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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Solar water heating systems and their market trends

M. Raisul Islam a, K. Sumathy a,n, Samee Ullah Khan b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA
b
NDSU—CIIT Green Computing and Connections Laboratory North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: One of the most widely known solar thermal applications is solar water heating. In terms of installation
Received 13 December 2011 expenditures and energy cost over the total life of the system, solar water heating technology has
Received in revised form proven to be cost efficient for several domestic and industrial applications. Technological practicability
22 August 2012
of these systems has long been recognized and is presently employed in commercial sectors of many
Accepted 7 September 2012
countries. This paper presents an overview of various types of solar assisted water heating systems and
Available online 9 October 2012
their market potential. Residential solar water heating is a promising age old technology, which has
Keywords: been evolved and developed both in the range and quality as a successful packaged market–product.
Solar water heating The first part of this paper analyzes the performances along with how unique they are of different types
Heat pumps
of solar water heating systems and the later part of the paper covers its economic aspects.
Economic trend
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. A brief history of solar water heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Categorized studies conducted on SWH systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Thermosyphon systems (passive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2. Integrated collector storage systems (passive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. Direct circulation systems (active) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4. Indirect water heating systems (active) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5. Air systems (active) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4. Economic aspects of solar water heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1. Techno-economic evaluation of SWH systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2. Cost reduction trend in SWH systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3. Factors influencing SWH economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4. Installed market structure and related costs of SWH systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5. Social impacts and environmental issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1. Introduction sectors, and by 2010 over 100 countries had initiated policy targets
or promotion incentives related to renewable energy. Since 1980
Renewable energy sources have the capacity to play a sig- the use of solar technology has increased at a rate of about 30%
nificant role in replacing conventional fuels in four distinct zones, yearly [1]. In 2010, Renewable Energy Policy Network has reported
such as electric power production, hot water production, trans- that about 70 million houses are now using solar water heating
portation of fuels, and countryside (off-grid) power services. Fig. 1 (SWH) systems worldwide [2]. The economic benefits of the
represents the average annual growth in various renewable energy utilization of SWH can mainly be realized through savings in fuel
costs for water heating and environmental issues.
n
SWH systems are becoming widespread and are now contributing
Correspondence to: North Dakota State University, Dept 2490, PO Box 6050
Fargo, ND 58108, Tel.: þ1 701 231 7139; fax: þ 1 701 231 8913.
significantly to both domestic and industrial sectors in several
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Sumathy). countries. China currently dominates the global solar thermal market.
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.09.011
2 M. Raisul Islam et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25
Nomenclature MP melting point

PCM phase changing material
COP coefficient of performance PHP pulsating heat pipe
CPC compound parabolic collector PV photovoltaic
DSWH domestic solar water heating SASHP solar air source heat pump
DWH domestic water heating SF solar fraction
DX-SAHPdirect expansion solar assisted heat pump SWH solar water heater
ETHP evacuated tube heat pipe T temperature
ETC evacuated tube collector
FDM finite-difference method Greek letters
FPC flat-plate collector
FPT flat-plate with tubes Z efficiency
GIS geographical information system e exergy
GSHP ground source heat pump
GWP global warming potentiality Subscripts
HP heat pump
HPSAHP heat pipe solar assisted heat pump
o ambient condition
ICS integrated collector storage
ISAHP integral-type solar assisted heat pump
Chinese companies manufactured 28 million square meters of system In general, SWH technology is considered to be a matured one
in 2009 which was above 80% of global solar hot water/heating that has attained commercialization. Yet, there exists several
output [2]. Apart from China, Germany, Turkey, Brazil, and India lead opportunities to further improve the system performance for an
the solar hot water market. The European Union (EU) utilizes most
portion of the remaining total installed SWH capacity. Germany
marked a record in 2008 with an estimated SWH capacity of about
1.1 GW, but the new installations were slightly lower in 2009 [3].
Similarly, the government of Brazil targeted a reduction of more than
1000 MW additional energy installations by the year 2015 through
the initiation of SWH systems [4]. On an average, about 20,000 SWH
systems are being installed each year in India. On the other hand, the
US domestic market capacity is still relatively small compared to the
rest of the world but it is increasing. SWH market is also expanding in
the countries of Africa, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Tunisia,
and Zimbabwe. Palestine has the highest installation capacity among
the countries of Middle Eastern and North African region. The
capacity accounted for 68% of all the households that installed SWHs
routinely in new buildings in that region.
As discussed above, although SWH systems have a huge pro-
spectus, only a fraction of the projected possible utilization
has been realized [5]. Fig. 2 shows the overall percentage of the
World’s installed SWH system in different regions. In 2010, the total
installed capacity of SWH systems and space heating systems
increased by an estimated 16%, reaching only about 185 GW of
thermal energy globally (Table 1). As projected, the energy require-
ment by the year 2030 at about 0.6% more land will be required for Fig. 2. Solar hot water heating: existing capacity, top 10 countries/regions
10% net efficient solar conversion systems [2]. published by REN21 global status report in 2010 [2].
Solar PV 72%
49%
Solar PV (grid-connected only) 81%
60%
25%
Wind power 27%
Concentrating solar thermal … 77%
25%
Geothermal power 3%
4%
Hydropower 3%
3%
16%
Solar hot water/heating 16% 2010 only
17%
Ethanol production 23% end 2005-2010
7% Five-Year Period
Biodiesel production 38%
Fig. 1. Average annual growth rates of renewable energy capacity, 2005 to 2010 [132].
M. Raisul Islam et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25 3
Table 1
Existing capacity of solar water heating from the year 2007 to 2010 [2,132].
Selected indicators 2007 2008 2009 2010
Renewable power capacity (existing, including hydro) (GW) 1085 1150 1230 1320
Solar hot water capacity (existing) (GWth) 125 130 160 185
increase in its reliability. Renewable energy research has become Table 2

