A Communications Network

???
 A Communications Network
What are the desirable properties of the switching box?
1. Every two users must be connected at a switch.
2. Every switch must "look alike".
3. The fewest number (but bigger than 1) of switches should
be used.

To satisfy 2, we would require (at a minimum) that each switch

connects the same number of users.

To satisfy 3, we would need to have each two users connected at

exactly one switch. It can now be shown that the minimum
number of switches is obtained when each pair of switches have
a unique user in common.
 A Communications Network
Rephrasing these requirements:
1. There exists a switch. (in fact, at least two)
2. Every switch connects exactly n users.
3. Not all users are on the same switch.
4. Each two users are connected at exactly one switch.
5. Each two switches have at least one user in common. (in fact,
exactly one)

With the interpretation : Users = Points, Switches = Lines, and

Connected = on the above requirements are precisely the axioms
of the Fano Geometry (with n = 3), so the switching box design is
given by this finite geometry.
More Geometries
 Pappus' Theorem

Pappus of Alexandria (340 A.D.)

 Pappus' Theorem

Pappus' Theorem: If points A,B and C are on one line

and A', B' and C' are on another line then the points of
intersection of the lines AC' and CA', AB' and BA', and
BC' and CB' lie on a common line called the Pappus line
of the configuration.
 Axioms for the Finite Geometry of
Pappus
1. There exists at least one line.
2. Every line has exactly three points.
3. Not all lines are on the same point. [N.B. Change from
the text]
4. If a point is not on a given line, then there exists
exactly one line on the point that is parallel to the given
line.
5. If P is a point not on a line, there exists exactly one
point P' on the line such that no line joins P and P'.
6. With the exception in Axiom 5, if P and Q are distinct
points, then exactly one line contains both of them.
 Theorem 1.10
Each point in the geometry of Pappus lies on exactly three
lines.

Pf. Let X be any point. By corrected axiom 3, there is a

line not containing X. This line contains points A,B,C
[Axiom 2]. X lies on lines meeting two of these points, say
B and C [Axiom 5]. There is exactly one line through X
parallel to BC [Axiom 4].
1. There exists at least one line. 2. Every line has exactly three points.
3. Not all lines are on the same point.
4. If a point is not on a given line, then there exists exactly one line on the
point that is parallel to the given line.
5. If P is a point not on a line, there exists exactly one point P' on the line such
that no line joins P and P'.
6. With the exception in Axiom 5, if P and Q are distinct points, then exactly
one line contains both of them.
 Theorem 1.10 (cont.)
Each point in the geometry of Pappus lies on exactly three
lines.
Pf (cont). There can be no other line through X since by
Axiom 4 it would have to meet BC at a point other than A,
B or C [Axioms 6 and 5], and this would contradict Axiom
2.

The Pappus geometry has 9 points and 9 lines.

1. There exists at least one line. 2. Every line has exactly three points.
3. Not all lines are on the same point.
4. If a point is not on a given line, then there exists exactly one line on the point
that is parallel to the given line.
5. If P is a point not on a line, there exists exactly one point P' on the line such
that no line joins P and P'.
6. With the exception in Axiom 5, if P and Q are distinct points, then exactly one
line contains both of them.
Desargues
Girard Desargues
(1591 - 1661)
Brouillon project d'une atteinte aux
evenemens des recontres du
Cone avec un Plan
(Rough draft for an essay on the
results of taking plane sections of
a cone) 1639

Father of Projective
Geometry
Desargues' Theorem

Triangles
perspective from a point.
Desargues' Theorem

Triangles
perspective from a line.
Desargues' Theorem

Two triangles
perspective from a
point are perspective
from a line.
 Desargues' Theorem
Desargues' Theorem: In a projective plane, two triangles
are said to be perspective from a point if the three lines
joining corresponding vertices of the triangles meet at a
common point called the center. Two triangles are said to
be perspective from a line if the three points of intersection
of corresponding lines all lie on a common line, called the
axis. Desargues' theorem states that two triangles are
perspective from a point if and only if they are
perspective from a line.

Desargues' Configuration has 10 points and 10 lines.

 Desargues Geometry
Local Definitions for this geometry only!

The line l is a polar of the point P if there is no line

connecting P and a point on l.

B'C' is a polar of A

The axis is a polar of

the center.
 Desargues Geometry
Local Definitions for this geometry only!

