readers a sense of immediacy and involvement. In the story An Encounter
with an Interviewer (1874) Mark Twain resorts to dialogue to show a parody on the
American press
IV. V. Argumentation can be in the form of expository writing (or reasoning) and lyrical
digressions. In XVIII-XIX century prose authors could appear as a commentators and
 moralists, philosophers and publicists. In A Tale of Two Cities (1859) Dickens speculates
how the noble goals of freedom fighters became the crazed bloodbath called the Reign
of Terror: “

Методика навчання англійської мови

1.Aims, objectives and content of teaching foreign languages at school.

Aim is an overall target to be achieved by learners by the end of a course or part of the course
(мета)
• To develop students’ understanding of the tense forms in English
Objective is a specific learning target that helps achieve lesson aims, e.g. Learners will be able
to understand the gist of the text. (задачa уроку)
• Students will be able to describe the weather in English
Outcome is a statement (often in a lesson plan or syllabus) of what a learner is expected to know
or be able to do at the end of a lesson or course; it shapes lesson activities and guides the content
of assessment (результат учіння)
Aims, or goals are broad, while planning a lesson they are realized through concrete objectives
set by the teacher and written in the lesson plan, to enable learners speak about their hobbies and
pastimes using verbs in Present simple. Mind that it’s much better to think of learning objectives,
not teaching objectives.
The content of any teaching curriculum is described in the syllabus, i.e. what is to be learned
within a definite period of time, e.g. a year. The content involves:
 Teaching material arranged in topics, situations, areas of communication
 Teaching language skills: listening skills, reading skills, writing skills, oral skills
 Teaching linguistic material: phonetical, vocabulary, grammar, spelling
 Teaching speech patterns of different levels ( phrase, sentence, sentence unity, text)
 Teaching cultural knowledge and skills of intercultural communication
 Developing learning and communicative strategies.
2. Methodological classification of English sounds and its relevance for developing
articulation skills. Activities to develop pronunciation skills.
Methodological classification of sounds is based on the contrast to the sounds of the native language. All
sounds are divided methodologically into 3 groups:
Groups of sounds Methods of practicing the sounds
1 The sounds similar in articulation to the No additional explanation and long practice
sounds of native speech is needed
2 The sounds which seem similar to the Explanation of the articulation is necessary,
sounds of the native language but differ demonstration and practice are needed.
from them in some essential aspects Most mistakes learners make in articulating
these sounds.
3 The sounds which have no analogues in Detailed explanation of the articulation
the native language should be given, long practice is necessary.
New articulation basis is to be formed and
it may cause a lot of difficulties.

Ways of introducing new sounds:

1. Imitation.
2. Description of articulation (the way it is formed in the mouth).
3. Comparison with the sound of the mother tongue.

Step-by-step procedure:
1. Introduce a new sound in connected speech.
2. Pronounce it clearly in a word 4 times then separately.
3. Explain the articulation of the introduced sound. Show the difference between English
sound and the one in the mother tongue.
4. Pupils pronounce the sound after the teacher, first in chorus in a low voice, then –
individually in a loud voice.
5. Pupils pronounce words, pairs of words, phrases with the new sound.

The relevance of teaching pronunciation depends on two main reasons:

1) to help the students understand the spoken English they hear;
2) to help make their own speech more comprehensible and meaningful to others.
 A set of phonetic exercises
I. Receptive and recognizing exercises – develop students’ ability to discriminate sounds and
sequences (listen and differentiate sounds or intonation patterns).
 Recognition by giving signals (raising your hands when you hear the sound, stressed
word, stressed syllable etc), by counting how many times you hear the sound, by signaling
that you hear English (not Ukrainian) sounds etc.
 Differentiation of sounds (minimal contrasting pairs)
 Identification of sounds (in the stream of speech)
II. Receptive and reproductive exercises – develop students’ pronunciation skills, i.e. their ability to
articulate English sounds correctly and to combine sounds into words, phrases, utterances easily
enough to be able to speak English. They are based on “listen and imitate” technique.
 Listen and repeat
 Agree or disagree
 Short answers
 Substitution
 Transformation (especially, when mastering intonation patterns, e.g. change these orders
into requests)
 On your own (e.g. There are some toys on my table. You can get them if you ask for them
with proper intonation).

3. Approaches to teaching grammar. Grammar practice activities.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING GRAMMAR:

1. Grammar translation approach is a method of foreign language teaching, which makes use of translation and
grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. In the 18 th - 19th centuries it was used to teach
“modern” languages the way classical languages were taught (Latin, Greek). The best-known representatives of
that approach were Maydinguer (Germany) and Ollendorf (GB). In tsarist Russia it was the main method till 1917.
Grammar translation method later developed into textual translation method (Hamilton in GB). It emphasized
reading rather than the ability to communicate in a language. Language was viewed as a system of rules; a learner
was viewed as an empty mug to be filled with knowledge and a teacher as a jug full of that knowledge. The
language structures were regarded as mainly the same in all the languages. A typical lesson consisted of the
presentation of a grammar rule, a study of lists of vocabulary, a text for reading and translating, and a translation
exercise. Context and meaning were often completely ignored, mistakes should be immediately corrected and
learners punished for their carelessness.
Positive results: Language analysis, analogies with the native language, translation exercises, teaching
culture through literature, writing essays.
Negative results: languages were not taught as a means of communication, pronunciation aspect was
totally ignored, form and meaning were separated most of the time, original texts from classical literature were
very difficult for understanding.

2. Direct method appeared in the middle of the 19 th century as reaction to GT and had the following features: only
the target language should be used in class; meanings should be communicated “directly” by associating speech
forms with actions, objects, mime, gestures and situations; reading and writing should be taught only after
speaking; grammar should be taught inductively, i.e. starting with examples, teaching through imitating the model
supplied by the teacher. Numerous repetitions were compulsory. Mistakes were viewed negatively, though a
learner was given a chance to self-correct. Later some modifications of the direct method appeared, e.g. oral
method by Harold Palmer. The scholar believed that for several months’ learners have to listen to spoken
language, to immerse in the speech flow without speaking themselves, then speak and some moths later start
reading short texts.
Positive results: techniques of teaching spoken language (e.g. substitution tables, question and answer
exercises, dialogue models), ways of introducing new words, using pronunciation exercises, using the principle of
continuity and gradation in the system of exercises (from easy to more difficult).
Negative results: teaching grammar only inductively, complete exclusion of the native language in class,
more difficult texts that contained some unfamiliar words and not just the material that had been practiced orally,
were ignored.

3.Audio-lingual approach was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s in the USA and many other countries (Charles
Fries, Robert Lado). It was based on structural linguistics (language is viewed as a system of signs, the written
language as an artificial and inaccurate way of fixing the sound form) and behavioral psychology (stimulus –
response - reinforcement). It emphasized the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing; used
dialogues and drills; discouraged use of the mother tongue in the classroom; often made use of contrastive
analysis.
Positive results: based on scientific data, attempts to develop communicative skills, worked out a new
system of exercises (substitution, transformation, expansion, completion, sentence combining), using native
speakers and experts in linguistics.
Negative results: exaggerated the importance of structures, vocabulary was often ignored, functional
aspect was not taken into account, the mechanic repetition of structures was often boring, learner’s native
language was excluded.

4. Audio-visual approach is another one that is based on behaviorism and views on language as a system of signs
for communication. It also teachers speaking and listening before reading and writing; does not use the mother
tongue in the classroom; uses recorded dialogues with film-strip picture sequences to present language items; uses
drills to teach basic grammar and vocabulary. It was developed in France in the 1950s (its best known
representatives are Guberina (Yugoslavia), Rivenc, Michea, Gugenheim (France). and was based on the belief that
language is learned through communication in situations.
Positive results: the language of real communication was used in teaching, situations were introduced
alongside with the language material, and visual aids were amply used.
Negative results: importance of mechanic practice was exaggerated, and learner’s native language was
excluded.

5. Communicative approach emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. It has
been developed by British applied linguists in the 1960s. (Henry Widdowson, Brumfit, Littlewood). In Russia Y.I.
Passov developed their ideas.
The main principles and features of CLT:
 language as a means of communication;
 teaching language in a meaningful context (specifying notions, functions, functional exponents based on
the learners’ needs analysis);
 prioritising meaning over form;
 focus on skills;
 task-based learning;
 focus on sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence as well as linguistic competence;
 the correlation between accuracy and fluency(viewed not in abstract but in context), the role of grammar;
 errors as learning steps;
 the changed roles of a teacher and a learner.

Roles of a teacher according to the communicative approach:

 an organizer
 a manager
 a model
 an informant
 a monitor
 a councilor
 a facilitator
 a communication partner
  a life-long learner
Roles of a learner:
 the subject of the educational process
 a communication partner
 an active participant
 an autonomous learner.
Positive results: learning foreign language as a means for communication, attempts to communicate are
encouraged from the very beginning, communicative competence is the desired goal, anything which helps the
learner is accepted, contrastive analysis and translation included.
Negative results: accuracy may suffer, the teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will
use and often cannot preplan the course of the lesson, a number of mistakes during pair and group work may
remain uncorrected and not explained, a teacher needs more preparation for the lesson and heavier work during
it.

6. Innovative approaches.
I. Comprehension-based approaches:
a) Total Physical Response (TPR) (James Asher). The teacher gives commands for single actions and
learners physically respond. TPR offers a route to the acquisition of comprehension skills, which underlie the
natural acquisition of communication skills;
b) The Natural approach. Learners of any age are able to take in speech input if most of it is
comprehensible through pictures, actions. It respects the initial pre-production period, expecting speech to emerge
not from artificial practice but from motivated language use. Attention is paid to interpersonal and personal
negotiation. Fluency is often achieved at the cost of accuracy.
II. Production Based Learning:
Silent Way of Learning (Galeb Gattegno). The main principle – teaching should be subordinated to
learning. The teacher doesn’t speak much, his verbal input is restricted to minimum. Verbal output is elicited from
the learners with the aid of “scatter charts” of words and affixes, rods. There is no praise or criticism, the teacher
corrects and guides by means of gestures and silent lip movement. The atmosphere promotes cooperation and
support.
III Humanistic and Phycho-suggestive approaches:
a) Community Language Learning (Curran) stresses the importance of treating the learners as individual
human beings and requires the teacher to be a sympathetic counselor, guide, friend rather than an authority and
instructor. It places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings and their reactions to language learning. Learners
say something they want to talk about, in their native language, the teacher translates learners’ sentences into the
foreign language, and the learner then repeats the phrase to other members of the group.
b) Suggestopedia was developed by Lozanov (Bulgaria). It makes use of dialogues, situations, music, visuals,
images and relaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective and to make maximum use of the
brain’s capacity to combine the conscious and the unconscious for learning. All these promote learning
superconductivity, a perfect state of learning receptiveness enabling learners to process massive input into intake
with no forgetting. This method was used for developing intensive learning methods by G. Kitaygorodskaya and
others.

Deductive and inductive approaches. Their advantages and drawbacks.

 Deductive Approach (The deductive approach is the most traditional method of grammar teaching.
Basically, the teacher explains the rule, and then has the students practice some examples. If a teacher
was teaching comparatives using this method, adjectives would be given and translated into the students’
first language. The teacher would explain how the adjectives change when comparing and show a few
examples. The teacher would then have the students practice in pairs while checking that they
understand.
Advantages: it is easy and familiar. It creates conditions for more exact understanding by all the learners, it can
help to overcome mother-tongue interference;
students aren’t as focused on remembering what words mean or what the rule is because it is explicitly laid out for
them.
Disadvantages: Many students are used to learning passively in this way. Also, students can be sure that they
understand the rule as they were told it in their own language. It’s easier to forget, because the student didn’t
need to put the mental energy into memorizing it initially. Also, as it’s not as engaging, it’s easy for the students to
lose focus and mentally drift off. The teacher doesn’t speak with the students fluently, so they won’t be able to
explain the grammar. If the teacher does a long grammatical explanation, there is a good chance that the students
will get confused. Either way, this makes lengthy grammatical explanations a chancy enterprise.
 Inductive Approach (There are a lot of similarities between the inductive approach and the non-explicit
approach. For the inductive approach, rules are likewise discovered and not directly discussed. Instead,
students learn the rules through examples and testing them out. If a teacher was trying to teach how to
change regular verbs into the simple past, they could put six verbs on the board and show how they are
changed from present to the past by writing sample sentences and getting the students to repeat. Once
the teacher thinks the students get it, the teacher can ask students to try and change additional verbs into
the past. While the student may not be 100% sure, they will probably successfully add -ed at the end of
the word and other grammatical features (e.g. ‘y’ to an ‘i’, doubling the final consonant when appropriate,
etc.) as long as the teacher has given enough examples.)
Advantages: As a learner, this approach keeps your brain active as you try to figure out how the grammar works.
When using this approach, the teacher will notice students asking questions, not necessarily directly, but by giving
examples to test their theories. The teacher can then correct errors when appropriate or, if students don’t ask
questions to solidify the rule in their mind, the teacher can give examples of incorrect sentences and make sure to
show why they are wrong.
Disadvantages: It takes more time to prepare for, and it takes up more class time. That said, as you get used to
using this method, the amount of time will decrease. In fact, if you’ve taught a specific grammar point a number of
times before, it will likely come to you quite naturally.

