Power System Operation and Control Notes:15EE81 2019_20

MODULE 5: Power System Reliability and Security, State estimation of Power Systems

Structure

5.Power System Reliability and Security: Introduction

5.1 Security Levels of System
5.2 Reliability Cost
5.3 Adequacy Indices, Functions of System Security
5.4 Contingency Analysis, Linear Sensitivity Factors
5.5Contingency Selection and Ranking.
5.6 State estimation of Power Systems: Introduction,
5.7 Linear Least Square Estimation,
5.8 DC State Estimator, Other Issues in State Estimation. 10 Hours

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Level: L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying, L4 – Analyzing

Objectives

To explain reliability and contingency analysis, state estimation and related issues.

5. Power System Reliability and Security: Introduction

Power system reliability refers to the ability of a power system to provide adequate, stable,
reliable power to a given distribution.

The electric grid is fundamental to modern society. ... Therefore, it is essential to maintain
the reliability of the electric grid under all situations. We study power systems
reliability to learn how to prevent power outages and blackouts, and increase system reliability. So
much of society runs on electricity.

Power system security is the probability of the system to remain within its operating point, given the
probabilities of changes in the system due to unexpected incident and its environment.

5.1 Security Levels of System

According to the static security analysis and the proposed indices, the security level of a power
system is divided into five grades from high to low. ... It indicates that the security level of a power
system is normal, and the power system can withstand load growth in a small scale based on current
load level.

The power system operation is said to be normal when the power flows and the bus voltages
are within acceptable limits despite changes in load or available generation. From this perspective,
security is the probability of a power system’s operating point remaining in a viable state operation.
System security can be broken down into TWO major functions that are carried out in an operations
control centre: (i) Security assessment and (ii) Security control. Before going into the static security
level of a power system, let us analyse the different operating states of a power system. The states of
power system are classified into FIVE states (ie) Normal, Alert, Emergency, Extreme Emergency and
Restorative. Fig below depicts these states and the ways in which transition can occur from one state
to another.

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General Idea

In order to classify the security level of power systems, this paper mainly focuses on the
power system structure and operational states. Potential risk of the power system is identified based
on N-1 contingency test for the given system structure. For insecure power systems which do not
meeting the N-1 contingency test, the severity of potential risk is rated according to load shedding and
operating constraint violation. If a load shedding occurs, the security of the power system is regarded
as the worst risky level. Otherwise, if the operating constraint violation occurs, the security of the
power system is regarded as the less risky level. For power systems satisfying the N-1 contingency
test, i.e., secure power systems, the comprehensive safety index (CSI) which combines system margin
and disequilibrium load distribution (load entropy) is proposed. From the values of this CSI, the
security of the power system can be further divided into different levels. The flowchart of the SLC
method of power systems is shown in Figure

The system states are classified as:

1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
1. Normal state:

A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is one in which the total
demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints.

2. Alert state:

Ø A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated contingency states,
consists of the constraint limits violated.
Ø When the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases,
the system may be in alert state.
Ø All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the system may not have
all the inequality constraints satisfied.
Ø If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system to
secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

3. Emergency state

Ø The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated, but the
load constraint is satisfied .
Ø In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.

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Ø The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions, disconnection of
faulted section or load sharing.

4.Extremis state:

Ø When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it goes to either
emergency state or extremis state.
Ø In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied, this result is islanding.
Ø Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity .
Ø So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to the emergency state or
normal state.

5. Restorative state:

Ø From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state .The latter is a slow
process.
Ø Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and then to the secure state .
Ø This is done using restorative control action.

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Fig.1.1: Operating states of a power system

Power system Security

 To determine whether, and to what extent, the system is reasonably safe from

serious interference to its operation.

 Major concern in planning, design and operation stages of electric power systems

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 Important issue in planning and operation stages of a power system

 Violation of any security related inequality constraints pushes the system to

emergency or insecure state

 Power system security problems are classified as static and dynamic.

 Static security problem evaluates the system steady state performance for all

possible postulated contingencies.

 Dynamic analysis pertains to long term behavior of the system of the order of few

minutes under transient disturbances.