The point P is a pole of the line l if there is no point

common to l and any line on P.

B is a pole of A'C'

The center is a pole of

the axis.
 Axioms for Desargues' Geometry

1. There exists at least one point.

2. Each point has at least one polar.
3. Every line has at most one pole.
4. Two distinct points are on at most one line.
5. Every line has exactly three distinct points on it.
6. If a line does not contain a point P, then there is a
point on both the line and any polar of P.
 A Few Theorems
Proposition. P is the pole of l if and only if l is a polar of
P.

Proposition. If P is on a polar of Q then Q is on every

polar of P.

Theorem 1.11 Every line in the geometry of Desargues

has exactly one pole.

Theorem 1.12 Every point in the geometry of Desargues

has exactly one polar.
 A Proposition
P is the pole of l iff l is a polar of P.
Pf: Suppose that the point P is the pole of line l and BWOC that l
is not a polar of P. Since l is not a polar of P, there is a line, say w,
which connects P with a point, say Q, on l. But then w is a line on
P which has the point Q in common with l, which contradicts the
definition of P being the pole of l. So, we may conclude that l is a
polar of P.
Now suppose that l is a polar of P and P is not the pole of l. Since
P is not the pole of l, there is a line s on P which has a point R in
common with l. But this contradicts the definition of l being a
polar of P.

The line l is a polar of the point P if there is no line connecting P and a point
on l.
The point P is a pole of the line l if there is no point common to l and any line
on P.
 A Proposition
If P is on a polar of Q then Q is on every polar of P.

Pf: Let P be on a polar of Q, say m, and assume that Q is not on

some polar of P. Let l be this polar of P. Since Q is not on l, Axiom
6 says that there is a point R on l and on m. But now m is a line on
P which has a point in common with a polar of P, which
contradicts the definition of l being a polar of P. Therefore, Q must
be on this polar of P.

1. There exists at least one point.

2. Each point has at least one polar. 3. Every line has at most one pole.
4. Two distinct points are on at most one line.
5. Every line has exactly three distinct points on it.
6. If a line does not contain a point P, then there is a point on both the line
and any polar of P.
 Theorem 1.11
Every line in the geometry of Desargues has exactly one pole.
Pf: By Axiom 3, every line has at most one pole, so we need to
show that every line has at least one pole.
Let l be any line. Let R and S be two points on l (these exist by
Axiom 5). Let s be a polar of S (exists by Axiom 2). R can not be
on s, for if it was S would be connected to a point (R) on its polar
by the line l. So, by Axiom 6, s and any polar r of R have a point in
common, say P. Since P is on s and r, S and R are on any polar of
P. By Axiom 4, S and R can only be on one line, so l must be a
polar of P. By our first proposition, P is thus a pole of l.
1. There exists at least one point.
2. Each point has at least one polar. 3. Every line has at most one pole.
4. Two distinct points are on at most one line.
5. Every line has exactly three distinct points on it.
6. If a line does not contain a point P, then there is a point on both the line and
any polar of P.
 Theorem 1.12
Every point in the geometry of Desargues has exactly one polar.
Pf: By Axiom 2, each point has at least one polar, so we must show
that no point can have more than one polar.
Assume that point P has polars p1 and p2. Since P is not on p1,
Axiom 6 says that p1 and p2 meet at a point Q. Now, let R be a point
of p1, not equal to Q (exists by Axiom 5). Since R is on a polar of P,
P is on every polar of R (which exist by Axiom 2). In turn, P is on a
polar of R, so R is on every polar of P. Thus, R is on p2, and since Q
and R are on both polars, p1 = p2 by Axiom 4.
1. There exists at least one point.
2. Each point has at least one polar. 3. Every line has at most one pole.
4. Two distinct points are on at most one line.
5. Every line has exactly three distinct points on it.
6. If a line does not contain a point P, then there is a point on both the line
and any polar of P.
 Plane Duality Again
Three Point Geometry: Three Line Geometry:

1. There exist exactly 3 points in 1. There exist exactly 3 lines in this

this geometry. geometry.
2. Two distinct points are on 2. Two distinct lines are on exactly one
exactly one line. point.
3. Not all the points of the 3. Not all the lines of the geometry are
geometry are on the same line. on the same point.
4. Two distinct lines are on at least 4. Two distinct points are on at least one
one point. line.