Approaches:
1) deductive (PPP: presentation, practice, production);
2) inductive (MMM: meeting the new language, manipulating the new language, making the new language their
own);

Grammar practice activities.

Receptive and receptive-reproductive semi-controlled activities and some non-communicative drills make up a
system of activities used for developing grammar competence.
1) receptive activities:
- recognition (e.g. read the text and copy out);
- differentiation;
- identification (e.g. read the sentences and complete the table);
- matching (e.g. structure – function);
- multiple choice according to the context;
- checking comprehension of grammar structures (e.g. interpret the meaning);
2) receptive-reproductive activities:
- imitation;
- substitution;
- questions and answers;
- transformation;
- completing sentences;
- combining sentences;
- using the grammar item in one’s own sentence;
- using the grammar item in one’s own utterance.

4. Ways of presenting vocabulary. Activities for developing vocabulary skills.

I. Ways of presenting vocabulary
Here we speak about the same PPP model or MMM model as in teaching grammar. Historically, four different
approaches to teaching vocabulary have been used:
 1) Intuitive: the meaning of a word is revealed directly without addressing the native language, practicing is
done through imitation, numerous repetitions, production takes place in the conditions similar to natural
ones.
2) Cognitive and comparative: both word meaning and form are explained, translation and comparison with
learners’ mother tongue are used, drills are mainly suggested, production is limited to pedagogic tasks.
3) Functional: meaning and function are inferred from context, the conditions are created for motivated use of
vocabulary units, acquisition of form, meaning and distribution takes place in interconnection, practicing
presupposes learners’ own choice and collocation of words, semi-controlled activities and communicative
tasks are used.
4) Intensive: numerous presentations of a great number of vocabulary units in polylogues, both translation
and monolingual ways of explaining the word meaning are used, practicing is done in meaningful context,
imitation takes place with the help of paralinguistic means, production – in guided communication, role
plays etc.
Nowadays methodologists use mainly functional approach, though some elements of other approaches may be
applied if appropriate.
Ways of presenting vocabulary differ. The choice depends on the nature of the vocabulary unit (concrete,
abstract, can show visually or can’t, belongs to reproductive or receptive vocabulary, has native language
equivalents or not etc), school stage (primary, secondary, senior), learners’ age, the level of their competence etc.
The best way is usually time-saving and reliable, several ways may be combined if appropriate.
Ways of presentation are divided into:
□ those that use mother-tongue:
- translation of a word;
- translation of the whole sentences;
- explanation or definition in the native language;
□ those that don’t use (subdivided into visual and monolingual):
Visual ways of presenting vocabulary include demonstration of objects, pictures, gestures, actions, miming etc.
Monolingual ways consist of presenting words with the help of:
 context, a situational sentence that illustrates the word meaning;
 contrasting the vocabulary unit to familiar antonyms and sometimes synonyms;
 definition (describing a new unit with the help of familiar ones);
 explanation in English.
For better retention combined (bilingual) ways of presenting vocabulary are often used and different ways to
help students acquire vocabulary:
- word cards (quantity depends on the age);
- scales (e.g. 2 poles – subjects);
- Venn diagram – represents 2 or more overlapping circles (e.g. topic “relatives”);
- charts and different tables – help to learn and understand.

At the stage of practicing drills and semi-controlled activities are used. Learners perform actions in
stereotyped situations.
At the stage of production learners use newly acquired vocabulary units in their speech in various situations
according to the communicative intention or understand oral and written texts where new vocabulary items
are used.

Activities for developing vocabulary skills.

1. Activities for practicing vocabulary

Drills (non-communicative exercises)

 Imitation of words, collocations, clichés, set expressions
 Word-building analysis
 Grouping the words
 Supplying hyponyms to a hyperonym (superordinate)
 Odd man out
 Gap filling (sentence level)
 Matching
 Mind maps

2. Activities for developing receptive lexical skills:

 Reading vocabulary units aloud

 Matching a unit to its dictionary form and finding out its meaning in this very collocation;
 Filling in gaps in the text
 Sentence completion
 Choosing some units from the text
 Deducing the meaning of words from their stem-building elements.

3. Activities for developing reproductive lexical skills:

 Imitation of the speech pattern

 Answering alternative questions
 Substitution
 Utterance completion
 Utterance expansion
 Answering questions of different types
 Using vocabulary units in learners’ own sentences
 Combining sentences into a monologue or a dialogue utterance
 Using vocabulary units in mini-texts.
The final activities are usually some communicative tasks.
Developing lexical skills learners simultaneously master some lexical knowledge that will provide for
developing lexical awareness, i.e. understanding the differences between the two vocabulary systems.

4. Stages in teaching listening. Activities for developing listening skills.

 I. Stages of teaching listening.
There are three main stages of teaching listening: pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening.
Pre-listening stage is used for:
 Eliminating language or content difficulties that may be caused by listening to the soundtrack
 tuning the learners in: helping to anticipate, to predict the text content by its headline,
illustrations, key words etc
 motivating learners to listen: giving a purpose, a definite task.
During while-listening stage students practice in one kind of listening: listening for gist (main idea, main facts,
global understanding), listening for obtaining some specific information (e.g. from some pragmatic text) and
listening for detail (maximum of precise and complete understanding).
Post-listening stage presupposes checking learners’ level of understanding in different ways and using the
information from the text to develop other skills (speaking or writing).
There are three main stages of teaching listening: pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening.

Activities used at the pre-listening stage:

 asking questions on the text topic

 predicting text content using headlines, key words, pictures
 doing phonetic, vocabulary and grammar exercises (e.g. differentiation of minimal pairs;
differentiation of the grammar function and meaning of lexico-grammatical homonyms, The
brakes of the car are very good. The driver brakes very often etc)

Activities used at the while-listening stage:

 ordering the pictures;

 completing the picture;
 matching texts with titles;
 matching texts to the pictures;
 follow the route;
 labeling;
 gap filling;
 true/false statements;
 listing (things, events, characters)
 multiple choice (global understanding)

Activities used at the post-listening stage:

 true/false (understanding details)

 multiple choice (understanding details)
 identifying relations between speakers;
 inferring attitudes;
 expanding the list
 questions-and-answers

6. Factors that influence listening comprehension. Difficulties in teaching listening

and the ways of overcoming them.
It is not so easy to comprehend authentic oral speech. Difficulties are usually divided into three categories:

1) subjective listener’s difficulties;

 2) objective linguistic difficulties;
3) objective difficulties caused by the environment.

Subjective listener’s difficulties include:

 ability to focus, to concentrate

 motivation
 auditory memory;
 flexibility of thinking
 speed of reaction;
 ability to transfer from one logical operation to another
 tiredness
 health etc

Objective linguistic difficulties include:

 phonetic difficulties (underdeveloped skills of sound identification and differentiation, intonation,

logical stress; changes of words and sounds in speech, like reduction, assimilation etc)
 lexical difficulties (unfamiliar words, words in indirect meaning, idioms, polysemantic words,
homonyms, paronyms, ‘false translator’s friends’ etc)
 grammatical difficulties (long sentences, complex structures, unusual word order, grammatical
homonyms, e. g. his or he’s etc)
 type and genre of text (e.g. monologue is easier than a dialogue, narration is easier than
argumentation etc)

Objective difficulties caused by the environment include:

 tempo of speech (140/150 words a minute)

 the number of presentations (2)
 duration of the recording (primary school - 1 min, basic – 2-3 min, senior – 3-5 min)
 quality of the soundtrack (loudness, background noises etc)
 live or recorded
 other environmental conditions (stuffy room, outside noise, after PT etc)

In order to overcome problems the teacher can provide some visual support during listening, may do
some grammar or vocabulary activities before listening, should tune in to the topic of the listening, provide a real
purpose for listening, divide the text into manageable fragments, make longer pauses between the parts of the
text, play again the part that causes greater difficulties etc. Audiotexts should be interesting for learners,
correspond to their age, life and learning experience, have a simple and logical composition (no flashbacks), some
extra elements (repetitions, rhetorical questions, phatic words, pauses and pause fillers etc).

Factors that influence listening comprehension

The level of listening comprehension depends on the learners’ intellectual abilities
development: anticipation, critical evaluation of the information they listen to, ability to analyze, classify
and systematize received information etc.

Receptive phonological, grammar and vocabulary skills are also important.

Knowledge includes linguistic knowledge, socio-cultural, pragmatic, socio-linguistic background

knowledge (e.g. knowledge about communicative behavior of native speakers, addresses sir, so cannot
be both teenagers).
 We cannot ignore affective sphere: learners’ motivation is of paramount importance (thirteen or
thirty drops – your life may be at risk).

Listening comprehension refers to oral speech, communication can be direct or indirect

(through some devices: radio, disc, video, computer etc) It is reactive (not the initial step in
communication). It is receptive (we receive information). It is internal by its character (takes place in
listener’s mind) and results in understanding expressed verbally or by a non-verbal reaction.

7. Real-life reading strategies (skimming, scanning, intensive, extensive

reading).
Teaching reading presupposes developing learners’ reading strategies: what we do and in what sequence, how
quickly, what is the aim etc. In fact, there are about 50 of them, and it’s no wonder, since we read different texts
in different ways. It depends mainly on our aim and the kind of text. So it is very important to set certain tasks
before reading, for the learners have some definite purpose to read and to choose the appropriate reading
strategy. Usually a reader combines several strategies, e.g. predicting, noticing and understanding cohesive
devices, guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words from content etc. According to the strategy that dominates,
there are 4 main types of reading:

1) skimming – looking through the text quickly to get the main idea and to decide whether it is worth reading;
the speed is about 1.5 pages per minute;
2) scanning – looking through the text to find a particular piece of information, useful when reading pragmatic
texts, often used in assessment;
3) intensive reading – reading text in order to understand 100% of information, accuracy oriented
The tempo is 50-60 words per minute, texts are usually shorter than for skimming and scanning but are usually
more complicated as to their content and language material. These texts can be authentic, abridged and adapted.
They should be of different types and genres;
4) extensive reading – reading longer texts for pleasure, fluency oriented, involves global understanding, not a
quick type of reading (includes home-reading, additional materials).

8. Stages in teaching reading at school (aims and procedures). Activities for

developing reading skills.
The aims of teaching reading:
- at the end of the primary school children should have competence of reading at A1 level; that is they should be able to read both
silently and aloud short texts which contain familiar material and understand short easy texts where they can guess the meaning
of unfamiliar words (about 300 printed characters);
- basic school leavers should have their comprehension in reading developed at A2 level; texts about 800 characters long, texts
that contain unfamiliar words whose meaning they can guess by context, by word-building analysis, by analogy with mother-
tongue, by pictures and find the necessary information in the text;
- senior school children are supposed to have competence at B1/B1+ level; texts are to contain at least 1900 printed characters,
they should be of different formats and genres, texts should contain intercultural information, should be scientifically-sound and
prove a reliable source.

Stages of teaching reading and types of activities used at them

The type and the communicative aim of reading predetermine the number and kinds of activities. But irrespective
of that, teaching reading includes 3 stages: pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading.