Adequacy Indices, Functions of System Security

The operation of a power system is usually in a normal state. Voltages and the frequency of
the system are within the normal range and no equipment is overloaded in this state.The system can
also maintain stability during disturbances considered in the power system planning. The security of
the power system is described by Thermal, voltage and stability limits.The system can also withstand
any single contingency without violating any of the limits.

5.2 Reliability Cost

The worth of reliability, as mentioned earlier, refers to the value of

continuous electrical service measured by the losses/damages resulting from interruptions in supply.
Determining the true and total cost of power interruptions is a formidable task.

Power system planners strive to determine the optimum balance between costs and reliability to
meet the ever-increasing customer load requirements. ... Such a cost/benefit analysis provides the
basis for answering the fundamental question in reliability (value-based) planning: ` How
much reliability is adequate? '.

5.3 Adequacy Indices, Functions of System Security

Most adequacy indices are basically expected values of a random variable, although the probability
distribution can be calculated in some cases. Reliability indices can be effectively employed both in
the planning and the operation horizon of power systems.

Single Area Reliability Analysis l Introduction and Definitions l Generation Adequacy l Generation
Capacity Adequacy Assessment Reliability Indices l Deterministic Indices l Probabilistic Indices

The objective of electric power systems is to supply electrical energy to consumers at low cost while
simultaneously providing acceptable, or economically justifiable, service quality. l Generation
adequacy deals with the relative ability of the system to supply system load considering that
generating units may be out of service when needed due to planned or unplanned outages or that the
basic energy sources may be inadequate. l Generation “adequacy” is to be contrasted with “security”

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which deals with the relative ability of the system to survive sudden shocks or upsets such as faults or
equipment failures without cascading failures or loss of stability.

Generation adequacy is usually measured through the use of some reliability (adequacy) index which
quantifies system reliability (adequacy) performance and it is enforced through a criterion based on an
acceptable value of this reliability index. l Some utilities rely on adequacy criteria whose values have
been chosen based on engineering judgment to yield a reasonable balance between system cost and
reliability performance and which have been validated by historical experience. However, if adequacy
criteria are based on probabilistic indices which bear reasonable relationships to the actual reliability
performance of the system, more pragmatic methods may be employed to determine proper values of
the criteria

Generation Capacity Adequacy Assessment Reliability Indices

Reliability indices can be broadly divided into two categories 1. Deterministic indices: These indices
reflect postulated conditions. They are not directly indicative of electric system reliability and area not
responsive to most parameters which influence system reliability performance. Therefore these
indices are of limited value for choosing between planning alternatives. Their calculation is, however,
simple and requires little data. 2. Probabilistic indices: These indices directly reflect the uncertainty
which is inherent in the power system reliability problem and have the capability of reflecting the
various parameters which can impact system reliability. Therefore, probabilistic indices permit the
quantitative evaluation of system alternatives through direct consideration of parameters which
influence reliability. This capability accounts for the increasing popularity and use of probabilistic
indices.

Probabilistic Indices 1. Loss of Load Expectation (LOLE) l DLOLE is the expected number of days
per year on which insufficient generating capacity is available to serve the daily peak load. l HLOLE
is the expected number of hours per year when insufficient generating capacity is available to serve
the load. l The LOLE index gives no information on a number of important system reliability
attributes: l Magnitude of capacity shortages when they occur. l Duration of capacity shortage events.
l Expected amount of unserved energy.

Power system security can be divided into two major functions. Security control :- It determines the
exact and proper security constraint scheduling which is required to obtain the
maximized security level. Security assessment :- It gives the security level of the system in the
operating state.

5.4 Contingency Analysis, Linear Sensitivity Factors

Contingency Analysis (CA) is a "what if" scenario that evaluates, provides and prioritizes the
impacts on an electric power system whenever typically unplanned problems or outages occur

In power systems, a contingency is when an element of the electric grid fails. The element that fails
could be a generator, transmission line, substation, transformer, etc. ... In general, an outage of one
transmission line or transformer may lead to overloads in other branches and/or sudden system
voltage rise or drop

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The process of identifying these severe contingencies is referred as contingency selection and this
can be done by calculating performance indices for each contingencies.