Theorem 1.1 : Two distinct lines Theorem: Two distinct points are on
are on exactly one point. exactly one line.

Theorem 1.2 : The three point Theorem: The three line geometry has
geometry has exactly three lines. exactly three points.
 Plane Duals Again
We can show that not all of the points of the three line geometry
are on the same line – (hmmm, that's a good quiz question)

That means that all the axioms of the three point geometry are true
statements (either axioms or theorems) in the three line geometry.
So, the three line geometry is a three point geometry.

The converse also holds, that is, all the axioms of the three line
geometry are true statements in the three point geometry, so the
three point geometry is the three line geometry.

When a geometry is the same as its plane dual geometry we say

that the geometry is self-dual.
 Self-Dual Geometries

Other geometries that we have looked at which are self-dual are:

1. Fano Geometry
2. Desargues Geometry

It should be clear that in order for a geometry to possibly be self-

dual, it is necessary (but not sufficient) that the number of points
equals the number of lines. So, we can say without any work that
the four line geometry, the four point geometry and Young's
geometry can not be self-dual.

What about the Pappus Geometry? (9 points/9 lines)

 Fano's Geometry
1. There exists at least one line.
2. Every line of the geometry has exactly 3 points on it.
3. Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
4. For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on
both of them.
5. Each two lines have at least one point on both of them.

Theorem 1.7: Each two lines have exactly one point in

common.

Theorem 1.8 : Fano's geometry consists of exactly seven

points and seven lines.
 PG(n,q)
The Fano geometry is the smallest member of an
infinite family of self-dual geometries that are denoted
by PG(n,q). This stands for "the projective geometry of
dimension n and order q". Here n may be any positive
integer, but q must be a power of a prime number. The
axioms that define PG(2,q) are the same as those for the
Fano geometry, except that "3 points on a line" is
replaced by "q+1 points on a line". Fano's geometry is
thus PG(2,2).

Note that the definition of order in the text is incorrect.

It should be q, not q+1 as stated on pg. 31.
 PG(n,q)
The number of points (and also the number of lines, since these
are self-dual) in a PG(n,q) is given by:

q n1−1
q−1

So, PG(2,2) has 7 = (8-1)/(2-1) points and PG(2,3) has 13 = (27-

1)/(3-1) points.

These geometries are studied in detail in Math 4210.

 Euclidean Geometry

Euclid's Postulates
● A straight line can be drawn from any point to any
point.
● A finite straight line can be produced continuously
in a straight line.
● A circle may be described with any point as center
and any distance as radius.
● All right angles are equal to one another.

● If a transversal falls on two lines in such a way that the interior angles on
one side of the transversal are less than two right angles, then the lines meet
on that side on which the angles are less than two right angles.
 Euclidean Geometry
Euclid's unstated assumptions.

1. Lack of continuity.
2. Pasch's Axiom.
3. order of points and betweeness
4. problems with superposition.

However, even with these problems, Euclid did not ever

write down a false statement.

Modern treatments have either corrected or provided

alternatives to Euclid's scheme.
 Pasch's Axiom
If a line intersects one side of a triangle, not at a vertex, then it
must intersect another side of the triangle.
 Modern Treatments
Moritz Pasch (1882)
Guiseppi Peano (1889)
David Hilbert (1902) - in the style of Euclid
Oswald Veblen (1904, 1911)
E.V. Huntington (1913)
Henry Forder (1927)
G.D. Birkhoff (1932) - a different approach
 Fixing up Euclid

David Hilbert (1862 - 1943)

Undefined terms: Point, Line, Plane, Between,

Congruent, On.

20 Axioms needed for Euclidean Geometry.

III. In a plane α, there can be drawn through any

point A, lying outside of a straight line a, one and
only one straight line that does not intersect the line
a.
An Alternative to Euclid
G. D. Birkhoff (1884 - 1944)
I. The points of any line can be put into one-to-one
correspondence with the real numbers.

II. Two distinct points determine a unique line.

III. The half-lines through any point can be put into

one-to-one correspondence with the real numbers
(mod 2π).

IV. There exist similar, but not congruent, triangles.

 Axiom Systems
Desirable properties of Axiom Systems

1. consistent – should not contain contradictions.

2. complete – all theorems can be derived from them.
3. independent – no axiom can be proved from the others.

Note: We show independence by use of models

While independence is mathematically desirable, it is often not
pedagogically useful.