At the pre-reading stage the teacher tunes learners in, may inform them of some facts from the life of the author
or from history, biology, ecology, etc depending on the kind of text and its topic and the type of reading learners
are going to be engaged in. The teacher may elicit from learners what they know about the author or topic, what
other books by that author they have read etc. All that work should motivate learners to read the forthcoming
text, trigger their interest.
Pre-reading stage is also used to facilitate further reading, to eliminate some difficulties: phonetic (personal
names, geographic names may be written down on the board and practiced), grammar (some exercises be done,
analysis or translation of some difficult structures can take place), vocabulary (some words that belong to learners’
potential vocabulary can be suggested for guessing their meaning etc). Students may be asked to predict the
content of the text or the topic by the headline to the text. With intensive reading the number of pre-text activities
is the greatest, with scanning – the smallest.

At the while-reading stage learners get the task or tasks to perform (so the aim of reading is set), read the text
silently during a limited period of time and do the task(s). Depending on the type of reading the tasks may include
finding answers to the questions, true-false statements, filling in the table, matching titles to paragraphs, ordering
paragraphs etc.

At the post-reading stage learners perform some activities checking their comprehension and use the information
inferred from the text in other skill developing activities (speaking, writing). Comprehension is checked with the
help of question and answering work, multiple choice, completion of sentences, matching (e.g. characters to
opinions), etc. Learners can make up a plan of the text, retell it orally or in a written form, write an argumentative
lesson, take part in the discussion of the problems touched upon etc. Certainly, the character of activities depends
on the type of reading and the level of comprehension it presupposes. You cannot check understanding of details
in case of skimming, for instance.

Activities for developing reading skills.

1) pre-reading stage:
- motivating exercises;
- phonetic exercises;
- grammar exercises;
- vocabulary exercises;
- prediction activities;
2) while-reading stage:
- finding answers to questions;
- true/false;
- filling in the table;
- matching titles to paragraphs;
- ordering paragraphs;
- inserting sentences;
3) post-reading stage:
- questions and answers;
- multiple choice;
- completing sentences;
- matching.
9.Different approaches to teaching dialogue speech. Types of activities.
There are two main approaches to teaching dialogue speech: inductive and deductive.
Inductive approach is bottom-up processing: learners get acquainted with separate remarks first and then
proceed to mastering the dialogue as a whole. The approach is based on the assumption that mastering elements
gradually leads to using them in dialogues of learners’ own. The teaching model includes the following stages:
 presentation (the teacher reads the whole dialogue, then separate remarks and students say them after
him mastering pronunciation and intonation);
 explanation (the teacher reads the dialogue again and comments on its content, the meaning of new
words and grammar structures writing them down on the board);
 practice (learners role-play the dialogue, answer the teacher’s questions, do vocabulary and grammar
activities);
 development (production) (learners act out the dialogue, then produce a dialogue of their own by
analogy and perform communicative tasks on the basis of the material learnt).
 As their home assignment, learners are to learn the dialogue by heart, make analogous dialogues,
transform the dialogue into a monologue and perform other tasks.
Deductive approach is top-down processing which presupposes comprehending the content of the whole
dialogue first and mastering separate remarks then. Understanding takes place not through the teacher’s
comments and explanations but through guessing by context and using their previous learning experience. This
way is considered optimal for teaching standard, typical dialogues.
The model includes the following stages:
 presentation (learners listen to the teacher reading the dialogue or to recording and try to comprehend it.
Then students read the dialogue);
 practice (learners role-play the dialogue, the teacher checks understanding by asking questions, activities
to master the new material are done);
 development (production) (learners act out the dialogue, the teacher checks the level of comprehension
by asking questions, learners make up dialogues by analogy, act them out etc).
Each way has its advantages and disadvantages. Inductive approach presupposes conscious and practical
mastering the new material. But controlled activities prevail and it is often difficult to proceed to more creative
communicative tasks. Deductive approach emphasizes intuitive, autonomous and more creative mastering the
material by guesses etc. The dialogues learned by heart make up a stable basis for dialogues of learners’ own. But
it is impossible to learn by heart a lot of dialogues, moreover, learners have different abilities for memorization. So
both approaches do not contradict but rather complement each other.

Activities to develop speech interaction.

Preparatory stage: imitation, substitution, transformation, answering questions, asking questions, informing etc.
These activities can be done in different modes of interaction: whole class mode, T-L, L-T, L-L.
Examples:
 say that you are interested in this too.
 Say that your tastes differ from mine (and I’m interested in musical comedy).
 You are tourists and I’m your guide. Say what you are interested in and I’ll suggest places to visit.
Mastering unities and mini-dialogues: working in pairs (practically the same activities)
Mastering different types of dialogues: in pairs, groups or role-plays. Communicative situation is given but only
natural support (announcements, TV programmes, train timetables, maps, pictures etc) can be provided.
Examples:
1. You are a British travel agency representative. You are in Ukraine now and talk to a rep from a Ukrainian
agency to agree on a cultural programme for a group of British tourists during their stay in Kiev.
2. You are a representative of a Ukrainian agency. Find out what British tourists’ tastes are. Suggest visiting some
theatres. Find out if the tourists know Ukrainian or Russian as your choice will depend on that.
3. You are a salesman at a book-shop in Scotland. Greet the customer, find out their literary tastes and languages
they read in.
4. You are a Ukrainian on a trip to Scotland. It’s difficult to make your choice in a bookshop. Ask the bookshop
salesman for a piece of advice.
5. We have some foreign visitors at our school. They are present at our discussion club meeting. The topic is:
“What are the best ways to spend days off”. Exchange your opinions and give arguments trying to persuade
others.
 A widely used activity is a group role-play. This is an activity when learners play some roles in a set
situation. It is aimed at developing communicative skills in the conditions imitating real life communication
and is based on the principles of group work, practical usefulness, competition, maximum participation of
every learner, and creativity.
There are the following types of role-plays: 1) (depending on the character of learners’ actions) imitative,
creative, competitive; 2) (depending on the level of task complexity and duration of the play) controlled role-
play (the roles, plot and separate remarks are given), semi-controlled role-play (the description of the roles
and the plot), free role-play (only the topic and roles are suggested) and small-scale role-play (only some
episode is acted out).
Any role-play includes the following stages:
 Preparatory (in class and at home): the topic is selected, illustrative and problematic situations are
defined, role cards for all participants are prepared, the composition of players is defined and the
distribution of roles takes place, any necessary cues are given. Rules of the play are worked out. For
learners preparation includes finding some extra information, reading the prepared materials, revision of
the necessary language material and preparing necessary props.
 Explanation (optional, may take place during the previous stage): explanation of rules and distribution of
roles.
 Role-play (may be in pairs, in small groups and in whole-class mode)
 Assessment and feedback. May take place immediately after the game or be delayed till the next lesson.
Together with their teacher learners analyse the play, sum it up, exchange impressions, analyse mistakes
and suggest variants of correcting them and improving the role-play.

Dialogues contain different dialogue unities consisting of different interconnected remarks: statement +
statement; statement + question; statement + urge; statement + exclamation; question + statement; question
+ question; question + urge; question + exclamation etc (15 types of remarks). Types of dialogues:

1) information exchange (may be unilateral, i.e. one partner asks questions, clarifies something, displays
initiative, or mutual );
2) planning actions together (coming to an agreement as to realizing some intentions);
3) exchange of impressions or opinions (both interlocutors are active in expressing their opinions, supplying
arguments and agreeing or disagreeing to their partner’s point of view);
4) discussion ( interlocutors try to work out some solution, persuade each other of something; to come to
certain conclusion);
5) ritual dialogues, or etiquette dialogues (greeting, parting, getting acquainted, apologizing, expressing
gratitude etc according to linguocultural norms).

10. Different approaches to teaching monologue speech. Types of activities.

Types of monologues and approaches to teaching them
Three main types:
1) monologue description (e.g. “describe something as…”);
2) monologue narration (e.g. journalist’s questions);
3) monologue reflection (e.g. “prove that… has pros/cons).
Approaches:
1) top-down – monologue is based on a certain text;
2) bottom-up – skills are developed without the text support, monologues are produced independently.

Stages:
 1) connecting sentences into periods which express one complete idea (the teacher begins – the
learners continue, descriptions);
2) producing mini-monologues with verbal support (substitution, mind-maps, key words, plans); with
visual support (pictures, slides, maps, objects);
3) producing different functional types of monologues, up to 20-25 sentences (communicative
productive activities with natural support if necessary, spontaneous and prepared monologues;
retelling).

Types of speaking activities.

Activities To Promote Speaking

 Discussions. After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. ...
 Role Play. One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. ...
 Simulations. ...
 Information Gap. ...
 Brainstorming. ...
 Storytelling. ...
 Interviews. ...
 Story Completion
 Reporting
 Playing Cards
 Picture Describing
 Find the Difference

11. Different approaches to teaching writing. Types and genres of writing. Types
of activities.

Types and genres of writing.

Functional types of writing that children have to master include:
- description;
- narration;
- reflection.
Genres:
- notes;
- letters;
- forms;
- CV;
- announcement, advertisement;
- article;
- review.
Besides, there are academic genres of writing (used in teaching):
- writing a plan;
- writing a summary/annotation/essay;
- writing rendering.
Product-oriented and process-oriented approaches to teaching writing.
The product-oriented approach to the teaching of writing emphasizes mechanical aspects of writing,
such as focusing on grammatical and syntactical structures and imitating models. ... However,
the process-oriented approach emphasizes that writing itself is a developmental process that creates
self-discovery and meaning.

Types of activities.

Activities to develop competence in writing includes 3 main groups:

1) Activities for developing skills of writing different functional types of texts
(description, narration, reflection). E.g. description:
 Read the text and find its structural parts
 Question-and-answering work (analysis of the structure)
 Write an introduction to the text about your town.
 Write a conclusion to the text about your town.
 Write a paragraph describing your town geographical position.
 Write a description of your native town.
2) Activities for developing skills of writing texts belonging to different
academic genres, e.g. writing an essay
 Read the argumentative essay about advantages and disadvantages of
being your own boss. Find its structural parts.
 Question-and-answering work (analysis of the structure)
 Read the essay again and label the paragraphs with the suitable headings:
1)arguments against; 2) arguments for; 3)opinion; 4)presenting the topic.
 Find and read aloud the topic sentences in the main body of the essay.
Replace them with alternative ones.
 Place the following linking words in the appropriate columns (introducing
points, listing points, adding more points, contrasting points, introducing
examples, concluding), e.g. furthermore, nevertheless, to start with etc.
 Read the essay again and write out the linking words that are used to: a)
introduce points; b) add points; c) contrast points; d) conclude.
 Read the topic sentences and then write appropriate supporting ones. Join
the sentences with appropriate linking words in order to write a complete
paragraph.
 Rewrite the following essay by making it more neutral/ by expanding it/ by
writing another conclusion.
 You are working on an article about disadvantages and advantages of owing
a car. Write an introduction to your article and the conclusion.
 A fashion magazine has asked its readers to write an article on being
famous. Invent an eye-catching headline for the article. Write your argumentative
article, following the suggested outline.
3) Activities for developing skills of writing letters/ of writing CV/ of filling in
the forms etc. E.g. filling in the forms:
 Read carefully the first three columns of the table about different people
and fill in the forth one about yourself.
 You are a School of English student in Bradford. You want to join the
Bradford Theatre Group. Fill in the application form.
E.g. writing CV
 Read the CV and answer some questions on its structure and content.
 Question-and-answering work (CV structure and content: personal
information, education and qualification, experience, other skills and interests,
references)
 Work in small groups of three. Make up a list of common and different
points in writing CVs and resumes.
 Work in small groups. Make a list of rules for writing CVs. Compare your
lists with those of other groups.
 You are members of the Career Development Centre. A student has come
to you as he needs assistance in writing a resume. Help him. Here is the
information provided by the student.
 You would like to apply for a part time job as Food Service Worker in a local
McDonald’s Restaurant in your native city. Write your resume according to the
rules you have compiled.
12. Composition of socio-cultural competence. Ways of its development.