1. The loss of any element in the power system. The element however can be defined in a
multitude of ways. It could be a shunt, a generator, a transformer, or line.
2. Specifically a contingency begins and ends at a breaking device such as a circuit breaker.
Once the element can be removed the contingency can be defined.
3. Contingencies are critical for the operation of a power grid. No one wants the loss of an
element to cause a blackout, so the grid must be N-1 secure. Or simply put, the grid must be
able to lose any one element as you’ve defined each element.
4. A Real-Time Contignecy Assesment application will be run by the utility to ensure that given
the current state of the system, activating a contringency will not cause an overload
somewhere in the grid. This function is critical to ensuring the integrity of the power grid at
all times.
5. In power systems, a contingency is when an element of the electric grid fails. The element
that fails could be a generator, transmission line, substation, transformer, etc. and power
systems engineers perform contingency analyses on computer models of the electric grid to
see the effect of a particular element failing.
6. If a system is N-1 contingent or N-1 secure, it means that the system can continue to operate
within nominal limits if 1 element fails and engineers responsible for the transmission portion
of the electric grid (765–69 kV) try to make sure that the system is at least N-1 contingent.
However, a system can also be N-2 (2 elements fail) contingent although this is a lot more
difficult and expensive to do.

What are the factors affecting power system security?

Major Components Of Security Assessment

 System monitoring

 Contingency analysis

 Preventive and corrective actions

System Monitoring

 The prerequisite for security assessment of a power system is the knowledge of the system
states. Monitoring the system is therefore the 1st step.

 Measurement devices dispersed throughout the system help in getting a picture of the
current operating state. The measurements can be in the form of power injections, power flows,
voltage, current, status of circuit breakers, switches, transformer taps, generator output etc.,
which are telemetered to the control centre.

 Usually a state estimator is used in the control centre to process these telemetered data and
compute the best estimates of the system states.

 Remote control of the circuit breakers, disconnector switches, transformer taps etc. is
generally possible. The entire measurement and control system is

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commonly known as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

system.

Contingency Analysis

 Once the current operating state is known, the next task is the contingency analysis. Results
of contingency analysis allow the system to be operated defensively.

 Major components of contingency analysis are:

 Contingency definition

 Contingency selection

 Contingency evaluation

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Operating state of power system

Equality constraints:- Real and Reactive power balance at each node. Inequality constraints:-
Limitations of physical equipment such as currents and voltages must not exceed maximum limits.
Five operating states of power system I. Normal state II

Increasing frequency of severe blackouts indicate the need for tools that can reliably predict and
prevent blackouts in real time. One such tool is Contingency Analysis (CA), which assesses the
ability of a grid to withstand cascading component failures/contingencies.

Linear Sensitivity Factors

One of the simplest ways to present a quick calculation of possible overloads is to employ network
(linear) Sensitivity Factor in Power System. These Sensitivity Factor in Power System give the
approximate change in line flows for changes in generation in the system and can be calculated from
the DC load flow.

Contingency Analysis Procedure

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5.5Contingency Selection and Ranking.

Tools for Contingency Analysis

 DC Power Flow

 Linear sensitivity factors

 Line outage distribution factor

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5.6 State Estimation

State estimation is a digital processing scheme, which provides a real time data for many of
the central control and dispatch functions in a power system. Its purpose is to improve the
dispatch of energy, system reliability and planning capabilities by understanding the
operating state of the power system

State estimation in power systems means calculating the future state of a power system based on the
measurements that can be made on a system model. Adding to anon's answer, some of these
measurements can be now obtained in real time with Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs)

In any power system, the power demand needs to match generation, and state estimation uses
mathematical techniques to calculate future demand, which will help the dispatchers/operators
schedule generation accordingly.

5.7 Linear Least Square Estimation

The method of least squares is about estimating parameters by minimizing the squared discrepancies
between observed data, on the one hand, and their expected values on the other (see Optimization
Methods).

In statistics and mathematics, linear least squares is an approach to fitting a mathematical or

statistical model to data in cases where the idealized value provided by the model for any data point is
expressed linearly in terms of the unknown parameters of the model.

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Linear regression assumes a linear relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It
doesn't tell you how the model is fitted. Least square fitting is simply one of the possibilities

5.8 DC State Estimator, Other Issues in State Estimation

DC State Estimation. The DC model is dealing with linear measurement functions. h(x) and it is
obtained by linearisation of the AC model

At the end of the module, students will be able to:

CO5: Analyze reliability, security, contingency analysis and state estimation of power systems.[L4]

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