Socio--cultural competence is learner’s ability to acquire cultural and cross-cultural knowledge and skills
to use it for a certain communication aim:
An example of sociocultural is knowing about the people around you and their family backgrounds.
1) historical and cultural background;
2) sociocultural background;
3) ethnocultural knowledge (e.g. folklore, holidays, traditions);
4) semiotic background (e.g. symbols, pictograms, signs).
Skills include those of using the above mentioned kinds of knowledge appropriately in communication
with foreigners and those of adequate understanding and correct interpretation of authentic books, films,
works of art, realia etc.
Ways of its development.
At primary school children learn some English names, folklore personages (gingerbread man), games,
authentic rhymes and songs. They get acquainted with some holidays and how they are celebrated, with
some norms of speech etiquette etc. Authentic visual materials contribute to developing adequate image
of the country and its people. At basic school knowledge about the country and the people who live there
expands (according to the curriculum learners get acquainted with state symbols, social and political
realia, sights, prominent figures, etc. They are taught to understand nationally marked units in texts for
listening and for reading, to systematize that kind of information and compare it with the phenomena of
their native culture, to use nationally marked units, communication norms and recommended behavioral
patterns in their speech, to use linguocultural dictionaries, to develop tolerance and empathy to other
cultures and nations etc. In senior forms this kind of work continues, sociocultural awareness is further
developed, strategies of cross-cultural communication and overcoming stereotypes and cultural barriers

are mastered.

1. Identification of a cultural theme

2. Presentation of cultural phenomena
3. Dialogue (target/native cultures)
4. Transition to language learning
5. Language learning
6. Verification of perceptions (target/native culture)
7. Cultural awareness
8. Evaluation of language and cultural proficiency.
Ways of its development.
1.The first stage is "motivational", i.e. providing psychological readiness to communicate with all
learners

phase are the collecting and processing

of learning material, which is the
content of training.
2 informative. The main objectives of this stage are collecting and processing of learning material.
3 organization cooperation on the basis of subject oriented, communicative activities between the students
themselves and with the teacher. Students can work in pairs or groups.
4 the formation of the concept of "socio-cultural competence" with the help of games, projects,
filling out the questionnaire with the list of countries and nationalities.

13. Extra-curricular activities. Aims and principles of their organisation, forms and
kinds.
The aims of out of class activities vary as their forms are also varying. They can be as follows:
 To further develop learners’ competences formed at English lessons;
 To broaden their world view;
 To foster their creative abilities, tolerance and empathy, autonomy, aesthetic tastes etc;
 To contribute to fostering their love to their Motherland and to the countries of the target foreign
language.

Learners’ out of class activities in English should be based on the general principles of education put
forward in the documents of the Ministry of Education, among them: national orientation, culture
appropriateness, integrity, interaction of subjects, adequacy for psychological conditions of personality
development etc. Besides there exist some specific methodological principles for organizing out of
class activities in English:
 Principle of voluntary participation;
 Principle of mass involvement;
 Principle of taking into account and developing individual interests and abilities;
 Principle of the interconnection of activities in class and out of class
 Principle of integrating all kinds of education (national, international, moral, aesthetic, labour,
physical etc)
 Principle of motivating and trigger-on interests (new interesting tasks, new information etc)
 Principle of learners’ initiative and autonomy development.

Forms of out of class activities may be individual, group and collective (activities for masses).
Individual work involves separate learners who prepare a report, learn some poem by heart to recite it at
the concert, learn some part they are going to perform in a play, get a newsletter ready, a poster, some
teaching aid etc. Individual work is conducted systematically or as an episode. Group work usually
embraces members of some hobby group (musical, vocal, drama, cross-cultural studies, young
interpreters etc). Collective forms are used from time to time when learners organize concerts, parties,
festivals, competitions etc.
According to their content scholars single out: competitions (quests, “Olympiads”, brain rings etc), mass
media (newsletters, posters, digests etc), cultural events (parties, topical parties, meetings with interesting
people etc) and political events (press-conferences, festivals, fairs of solidarity etc). A special form is
English week which presupposes different events.

An extra-curricular activity (ECA) or extra academic activity (EAA) is an activity, performed by students,

that falls outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school.
Examples of extracurricular activities are: being a member of a sports team, serving as chief editor of
your school newspaper, or playing in a regional orchestra.
Aims are to gain vital experience and skills thus leading them on the path of their career-making., to
help in the overall development of the child, provide social opportunities
Extra-curricular activities play a key role in student's life and hence it need to be an integral part of the
school / college curriculum.

principles of their organization

1.The school should have only those extra-curricular activities for which there are possibilities of making
students successful.
2As far as possible a wide variety of extra-curricular activities may be organized
3 Too many extracurricular activities should not be introduced at a time
4 The teacher or the administration should encourage students so that they could participate in the
extracurricular activities.
5 An extracurricular activity should be an activity that demonstrates a talent or primarily contributes
value to other learners.
6 An extracurricular management system is a management information system for education
establishments to manage extracurricular data and processes. The primary function of an EMS is to
handle administrative tasks associated with the operation of an extracurricular program so that staff can
focus on delivering great extracurricular activities and outcomes for students. 
7 The teacher or the administration should brainstorm Extracurricular Ideas.
8 They should See which extracurricular activities fit learners' interests
9 They should research different extracurricular options.
10 they should offer students an opportunity to join extracurricular activities.
11 They should narrow down the extracurricular activities which have a meaningful impact
on students.

 Kinds of extracurricular activities

 1volunteer and service related activities
2 multicultural activities
3 the arts
4 Sports clubs
5 Facultatives
6 Scientific clubs
7 Language clubs
8 Mass media clubs
9 Academic and professional organizations
10 Dance and drama clubs
11 band club

14. Visual aids in teaching a foreign language.

Visual aids are non-verbal materials which reinforce what students are learning. Visual techniques
of teaching English grammar are rightly considered to be very important for students because they
visualize information in details and raise students’ interest, motivation and help visual students to master
the language quicker, more willingly and more accurately.
Visual aids help visual learners to build directed meanings on what they see. Pictures and photos can
accompany grammar activities in English lessons. They are the most widely used visual aids for teaching
English grammar.
One of the advantages of using visual aids is, that they can be used to present many different topics and
many different grammar points, for big classes and for one-to-one teaching, from the beginner to
advanced level.
Visual aids, their types and functions.
Visuals:
1) technical (computer, recordings, video, films, etc)
2) non-technical (pictures, photos, posters, flash cards, maps, diagrams, real objects, toys, board).
Pictures are used when introducing new vocabulary and new grammar structures. Can be used in listing,
comparing. A picture may be thought-provoking. Flash-cards include: letter cards, number cards, word
cards, sentence cards. Board: handwriting.
Functions:
- source of information;
- springboard for speaking and writing activities;
- support in performing listening activities, developing cognitive mechanisms;
- model text;
- influences learners effectively;
- motivating tool.
Visual aids in presenting and practicing language.
Visual aids, when integrated into the lesson plan through media, attract students´ attention to the topic
presented in the class, enhance and facilitate comprehension of grammar and language, increase students'
motivation, as well as help students to memorize the new vocabulary and structures.
Visuals in skills development.
Visual development includes optical abilities, motor skills, discrimination, visual closure (ability to
complete an incomplete image), sequencing, visual memory, imagery, and figure-ground perception
(ability to notice a target against the background)

15. Approaches to error management. Giving feedback.

BEHAVIORISTIC APPROACH TO ERROR CORRECTION
American linguist Robert Lado (1957) began to study errors systematically and developed theories
about errors- contrastive analysis. The contrastive analysis hypothesis claims that the principal
barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second
language system and that a scientific, structural comparison of the two language in question enables
people to predict and describe which are problems and which are not. Deeply rooted in behaviorism
and structuralism, the proponents of this approach hold the view that human language learning is to
change old habits and to build new habits. Errors occur when learners cannot respond correctly to a
particular stimulus in the second language. Since an error may serve as a negative stimulus which
reinforces bad habits", it should not be allowed to occur. So, in the classroom, the behaviorists place
More emphasis on mechanical pattern drills and attempt to correct any errors or mistakes wherever
There are.
COGNITIVE APPROACH TO ERROR CORRECTION
The subject of error correction has been studied extensively by many practitioners such as
Connors and Lunsford (1995), Walz (1982), Hendrickson (1980) and Fanselow (1977). They
propose different methods for dealing with errors. For instance, while the focus proposed by
followers of behaviorism is on preventing errors, the focus initiated by the cognitivists is on
intellectual analyses of the causes of errors and ways of dealing with them. In behaviorism, errors
are depicted as sins that should be avoided and bad habits that should not be tolerated, whereas
in cognitivism errors are perceived as evidence that learners are testing hypotheses, as Gorbet,
cited in Walz (1982), maintains. Cognitive-oriented approaches suggest that errors are part of
learning and that errors are crucial to language learning.
Error correction principles and ways of managing errors.
Principles of correction:
- correction is a guiding tool helping learners to become aware of the correct form;
- correction should be done positively, not as a tool for punishment;
- correction should have a purpose;
- correction should be done at the appropriate time;
- correction should not be necessarily teacher-dominated; a teacher should give students a chance to
correct themselves.
In case of overcorrection the teacher dominated the classroom and intimidates the learners; the
teacher-talking-time prevails over the learners’ talking time; the teacher’s aim is accuracy; fluency of
students’ speech suffers. Some students who are risk-avoiders feel more secure in this atmosphere.
Knock-on effect on parents and administration is positive. Undercorrector may be viewed as an
incompetent professional. For risk-takers it is okay, for others it is not.
Self correction / Peer correction
 The first port of call when correcting can be the students themselves. Students can often correct
themselves when they realise they’ve made a mistake. Sometimes the mistake is simply a ‘slip’ and they
are aware of the correct version. Give students a chance, and time, to correct themselves. Often by just
raising your eyebrows or repeating the mistake students will know what you mean and back track to
correct the error themselves. Some teachers create all sorts of hand signals to indicate the type of error.
Pointing behind you is a classic to indicate to students that they should have used a past tense. If these
work for you and your students, go ahead and create your own correction indicators.
 Students can also correct one another. Peer correction often helps to create a positive class
atmosphere as students realise you are not the only source of error correction and they can learn a lot
from one another.
Correction slots
One way to focus on students’ mistakes is to take ‘time out’ of an activity and look at mistakes as a
group. When students are doing a speaking task in pairs or groups I often monitor the students and
listen in on what they’re saying. Students will get used to you hovering around them although if it’s not
your usual monitoring style they may wonder what you’re up to at first! I make a note of the mistakes
that I hear; whether they are pronunciation, grammatical or lexical. I collect a selection of their errors
and then stop the activity. I write a selection of the mistakes on the board and ask students to correct
them. If students are working in pairs and you have a left over student, why not assign them the role of
 assistant teacher? They can have a notebook and pen and make notes of mistakes they hear. If they do
their job well they could even run the correction slot with their mistakes instead of you. Usually most of
the mistakes can by corrected by the students themselves.
On the spot correction
 Correcting mistakes the second they are made has the advantage that you don’t have to bring
the activity to a stop as is the case with a correction slot. Students often appreciate instant correction.
Think about what type of activity it is before deciding whether or not it’s appropriate to correct on the
spot. You don’t want to destroy the flow of the task by butting in. Students can also be responsible for
on the spot correction if they are encouraged to pick up on each other’s mistakes.
Giving feedback
1. Feedback should be about behaviour not personality
2. Feedback should describe learners' behaviour
3. Feedback should be as specific as possible
4. Feedback should be timely
5. Pick your moment

16. Classroom management. Ways of organizing students. Types of classroom

interaction. Seating arrangements.
Classroom management.
Classroom management is a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring
that classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the
delivery of instruction. 
Classroom management includes the following areas: arranging physical environment and intrusion
into learning space by giving instructions, organizing interaction, monitoring and evaluating learners’
work. Teacher’s classroom management skills are divided into physical (gestures, voice, position, eye
contact etc) and verbal (classroom language).
Ways of organizing students.
Teacher’s classroom management skills are divided into physical (gestures, voice, position, eye contact
etc) and verbal (classroom language).
 Make assignment details memorable. ...
 Set up a start page. ...
 Help students feel in charge. ...
 Space out assignment dates. ...
 Use motivation techniques. ...
 Introduce long-term projects with care. ...
 Keep parents informed. ...
 Discuss organization in class.

Seating arrangements.
There may be different seating arrangement patterns:
 Desks arranged in rows, all learners face the board and the teacher’s table. Teacher dominates most
of all, is in full control, atmosphere may be rigid, opportunities for learners’ interaction limited
(learners sitting at the same desk form a pair). Suitable activities: accuracy oriented (drills, written
texts) or fluency oriented (story-telling).
 Learners are sitting in a circle. The teacher is a part of the group, in full control (direct eye contact
with all learners), atmosphere is more relaxed. Learners can see each other and interact with two
neighbors or across the room. Activities: pair work, discussions, guessing games, listening,
simulations etc.
 Desks arranged in a semicircle, teacher’s table is at the head. Similar to the previous plan but more
formal. Teacher and learners can see one another and interact in pairs or as a whole class. The
teacher is still the focus of attention if s/he doesn’t change her/his position and move around.
Suitable for accuracy work in pairs (peer dictation, practicing model dialogues, completing
questionnaires etc) and whole class accuracy and fluency work.
 Desks arranged in several “islands”. Most informal, provides a lot of opportunities for interaction
(learners can talk to the people at their table or move around and join other groups from time to
time. Classroom atmosphere is learner-centred. The teacher needs to move around to monitor
learner’s work. Suitable for class surveys, games, group work (role play, projects, discussions,
brainstorm etc)
 Desks are arranged in a long row, learners are sitting in two lines behind them (conference style),
the teacher’s table is at the head. Arrangement is more informal than formal, though more formal
than the previous one. The teacher is an organizer and then a conductor or monitor. Learners can
talk to the two people next to them or to the person opposite them. Pairs are flexible since the two
rows can easily move or learners can change their places. Suitable for discussions, role-plays (press-
conference), surveys, practicing dialogues etc.

Types of interaction.
Types of interaction: whole-class activities; group work; pair work
Advantages and disadvantages of different modes of learning.
Advantages of pair and group work:
 They increase each learner’s talking time.
 Learners can face and talk directly to one another.
 Learners have an opportunity to become more independent.
 Most learners work harder in groups because they are involved and can really use what they have
learnt.
 Pair and especially group work provide constant opportunities for integrated skills.
 It’s easier for shy learners and weaker learners to talk/work in small groups.
Some problems with pair and group work may be as follows:
 Learners make too much noise (but it’s because they are practicing). So ignore it or stop the activity
and ask the learners to speak more quietly.
 Teacher cannot control every learner (but can s/he always do it working with the whole class?)So
give clear instructions and stimulating tasks, monitor groups and pairs going around the classroom,
give feedback after the activity etc.
 Learners’ mistakes are not corrected (but it depends on the focus of activity: accuracy or fluency). So
provide some clear models before the activity, enough controlled practice and language input.
 During the activity note down the most serious and typical mistakes and do corrections and some
more practice later.
 Pair and group work take a lot of time (but it depends on the activity again). Give short and simple
instructions, get learners used to changing seats, forming pairs or groups, stop pair and group work
at an appropriate moment.
 In pair and group work learners may sometimes switch to their native language. It’s unrealistic to
hope that everything will be done in English. Some of the learners may have ideas but not the level
of English to express them, others will have the language knowledge but not the ideas. To minimize
the use of learners’ mother tongue the teacher is to provide tasks appropriate for the level of the
learners. If pair work is accuracy oriented, English should be used most of the time.
GROUP WORK
1. Advantages:
* Students help their classmates.
* An activity does not take for long.
* Students share ideas.
2. Disadvantages:
* Some of them work.
*There is a lot of noise.
* Disagreements may cause problems in the group.
PAIR WORK
1. Advantages:
* Less stressful for introvert students.
* Theother students do not notice when a classmate makes a mistake. 
2. Disadvantages:
* When the teacher is not around, students may use their mother tongue to say something that
they can’t sayin a foreign language.
* Teacher can’t correct the mistakes that he does not hear.
* There are no answers to compare when one of the students does not finish the task.
WHOLE CLASS
1. Advantages:
* There are usually a lot of students that want to participate.
* Teacher interacts with the student.
2. Disadvantages:
* Not all of thestudents participate.
* It is a traditional way to teach.
INDIVIDUAL STUDY
1. Advantages:
* There’s no pressure of a classmate.
* Theystudy at their own speed.
2. Disadvantages:
* Students can’t help their classmates.
* Less dynamic classroom

17. Lesson planning. Planning principles. Types of lessons. Lesson analysis.

Lesson planning
When planning a lesson, a teacher performs the following sequence of actions:
1) define the target audience;
2) analyze the material content;
3) define the lesson type;
4) formulate objectives;
5) distribute material for each stage;
6) allocate time per each stage;
7) design/select activities;
8) write down a lesson plan;
9) ensure that means of instruction are ready.
Planning principles.
Principles:
1) appropriateness;
2) variety (number, character of activities, types of interaction, skills to be developed);
3) flexibility.
Types of lessons (combined, integrated, test).
3 main types of English lessons:
1) combined lesson – focus on language and skills (includes introduction of the new materia
2) integrated skills lesson – focus on developing certain skills;
3) test lesson – focus on summative testing.
Both combined and integrated skills lesson should be appropriately structured.
Begins with marking the date and the target audience → topic → objectives → teaching aids →
procedure → giving feedback and summing up the lesson.
Lesson plan structure.
Both combined and integrated skills lessons should be appropriately structured. A typical lesson plan
begins with marking the date and the target audience (e.g. 5A form). Then come objectives (practical,
educational, developmental and affective), teaching aids (course-book, additional materials, flash cards,
equipment etc) and then the procedure itself. It starts with a warm-up activity, and then different stages
and activities done at them. Make sure that at some stage home assignment is checked (though not
necessarily in the form it was done), and time should be allocated to setting new home assignment and
giving necessary explanations. A very important stage is summing up and giving feedback (qualitative
and quantitative). Timing is very important too.
lesson analysis
Evidence of the developed teachers’ methodological competence is displayed not only in the process of
getting ready for and conducting their own lessons but also in observing and analyzing their colleagues’
lessons. It helps to develop teaching skills of their own, reflective skills, self-analysis skills etc.
Analytical skills include:
 Selecting the purpose of observation (or keeping to the point if the purpose has been selected by
somebody else)
 fixing their observations (filling in observation tables etc)
 evaluating the teacher’s performance and the learners’ performance (objectively, their
appropriateness for the aims of educational process and lesson objectives)
 revealing causes for the noticed shortcomings
 suggesting ways of overcoming them and improving the quality of teaching.
There can be distinguished certain objects of observation and analysis:
1) purposefulness (orientation) of the lesson (its topic, the place in the series of lessons, its type,
objectives and their appropriateness)
2) lesson structure and content (stages of the lesson, their logical sequence, and their correspondence
to the objectives of the lesson; use of teaching techniques at each stage and their cost-effectiveness; ratio
of drills, semi-controlled activities and communicative tasks; use of teaching aids and their cost-
effectiveness; the value of teaching materials and their correspondence to the learners’ age interests etc)
3) the level of the learners’ active involvement (types of interaction, their correspondence to the
stages of the lesson and activities performed, learners’ talking time compared to the teacher’s talking
time, motivating techniques etc)
4) the teacher’s behavior ( speech correctness and adaptive skills, using authentic classroom English,
quality of instructions, effectiveness of mother tongue use, ratio TTT-LTT etc)
5) lesson outcomes (surrender value, correspondence of the skill development level to the
objectives, objectivity of assessment and motivating potential of the marks etc).
It’s difficult to observe everything at the same time, so observation may be selective, especially for a
young teacher (e.g. how board was used, or ratio of TTT and LTT, or the types and kinds of activities, or
the ways and effectiveness of corrections etc). It helps the teacher (in fact, both teachers –the one who
observes and the one who is being observed) to improve a certain aspect in their teaching skills.
It’s important not to violate the norms of giving feedback (should be constructive and positively
oriented).

18. The roles of the teacher and the learner at a lesson. Actions they perform.
The roles of the teacher: controller (teacher in charge of the class and of the activities); manager (t. gives
instructions); model (introducing new sound or speech pattern); organizer (t. should be able to organize
various activities); communication partner; participant (t. may want to join in activity as participant);
prompter (t. should be able to motivate the students); source of information (t. should be helpful and
available, answer questions); observer (what students do).
Teachers should be able to switch between various roles, judging when it is appropriate to use one or the
other.
The roles of the learners: the subject of educational process; communication partner; autonomous learner;
active participant.
Roles of a Teacher and actions they perform.
1 Teacher as Controller
2 Teacher as Assessor
3 Teacher as Manager
.4 Classroom Management Styles
5 Teacher as Resource
6 Teacher as Participant
7 Teacher as Investigator
8 Teacher as Role Model
In the English classroom a teacher fulfills many roles with different aims.
The most common thought of a role might be the fully organized classroom in which everything is
controlled by the teacher
Also teachers are expected to assess their students by correcting them and giving feedback to their
development and performance (Assessor).
Another very important role is the one of the classroom manager. Good organization is a key factor in
planning a syllabus, a lesson or just a particular task and helps to discipline the students (Manager).
Furthermore, the teacher acts as a resource by helping the students if necessary. He/She provides
additional information or simply talks to them providing the resource of spoken language (Resource).
To increase the effectiveness of learning it is sometimes necessary to act with the students on the same
level as a participant. Not only will the teacher gain an insight about the way students develop, but also
give them the chance to interact with someone who has a much higher comprehension of the target
language (Participant).
A role not directly related to the behavior of the teacher is the investigator. The teacher analyzes the way
of teaching, observes what is going on in the classroom and investigates the ways students learn, with the
aim to develop his/her methods of teaching (Investigator).
The last role is the role model which goes beyond the classroom influencing children throughout their
whole life. Honesty, affection or fairness for example, are not only learned from parents but also from
teachers at school. Therefore a teacher must be fully aware that his behavior in general has a huge impact
on the personal development of his/her students. (Role Model)
Learners' roles and actions they perform.
Learners are responsible for attending class and completing reading and other assignments as proscribed
by the teacher. Although their first role in the process is as passive listener, listening requires paying
attention during class. Outside the class, their role becomes more active, requiring reading and
completion of assignments selected by the teacher.
Learners  as Facilitators »
Knowledge comes from study, experience, and reflection. Engaging students aslearning guides and
facilitators helps reinforce their commitment to learning and the subject they are teaching; it can also
engage both young and older learners in exciting ways.
learners  as Researchers »
Identifying issues, surveying interests, analyzing findings, and developing projects in response are all
powerful avenues for Student Voice.
learners as Decision-Makers »
Making rules in classrooms is not the only way to engage students in decision-making. Participating in
formal and informal decision-making, students can be school board members, education committee
members, and in many different roles throughout schools.
learners as Activity Leaders » 
As activity leaders in schools and education agencies, students can facilitate, teach, guide, direct, and
otherwise lead youth, adults, and children in a variety of ways.

19. Games in language learning.

Games are activities that promote learning through pleasure. During children’s playtime they
often and spontaneously begin object games, fantasy games & sociodramatic games. An object
game is reality-based & involves manipulation of & reference to the objects themselves. A fantasy
game refers to episodes that evoke a fantastic or imaginative context & involves object
substitution or some imaginary objects. Similar to this is a dramatic game in which a make-
believe world is reconstructed, and children pretend to live in it and invite others to participate.
Games in language learning.
Games are fun activities that promote learning through pleasure. Games are entertaining, can be used at
all stages of the lesson.
Advantages:
- more variety is added;
- the pace of a lesson can be changed;
- frequent recycling of language material is provided without board;
- hidden practice of specific language material;
- more formal teaching can be temporarily replaced with games;
- every learner’s participation is encouraged;
- learner-to-learner communication is increased;
- the distance between teacher and learners can be reduced;
- areas of weakness and the need of further language work are revealed.
Types and value of games.
Kinds:
1) the kind of activity (physical, intellectual);
2) the character of educational process (teaching, cognitive, productive, communicative);
3) the way of playing (with objects, with plots, role plays, simulations);
4) the number of players (one, pair, groups, teams, collective);
5) developing cognitive process (developing sociocultural competence, world mapping, learner
autonomy, logical thinking, collectivism, sociability, attention, memory);
6) aims and tasks (developing language competence, skills);
7) method of organization (with objects, cards, technical means of communication);
8) level of complexity;
9) time needed.
Games have also a social value. They teach us many lessons like discipline, team spirit, obedience,
punctuality, patience, fair play, etc. A true sportsman plays the gamefor the sake of the game. He plays up
the game of life and remains a player ever after
Pronunciation games, vocabulary games, grammar games. Competence in skills
Pronunciation games: Odd One Out. Prepare a list with sets of three to four words that have the same
vowel sound, plus one somewhere in the middle that is different.
Rhyming Pair Memory Game
vocabulary games
Charades
Letter Scramble
Chalkboard Acronym
grammar games.
 Action Verbs Present Tenses Board Game - Pirate Board Game.
 Present Progressive - Car Racing Game.
 Verb Tenses Grammar Game
Speaking games.
Secret word: Students are given a random topic and a random word that is unrelated to the
topic. The students must hide the word in a  speech about the topic—they’re trying to make
sure the other students can’t guess the secret word. The other students listen carefully to the
speech and attempt to guess the secret word.
Debates: Give each student a piece of paper with “agree” written on one side  and “disagree”
on the other side. Read aloud a controversial statement, and have each student  hold up
their paper showing the agree or disagree side depending on their opinion.  Choose one
student from each side to explain their position and participate in a short debate.
Impromptu speaking: Prepare a list of topics that students will be able to talk about.  Split the
class into two teams, and have each student choose a number—that’s the order they will go
in. Each student will respond to a statement without preparation.  They must continue
speaking for 45 seconds. As the student is speaking, the other team listens for moments of
hesitation, grammatical mistakes, and vocabulary mistakes.  If the other team can correctly
identify an error, they get a point.
Storytelling activity: Bring four students to the front of the classroom.  Three of them should
sit in a row, and one should stand behind them and act as a controller.  Give the controller a
stack of cards with nouns written on them.
20. Ways of assessing language competence (grammar and vocabulary), receptive
and productive skills.
Ways of assessing learners’ competence in receptive (reading, listening) and productive (writing,
speaking) skills.
Criteria for assessing all components of communicative development are both quantitative and
qualitative and depend on the kind of competence in focus.
In productive kinds of skills (speaking and writing) the main qualitative indicators are:
appropriateness for the communicative task, correspondence to the topic and situation, degree of the
topic coverage, degree of autonomy, range of structures and vocabulary units, speech correctness.
Quantitative indicators include the word length (number of sentences), tempo of speech (pauses,
repetitions) etc.
In receptive skills (listening and reading) the main qualitative criterion is degree of
comprehension (global, complete, in detail). Quantitative indicators include tempo and duration of the
recording (in listening) and length of the text (in reading).
Ways of assessment depend on the kind of competence in focus.
To find out the level of development of competence in listening the following ways (techniques)
are used: test tasks (multiple choice, true/false, gap-filling, completing sentences etc), answering
questions, retelling, predicting, finding the main idea, making a plan to the text etc.
When finding out the level of development of competence in reading, the teacher should take
into account the type of reading (skimming, scanning, intensive, and extensive). Ways of assessment
may be non-verbal (e.g. ordering pictures) and verbal (both receptive and reproductive). Receptive:
selecting points of the plan, doing multiple choice, true/false etc tests. Reproductive: translation of
some words or sentences, asking questions to the text, retelling the text in English or in the learners’
native language etc.
As for assessing productive skills the tasks should include producing a certain type of text orally
(dialogues and monologues) or in a written form (type and genre specified). Assessment criteria differ in
each case.
Ways of assessing vocabulary
1 word journals (journals where students keep track of the words they have learned and
definitions)
2 standardized test
3 vocabulary games
4 rubrics and performance criteria
5written assignments
6designing assessment tasks for receptive vocabulary: matching exercise words association vocabulary
in one sentence context * high frequency word* voc. In one sentence context* low frequency word*
For productive vocabulary: fill in the blank, selective election cloze.
Ways of assessing grammar
1 creating assignment tasks
 Multiple choice tasks
Options are given
 Consciousness raising tasks
Underline or circle a specific feature in the language sample.
  Gap filling tasks to fill in the gaps
 Short answer tasks a question following a reading passage or oral/ visual stimulus. The answer
should be given in the form of a single word or a sentence.
 Dialogue completion tasks a short conversation or dialogue which should be completed by the
test takers
 Role plays a language or a non-language prompt where there is a situation to solve a problem
to make decision to perform.
 Information gap activities one test taker is given half or some of the information and another
test taker is given complete information. Both test takers question each other to get all the
information.

21. Communicative approach and its characteristics.

Communicative approach emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence. It has
been developed by British applied linguists in the 1960s. (Henry Widdowson, Brumfit, Littlewood). In Russia Y.I.
Passov developed their ideas.
The main principles and features of CLT:
 language as a means of communication;
 teaching language in a meaningful context (specifying notions, functions, functional exponents based on
the learners’ needs analysis);
 prioritising meaning over form;
 focus on skills;
 task-based learning;
 focus on sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence as well as linguistic competence;
 the correlation between accuracy and fluency(viewed not in abstract but in context), the role of grammar;
 errors as learning steps;
 the changed roles of a teacher and a learner.

Roles of a teacher according to the communicative approach:

 an organizer
 a manager
 a model
 an informant
 a monitor
 a councilor
 a facilitator
 a communication partner
 a life-long learner
Roles of a learner:
 the subject of the educational process
 a communication partner
 an active participant
 an autonomous learner.
Positive results: learning foreign language as a means for communication, attempts to communicate are
encouraged from the very beginning, communicative competence is the desired goal, anything which helps the
learner is accepted, contrastive analysis and translation included.
Negative results: accuracy may suffer, the teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will
use and often cannot preplan the course of the lesson, a number of mistakes during pair and group work may
remain uncorrected and not explained, a teacher needs more preparation for the lesson and heavier work during
it.

22. Methodology, its components, main categories and terms. Classifications of

activities.
Methods of foreign language teaching cover 4 main components:
(1) aims of teaching a foreign language (why to teach);
(2). content of teaching, i. e. what to teach to attain the aims;
(3) methods and techniques of teaching, i . e . how to teach a foreign language to attain the aims in
the most effective way;
(4) teaching aids (with the help of what we teach)
main categories and terms.
The aims are determined by the state standards, Curriculum and the type of school. They correlate
with A Common European Framework of Reference: Modern languages: Learning, Teaching,
Assessment. There are five main aims in teaching FL at schools: practical, affective, educational,
developmental and professionally orientated (in senior forms).
The Practical aim of teaching FL and Cultures is developing Learner’s Communicative Competence in
the target foreign language, i.e. ability to understand and interact with native speakers according to the
norms and cultural traditions in the conditions of direct and indirect communication.
Affective aim includes developing the culture of communication appropriate in modern civilized
societies, tolerance and respect to other cultures and other language speakers, positive attitude to
mastering foreign languages and cultures etc.
Educational aim presupposes developing learner’s worldview through cultural, linguocultural and
sociocultural knowledge, intercultural knowledge (e.g. contrastive studies of the two systems of language
means, native and foreign).
Developmental aim is targeted at developing learners’ motivation to studying foreign languages and
cultures, developing learners’ communicative abilities, helping learners to become autonomous.
Professionally orientated aim is closely connected with different profiles introduced in senior forms:
mathematical and physical, biological and chemical, humanitarian, including philological, sports,
esthetical etc. The aim presupposes developing professionally orientated language competences (e.g.
vocabulary, terms), speech competences (e.g. reading and discussing professionally orientated texts),
linguosociocultural competences (e.g. making presentations at scientific conferences).
Aims, or goals are broad, while planning a lesson they are realized through concrete objectives set by the
teacher and written in the lesson plan, to enable learners speak about their hobbies and pastimes using
verbs in Present simple. Mind that it’s much better to think of learning objectives, not teaching objectives.
In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory
and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, is central. In an attempt to clarify
this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He
identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and
technique.
The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is
consistent with an approach.
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and
learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. (It is in
your head, these are views on language, language learning and language teaching)
А method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which
contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method
is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods... (Method is on paper, it reveals
itself in curriculum and syllabus)
A technique, or an educational technology is what actually takes place in a classroom. It is a
particular trick used to accomplish an immediate objective. (A procedure that can be observed in the
classroom). Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach
as well.
We can single out problem educational technologies, project technologies, interactive technologies,
game technologies, computer technologies, mobile learning etc. They are realized through activities
– short tasks which are parts of the lesson.
Classifications of activities.
Activity (exercise, task) is a specially organized students’ activity aimed at mastering the operations that
activity consists of.
There exist different classifications, one of the most generally accepted is classification suggested by
N.K. Sklyarenko.
Criteria used for that and types of activities that are singled out are as follows:
1. communicative character: - communicative tasks
- semi-controlled
- totally controlled (drills)
Characteristics of a communicative task:
 communicative purpose
 information/opinion gap
 communicative situation
 learners’ choice of the language material
 authenticity of actions
 minimal degree of the teacher’s control.

2. motivation: - motivating
- non-motivating
3. receiving or giving information: - receptive
- receptive-reproductive
- receptive-productive
- productive
4. availability of support: - without any support
 - with specially created support
- with some natural support
5. mode of interaction: - individual
- in chorus
- as a whole class
- in pairs
- in small groups
- in teams
6. the character of assessment: - immediate or delayed
- total or selected at random
- teacher-assessment
- self-assessment
- peer assessment
7. mode of doing: - oral
- written
8. the role of Mother tongue: - monolingual
- bilingual
9. function: - teaching
- testing
10. place of doing: - in class
- at home

Another classification: skill-developing (arranging sentences in order, close test, substitution,

transformation, dictations etc) v. skill-exploiting (filling in forms, doing crosswords, taking notes during
the lecture, writing a letter, a postcard etc)
Still another classification depends on the purpose of activity:
 an ice-breaker (helps to establish rapport at the beginning of the course, to get acquainted)
 warm up (warmer) (to improve the psychological climate in the group, to immerse in the
English language environment)
 lead-in (serves to tune in the learners to the topic of the lesson, to focus on the material under
consideration etc)
 presentation activity (serves to introduce and clarify a new learning item: vocabulary unit,
grammar item, learning strategy etc)
 practice activity (involves performance, some learning item has been presented and now is
practiced in the controlled activity, often a model for performance is given, e.g. a sample dialogue to
practice speech patterns or a sample activity to do your own on a different material
 memorization activity (involves memorizing some info or learning material, e.g. SS may be
asked to memorize a voc. List which they will later use in a speaking task. Contemporary approaches
discourage mere memorization in favour of activities in which learning is achieved through doing smth
with the material to be learnt
 comprehension activity (demands Ss to develop or demonstrate their understanding of written or
spoken texts. May require different levels of comprehension: literal (explicit info), inferential(conclusions
and predictions on the inferred info), evaluation (making judgements based on personal or other values)
 application activity (require learners to use in a creative way knowledge or skills previously
presented and practiced)
 strategy activity (develop particular learning strategies and approaches to learning, e.g. to
develop the strategy of using predictions to guide one’s reading)
 affective activity (has no specific language learning goal, it is intended to improve motivational
climate of the classroom and to develop the Ss interest, confidence and positive attitude to learning)
 feedback activity (to get feedback on learning or on some aspect of performance of the activity
 assessment activity (to diagnose areas which need further learning or to evaluate student
performance)

23. Teaching reading aloud. Approaches and activities.

 Teaching Reading aloud by the teacher is an important component of the struggling reader’s
literacy program. Teacher is as model in reading process and students listen and respond to the teacher.
Teachers should select stories, poems, and informational texts to read aloud that help expand and
strengthen the background knowledge of their students.
Materials: storybooks, content materials, poetry, charts.
Choice: usually teacher’s choice.
Grouping format: usually whole group.
Purposes:
–    To stretch students beyond their reading levels, particularly in content areas under study; expand
vocabulary; develop concepts.
–    To expose students to varied forms of text (fiction, nonfiction, poetry)
–    To enlist varied forms of response (discussion, writing, drama, art, movement, etc.)
–    To study various genres, literary devices, writer’s craft.
Struggling readers benefit from listening, responding, and expanding their knowledge, vocabulary, and
concepts.
Activities: storytelling Chunking, that is using pauses to break down the text being read out in units
shorter than a sentence ; Stress placement in chunks, that is selecting which word(s) in a chunk will be
more prominent. Both elements help listeners follow the story easily as well as maintain their interest.
Dialogue improvement Learners work on the dialogue and try to make it more natural by incorporating
features of spontaneous speech. The table overleaf shows a possible modification of the dialogue.
Acting out dialogues
Reading aloud & listening Learners (in pairs/groups) read out their news items to the class, who answer
the questions set as in a listening lesson. It would help to record the news items so that learners can refer
to the recordings during feedback.
 Letter to the Author. After you've read a book aloud to the class, ask them to work together to
come up with some big ideas they would like to communicate to the author. ...
 Dramatize It. After finishing reading aloud, work with the students in your class to rewrite the
story as a skit. 

Approaches
 Phonics approach
The phonics approach teaches word recognition through learning grapheme-phoneme (letter-sound)
associations. The student learns vowels, consonants, and blends, and learns to sound out words by
combining sounds and blending them into words. By associating speech sounds with letters the student
learns to recognize new and unfamiliar words.
 Linguistic method
This method uses a "whole word" approach. Words are taught in word families, or similar spelling
patterns, and only as whole words. The student is not directly taught the relationship between letters and
sounds, but learns them through minimal word differences. As the child progresses, words that have
irregular spellings are introduced as sight words.
 Multisensory approach
This method assumes that some children learn best when content is presented in several modalities.
Multisensory approaches that employ tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing are often referred to as VAKT
(visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) methods. Multisensory techniques can be used with both phonics
and linguistic approaches.
 Neurological Impress Technique
This is a rapid-reading technique. The instructor reads a passage at a fairly rapid rate, with the instructor's
voice directed into the student's ear. The teacher begins as the dominant reading voice, but gradually the
student spends more time leading these sessions. Students who have learned mechanics without
adequately learning reading fluency frequently benefit from this, as do students who read slowly or who
hesitate over a number of words but are able to identify most of the words in a sentence. A student is
directed to read a passage without errors. This method functions most effectively when it is practiced for
short periods every day.
 Language experience approach
The language experience approach uses children's spoken language to develop material for reading. This
approach utilizes each student's oral language level and personal experiences. Material is written by the
child and teacher for reading using each child's experience. This can be done in small groups and
individually.
Familiarity with the content and the vocabulary facilitate reading these stories. Each child can develop a
book to be read and re-read. This approach helps children know what reading is and that ideas and
experiences can be conveyed in print.
 Reading comprehension support
Persons with learning disabilities who need work on reading comprehension often respond to explicitly
taught strategies which aid comprehension such as skimming, scanning and studying techniques. These
techniques aid in acquiring the gist, and then focus is turned to the details of the text through use of the
cloze procedure.The cloze procedure builds upon a student's impulse to fill in missing elements and is
based upon the Gestalt principle of closure. With this method, every fifth to eighth word in a passage is
randomly eliminated. The student is then required to fill in the missing words. This technique develops
reading skills and an understanding not only of word meaning but also of the structure of the language
itself.
The Whole-word Approach
This method teaches reading at the word level. Because it skips the decoding process, students are not
sounding out words but rather learning to say the word by recognizing its written form. Context is
important and providing images can help. Familiar words may initially be presented on their own, then in
short sentences and eventually in longer sentences. As their vocabulary grows, children begin to extract
rules and patterns that they can use to read new words. Reading via this method is an automatic process
and is sometimes called sight-reading. After many exposures to a word children will sight-read the
majority of the vocabulary they encounter, only sounding out unfamiliar terms. Sight-reading is faster and
facilitates reading comprehension because it frees up cognitive attention for processing new words. That’s
why it is often recommended that children learn to read high frequency English vocabulary in this way.

24. Role plays and their types. Stages of organizing and conducting.
Role-play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when you
stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation! 
1. The conflict role play puts participants on a collision course and asks them to deal with this as best
they can. Situations might include attempting to change an airline booking at a peak time or asking a
noisy neighbor to turn down the stereo. They test language skills under pressure and are best for students
who have some maturity and confidence in their abilities.
2. The cooperative role play takes the opposite tack and requires participants to work together for the
common good. Planning a sayonara party for the teacher, deciding the food list for a barbecue,
brainstorming ways to attract tourists to local attractions are all cooperative role plays. Often involving
‘safe’ situations, cooperative role plays are good for gently easing shy students into conversations and for
building relationships within a student group.
3. Information gap role plays are based around filling in holes in the participants’ knowledge.
Answering questions from customs officers, asking for timetabling details, making a library card or
interrogating a murder suspect are all information gap type situations. If based on the students’ real selves
these role plays are simple to set up, but fictitious situations may require more elaborate preparations.
They are an excellent way to practice question and answer patterns and prepare students for real-life
encounters.
4. Task-based role plays require participants to complete a set activity such as checking into a hotel,
giving directions to a taxi driver, ordering a meal or getting the phone number of a potential love interest.
They are useful for helping students to practice realistic survival English skills and are an excellent way
to build students’ confidence in their ability to function in real situations.
Stages of organizing and conducting.
Step 1: Identify the Situation
To start the process, gather people together, introduce the problem, and encourage an open discussion to
uncover all of the relevant issues. This will help people to start thinking about the problem before the
role-play begins.
If you're in a group and people are unfamiliar with each other, consider doing some icebreaker  exercises
beforehand.
Step 2: Add Details
Next, set up a scenario in enough detail for it to feel "real." Make sure that everyone is clear about the
problem that you're trying to work through, and that they know what you want to achieve by the end of
the session.
Step 3: Assign Roles
Once you've set the scene, identify the various fictional characters involved in the scenario. Some of these
may be people who have to deal with the situation when it actually happens (for example, salespeople).
Others will represent people who are supportive or hostile, depending on the scenario (for example, an
angry client).
Once you've identified these roles, allocate them to the people involved in your exercise; they should use
their imagination to put themselves inside the minds of the people that they're representing. This involves
trying to understand their perspectives, goals, motivations, and feelings when they enter the situation.
Step 4: Act Out the Scenario
Each person can then assume their role, and act out the situation, trying different approaches where
necessary.It can be useful if the scenarios build up in intensity. For instance, if the aim of your role-play
is to practice a sales meeting, the person playing the role of the potential client could start as an ideal
client, and, through a series of scenarios, could become increasingly hostile and difficult. You could then
test and practice different approaches for handling situations, so that you can give participants experience
in handling them.
Step 5: Discuss What You Have Learned
When you finish the role-play, discuss what you've learned, so that you or the people involved can learn
from the experience.
25. Competence in speaking. Monologue and dialogue forms. Difficulties in
speaking and ways to tackle them.
Speaking is a communicative skill of sending an oral message. It is an
integral part of oral conversation. It is a productive skill and the produced message is directed at one or
more interlocutors. As any other kind of activity, any speech act always has some aim, a motive based on
a certain need; a definite topic – the ideas of the speaker; some product – dialogue or monologue and a
certain result – verbal or non-verbal reaction to the utterance.
Competence in speaking includes knowledge (linguistic, sociolinguisic, sociocultural, pragmatic,
background etc), skills (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, special communicative skills) and
communicative abilities. The composition of skills depends on the form of speaking – dialogue or
monologue.
Dialogues contain different dialogue unities consisting of different interconnected remarks: statement
+ statement; statement + question; statement + urge; statement + exclamation; question + statement;
question + question; question + urge; question + exclamation etc (15 types of remarks).
Dialogue speech skills include:
 to be able to start and to round up conversations;
 to maintain conversations within the topics envisaged by the curriculum;
 to expand the interlocutor’s utterance using the same topic;
 to switch to another topic;
 to use contracted forms and speech clichés characteristic of dialogues;
 to express one’s remarks emotionally using proper intonation, gestures, miming, exclamations;
 to combine utterances according to the communicative intention;
 to ask for information;
 to adequately react to the interlocutor’s remarks;
 to demonstrate patterns of speech behavior characteristic of native speakers.

Monologues as a form of speech activity and skills needed for it.

Monologue - a form of speech, is a result of active speech activity, designed for passive and mediated
perception and virtually unrelated to any other person speech in content or in a structural way.
Monologue speech skills include:
 to speak according to the aim and situation adequately covering its main aspects;
 to be able to combine some speech patterns in their logical development;
 to speak coherently and cohesively (using cohesive devices);
 to word utterances correctly using appropriate language material typical for the register and
demonstrating a range of grammar structures and vocabulary units;
 to use adequate paralinguistic means to get the message through;
 to make use of learning and life experience, cross-curricular knowledge etc.

 Difficulties in speaking and ways to tackle them.

Problems:
1) it may occur that the topic is above the level of learners’ proficiency;
2) the situation is above the level of learners’ intellectual abilities;
3) the topic or the situation is beyond learners’ knowledge;
4) psychological problems.
Ways to tackle with them
1) to establish favorable psychological climate in a group;
2) sitting arrangements (in circles, in islands);
3) to let learners first speak in pairs, in small groups, and then organize a whole-class discussion;
4) to give a clear instruction to the speaking task;
5) to give a purpose for the activity (info/opinion gap);
6) learners are to personalize language.
A good speaking activity:
- is motivating, has a clear purpose and a clear outcome;
- it requires language within learner’s capability;
- speaking opportunities are maximized and equal participation is ensured;
- learners don’t need to refer to their mother-tongue;
- the activity can be extended to allow learners to speak more independently and to personalize the
language used.

26. Assessment: aims, functions, types and forms. Requirements to assessment.

Objects of assessment.
Assessment: aims, functions, types and forms.
Assessment is a part of evaluation. Assessment deals with learners’ performance and giving points
according to the national point scheme.
Evaluation is an umbrella term including evaluation of the curriculum, evaluation of teaching materials,
evaluation of plans, organization of educational process, teachers’ and learners’ performance.
Evaluation can be qualitative and quantitative.
Testing is conducted under special conditions and through special items and it is a form of assessment
alongside with traditional oral exams.
Aims: to provide feedback, to motivate learners (help them understand their success).
Forms: oral/written; monolingual/bilingual; individual/pair/small group/whole class.
Functions:
- eliciting feedback (diagnostic function);
- correcting function;
- testing function (marks);
- educational function;
- developmental function.
Types of assessment:
1) diagnostic assessment (before a certain period of studies);
2) formative assessment (during the period of studies; should provide continuous feedback);
3) summative assessment (after a certain period of studies).
Types according to who performs: teacher assessment, external assessment, peer assessment, self-
assessment.
Forms of assessment may be oral and written, monolingual and bilingual, individual, pair, small group
or involve the whole class.
Individual form of assessment is supposed to be most objective and most appropriate for final,
summative assessment. It allows to assess every learner but takes too much time so not all the learners
may be assessed at the same lesson. Besides, other learners may not be actively involved while the
teacher talks with one of the learners. That is why this form of assessment is ineffective for young
learners. It must be accompanied with frontal forms: to add something to the learner’s utterance, to
correct it etc. Individual assessment takes place orally at the lessons or in a written form at the end of
the term.
Pair form of assessment is used to check on dialogue skill development but may be effectively
employed for other skills as well (e.g. checking the partner’s written paper etc).
Group form of assessment presupposes tasks that are performed as a group, e.g. acting out a
text, a role-play etc. All members of a group should contribute to common success and provide for the
opportunity to be assessed as a part of a group.
Frontal (whole class assessment) gives a possibility to involve all learners at the same time, high
level of activity, high tempo etc. But it may be somewhat superficial and not sufficient attention paid to
each learner, so some subjectivity of assessment may take place. That’s why frontal form is mainly used
for formative, not summative assessment. Frontal form of assessment may be used as a competition,
game, or role-play.

Requirements to assessment.
Requirements:
1) purposefulness;
2) representativeness;
3) objectivity;
4) regularity;
5) differentiation;
6) clarity of instructions.
Tests as a form of assessment, their advantages and disadvantages.
A test or examination (informally, exam or evaluation) is an assessment intended to measure a test-
taker's knowledge, skill.
their advantages
1. It has a positive impact on student achievement. 
2. It is a reliable and objective measurement of achievement. 
3. . Standardized tests allow for equal and equivalent content for all students.
4. A standardized test teaches students prioritization. 
5. It allows school districts to discover their good teachers. 
 disadvantages.
1. It has not had a positive impact on student education.
2. 2. Standardized testing can be predictable.  
3. They assume that all students start from the same point of understanding.
4. Standardized tests only look at raw comprehension data. 
5. Teacher evaluations have been tied to standardized test results.  
Objects of assessment in foreign language teaching.
The objects of assessment are the components of communicative competence: speech competence,
linguosociocultural competence, language competence and learning strategies. It is important that skills,
not knowledge is in focus.
School curriculum predetermines spheres and topics of communication, speech functions and
their exponents, language material, requirements to the level of each competence development etc.

27. Integrated development of different kinds of competences.

In developing lexical competence special attention should be given to those units that have no equivalents
in the native language or which have several different equivalents. It should be presented through
illustrative context, comparison with native language and linguocultural comments.
In grammar competence attention should be paid to such structures as word order, impersonal sentences,
negative answers when agree in negative questions etc.
Phonetic competence: intonation patterns.
Competence in reading and listening: visuals, comparison with learner’s native culture.
Competence in speaking: attention is paid to the communicative patterns.
Competence in writing: writing convention structures.
LSC competence is never tested separately, only in integration with other competences.
Integrating skills allow a teacher to introduce change of activity (not necessarily the subject) at frequent
intervals. By changing the pace in this way, the learners’ enjoyment, attention and motivation are being
continually renewed. The change is refreshing to them and to the teacher.
When learners get used to balance of skills within one lesson, they are often more relaxed. For each
learner, knowing their strengths and weaknesses, realizes that they will be able to participate in some way
during the lesson. They will have time to reflect upon the points which cause difficulty and also seek the
teacher’s advice. The latter will have also been freed to help by allotting part of the lesson to learner
controlled activities. If you are aware of your learners’ language needs, you can select or adapt tasks that
help them to practice relevant skills. For developing English for academic purposes, tasks involving
reading, note-taking and summarizing are helpful. Or to improve listening and reading you can have a
task of hearing a news item and comparing it with the written news summary. Or you can have text-based
tasks with written outcomes and discussions in various points in the task cycle.
In integrated skill instruction:
 learners are exposed to authentic language and are involved in meaningful activities;
 the language becomes not just an object of academic interest but a real means of interaction
among people;
 the learning of authentic content through language is highly motivating to learners of all ages and
backgrounds;
 teachers are given the opportunity to track learners’ progress in many skills at the same time.
All types of tasks we are going to enumerate can involve reading or listening as well as speaking and may
lead naturally into a writing phase.
 Listing. It may seem unimaginative but in practice listing tasks can generate a lot of talk as
learners explain their ideas. The processes involved are brainstorming (learners work in pairs or groups)
and fact-finding (learners find things out by asking each other or other people and referring to books or
other sources). The outcome would be the completed list, or possibly a draft mind map.
 Ordering and sorting. These tasks involve 4 main processes: sequencing items/actions/events in
a logical or chronological order; ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria;
categorizing items in given groups or grouping the under given headings; classifying items in different
ways where the categories themselves are not given.
 Comparing. The processes involved are: matching to identify specific points and relate them to
each other; finding similarities and things in common; finding differences.
 Problem solving. Problem-solving tasks make demands upon learners’ intellectual and reasoning
powers, and, though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The processes and the
time will vary enormously depending on the type and complexity of the problem. Real-life problems may
involve expressing hypotheses, describing experiences, comparing alternatives and evaluating and
agreeing a solution. Completion tasks are often based on short extracts from texts, where learners predict
the ending or piece together clues to guess it. The classification ends with case studies, which are more
complex, entail an in-depth consideration of many criteria and often involve additional fact-finding and
investigating.
 Sharing personal experiences. These tasks encourage learners to talk their experiences more
freely about themselves and share with others. The resulting interaction is closer to casual social
conversations because it is not so directly goal-oriented as in other tasks. For that very reason these open
tasks may be more difficult to get going in the classroom.
 Creative tasks (projects). They have more stages than other tasks and can involve combinations
of task types: listing, ordering, comparing and problem solving. Out-of-class research is sometimes
needed. Organizational skills and team-work are important in getting the task done.

28. Mixed-ability classes and differentiation (individualization).

Mixed-ability classes and differentiation (individualization).
Mixed-ability classes may differ in:
- mental abilities (slow – bright);
- learning styles (individual – group, risk-takers – risk-avoiders);
- learning experiences;
- gender interests.
How to differentiate:
1) time – different time for slow and bright learners;
2) amount and kind of support;
3) amount and form of input (content, information);
4) task complexity;
5) type of response;
6) grouping.
Differentiation requires much more preparation for the lesson.
Types of differentiation.
Differentiated instruction in the classroom can be done several ways. Grouping, varying amounts of
time, or changing the task are the most common types of differentiation. As far as grouping goes,
students can be grouped by ability level, interests, or intermingled levels of understanding.
Samples of differentiated activities.
 Using reading materials at varying readability levels;
 Putting text materials on tape;
 Using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students;
 Presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means;
 Meeting with small groups to re-teach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to extend the
thinking or skills of advanced learners.
Learners may differ in: Mental ability (bright and slow); Learning styles (in groups, alone, in pairs, when
teacher explains everything); Learning experience; The level of language competence; Gender; Interests.
Teacher should give everybody equal chances. That’s why differentiation is used. Learners should
achieve the same aim but it could be done in different ways.
 With slow learners it’s important to go over key points frequently
 Since concentration span is short, give a number of different tasks, always clear instructions and
all not too long
 Keep interest and motivation by giving challenging tasks (not too difficult but not too easy). The
tasks should arose their interest
 Use competition from time to time
 Give praise
 Keep interest in them as people (in their opinion)
 Don’t let slow learners switch off (not to take part in the (process)
 Be consistent in your demands. With gifted learners it’s always difficult (the can finish a task
earlier and have nothing to do or something else)
 We should think about additional tasks
 Pair them with quicker learners for them to help
 Involve them to explain something
It is also difficult with gifted learners – you should always think about additional tasks, pair them with
weaker students.
The main factors that teacher can use to differentiate: Time; Amount and kind of support (verbal, visual);
Amount and form of input (some students need text support, some don’t); Task complexity; Type of
response; Grouping.
Differentiation of content: It can be more abstract or less abstract (concrete); Complexity of the task;
Variety.
The weaker learners may quite easily feel demotivated. All learners should be involved.
29 Evaluating, selecting and adapting materials.
The task of a Ukrainian teacher is a bit easier since there exist lists of the course-books recommended by
the Ministry of Education and Science, so the choice is limited. Besides, region authorities and school
authorities and sometimes parents may also have their preferences. But teachers can have their say in the
selection process.

Evaluation criteria relevant in selecting a suitable course-book:

HEADINGS QUESTIONS
Content  Is it age-appropriate?
 Is it culturally appropriate?
 Does it correspond to the
curriculum?
 Is it engaging?

Skills and strategies  Is there balance between skills?

 Are different kinds of reading/
listening/ speaking/ writing practiced?

 Are assessment activities varied?

Activities  Is there a balance between
accuracy and fluency?
 Are the interaction patterns
varied?
  Are they logically sequenced?

 Is the language recycled?

Language  Is it meaningful?
 Is it accurate?
 Is it up-to-date?
Layout  Is it visually attractive?
 Is it clearly set out?
 Are pictures informative?
User-friendliness  Are instructions clear?
 Are test formats familiar to
students?
 Are any study tips given?
 Are audio/video materials
provided?
 Does it care for different learning
styles?
Teacher-friendliness  Is adequate guidance provided
for the teacher?
 Are there such components as
classroom CDs, a resource-pack, a test-
book, Teacher’s book?
 Are there keys and suggested
answers given in the Teacher’s edition?
Availability  How available and affordable is
the book?

Due to the huge amount of teaching materials at the global market, there is
no need to reinvent the wheel or to seek difference for the sake of originality.
However, from time to time a teacher may need to introduce additional materials to
restore interest when it is flagging, to provide light relief, to ensure differentiation
in mixed ability groups or to involve discussion of current events. In this case, a
teacher usually deals with ‘raw texts’ from World net, magazines etc and some
suggested tasks at educational sites. For the teacher who wishes to adapt the
materials, a number of options are available:
 Omission (leaves out things considered inappropriate, offensive,
unproductive for the particular group)
 Addition (where there seems to be inadequate coverage, teachers may
decide to add material, either in the form of texts or activities)
 Reduction (the teacher shortens an activity, a text etc)
 Extension (an activity is lengthened, e.g. to draw attention to some syntactic
patterning)
 Rewriting/modification (rewrites some activities to make them more
appropriate, more communicative, more demanding or more accessible to
their learners)
 Replacement (of inadequate material, texts or activities, e.g. with something
more up to date)
 Re-ordering (changing the order in which materials are presented)
 Branching (adding options to the existing activity or to suggest alternative
pathways through the activities, e.g. an analytical route).

30. External Independent Evaluation (ZNO) viewed diachronically and

synchronically.
(1993 –2020 )
2008
From 2008, the external independent evaluation is a prerequisite of entry to higher education. 2008
independent external evaluation is carried out with such items:

 Ukrainian language and literature;

 History of Ukraine (from ancient times to the present);
 World History (from ancient times to the present );
 Foreign Literature;
 Chemistry;
 Physics;
 Biology;
 Mathematics;
 Economic fundamentals;
 Basics of jurisprudence;
 Geography.

External independent evaluation or External independent testing (EIT, external testing, ET) are

examinations for admission to universities in Ukraine. Complex organizational procedures (first - testing)
aims to determine the level of academic performance of secondary schools during their admission
to higher education. The purpose of external evaluation: improving public education and implementation
of Ukraine's constitutional rights to equal access to quality education, monitoring of compliance with the
State Standard of secondary educationand the analysis of the education system, predict its development.
The results of external testing results are counted as a state of final attestation and the results of entrance
examinations to higher educational institutions. Since 2004, with the support of international NGOs and
external testing system is formed in Ukraine. Provision of external evaluation carried out by the
Ukrainian Center for Educational Quality Assessment in partnership with local education authorities,
Regional Institute of Postgraduate Education, educational institutions.
Weaknesses
 Despite the fact that the person who is testing allowed for testing upon presentation of a passport,
this protection was ineffective to prevent test taking another person. For example, a graduate student from
the University of Lviv for a fee agreed in 2008 to make a test of the Ukrainian language and literature at
the graduate school of one of Dnipropetrovsk. Rigging was found.[12]
 Annual change the rules of admission to universities.
 In case of errors that occur are not very rare, applicants may be admitted their scores. Because of
this act to university entrants this fails.
Benefits
 Creation of conditions for equal access to education for all, regardless of financial means
 Objectivity (not always the case. Example, when checking their statements is a human factor)
 Dealing with corruption at the local level, but the emergence of global corruption.
 Getting closer to European standards
ZNO or External Independent Evaluation is a chance for talented, intellectually curious and hardworking
students to get into a university.
Here is how it all works. Prospective students choose a programme they are interested in and find their
dream university, by either looking through university rankings or maybe following the advice of their
family and friends. Each university has its own entry requirement. Although requirements may change
with time, these changes are hardly ever drastic. Thus, you can always look up entry requirement for a
previous academic year. Entry requirements for each programme say which subjects you need to take
tests in. Pay attention that starting from 2015 Ukrainian Language and Literature test is divided into two
levels – basic and advanced. If Ukrainian Language and Literature is one of your majors, you should take
advanced ZNO test. Basic level is well enough for other programmes. Total score you get for all the tests
taken determines where you stand in relation to other applicants and what your chances are to have state-
funded education.
In 2016 ZNO will be held on different dates. Tests for high school graduates will take place from May 5,
2016 till May 30*, 2016. It will be Final State Examination in Ukrainian Language and Literature and
History of Ukraine or Mathematics at the choice of an applicant held in the form of ZNO. It means that
the results of ZNO are to be accepted as final school exams and university entrance exams. Apart from
that, there will be Final State Examination in foreign languages, but not in the form of ZNO.
In the period from June 1, 2016 till July 10, 2016 high school graduates will take tests in all other
subjects, which include Biology, Geography, Physics, Chemistry, English, Spanish, French, German and
Russian.
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