increasingly important since the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, and Typical characteristic values for some transparent insulation material [79].
more work is being carried out in analyzing different aspects of Insulation Thickness, Transparency, s Heat loss coefficient, U
SWH systems, such as collector design, storage tank, and different material (cm) (%) (W/m2/K)
working fluids, to suit regional or specific geographical conditions.
There exists distinct advantages and scope for SWH systems, and PMMA foam 1.6 58 3.6
Honeycomb 10 60 0.8
hence a detailed study on the performance of various types of SWH
structure
devices, including cost effectiveness and related economical factors Aerogel pellets 1.6 53 1.25
of such systems are presented in this paper. Aerogel pellets 1.6 53 0.8
evacuated
2. A brief history of solar water heating systems

been motivated to find new alternative energy sources for energy
SWH advanced from hypothesis to a prototype in the year 1767 production since the big oil crisis in 1973. This further aided the
by Swiss naturalist De Saussure, who built an insulated box painted application of HP technology and it became widespread for both
black at its bottom with two panes of glass covering at the top [6]. heating and cooling purposes. Although solar HP technology has
He called it ‘‘Hot Box’’, as the invention was capable of aiding in shown higher efficiencies (400–600%) in respective functions, its
cooking, heating, and producing hot water. But the first commercial capital cost is high, and hence it may not be suitable in places where
SWH, named Climax, was patented in the US by Clarence M. Kemp cost of the system becomes a constraint [12,13].
in 1891 [7]. His idea was further implemented as an integral Table 2). The production of SWH is now in packaged form and
collector storage solar water heater. Kemp placed a metal tank developed into a considerable business in the 21st Century. In
within a wooden box covered by a glass cover at the top part. His countries such as China, Australia, Germany, Greece, Israel, and
system produced hot water (38.8 1C) on sunny days. As an alternate USA, the manufacturing of SWHs has become a part of the
to burning wood or expensive fuel for heating water, the SWH industrial sector. Self-motivation is a factor that worked behind
became popular in California and many other states very quickly. the rapid expansion of SWH manufacturing industries in most parts
A third of all of the homes in Pasadena, California had SWH of Europe. Currently, commercially available SWHs employ the
systems by 1897 [8]. In early 1900s, several researchers focused following types as the packaged form: a system being operated by
their attention in improving the design of the SWH system to make passive mode with an anti-freeze working fluid, solar-assisted heat
it durable and efficient. In 1909, William Bailey tailored the Kemp’s pump system, a variety of evacuated solar collectors of both flat-
SWH system, by segregating it into two major parts; the solar plate and tubular in shape, and an active circulation system driven
thermal collector for collecting solar radiation along with storage by pumps facilitating a wide range of flow rates.
tank for storing the produced hot water. Further, to prevent heat
losses the storage tank was insulated. For the first time in the SWH
field, William Bailey introduced the thermosyphon principle to aid 3. Categorized studies conducted on SWH systems
the circulation of water in the collector and storage tank [9]. In
1950, Japan’s first commercial SWH was designed by Yamamoto by Depending on the nature of heat transfer through the working
getting an inspiration from a view of a large bath tub, filled with fluid, SWH systems can be broadly classified into: direct systems
water that was kept outside in the sunshine for a longer period of and indirect systems. In the direct system, water is heated directly
time. Later, SWH units based on the closed-pipe system were in the collector. In the indirect system, a heat transfer fluid is heated
introduced. in the collector which is then passed through a condenser or a heat
Solar heated water was utilized for several applications. Until exchanging device to heat water. Similarly, depending on the
1930, hot water for domestic purposes and for space heating were circulation of working fluids, SWH systems can also be grouped
mainly engaged by the coal fired boilers [10]. SWH become a into either: passive circulation system or active circulation system.
commercial product in the early 1960s. A typical SWH is of a Passive circulation systems refer to thermosyphonic method in
thermosyphon kind that uses an absorber area of 3–4 m2 flat-plate which the density difference induces the circulation of the fluid,
type solar collectors to energize a capacity of 150–180 l storage naturally. On the other hand, active circulation employs a pump to
tank. One of the popular types of SWH systems is the forced effect forced circulation of the working fluid. To overcome the
circulation water heating system. Except for solar collectors, other freezing of the working fluid, during adverse weather conditions,
accessory items such as the storage tank incorporated with piping, different techniques have been employed such as recirculation or
pump, and differential thermostat are usually kept indoors. drain-down technique and drain-back technique for direct and
Solar assisted systems not only rely on the conventional mode of indirect SWH systems, respectively. Usually differential thermo-
utilizing energy but also other systems, such as heat pump (HP) and stats are used to control the system in accordance to the hot water
photovoltaic thermal (PV/T). In 1927, HP technology was first demand with an exception to thermosyphon and integrated collector
patented by an English inventor T. G. N. Haldane [11]. However, storage systems.
before the 1960s, due to a record poor reliability of the HP units, the In the following sections (Section 3.1–Section 3.5), a variety of
commercial distribution was very limited. Since then, research focus SWH systems are reviewed and classified in terms of circula-
was directed on, and by the year 1970, the HP technology has been tion methods and applications. Table 3 summarizes the salient
improved in quality and reliability. Moreover, the researchers had features of different types of SWH systems found in the literature.
4
Table 3
A summary on studies conducted on solar water heating systems.
Categorization Investigator(s) Type of study Type of Cost analysis Collector used Working fluid Results
analysis
Theoretical Experimental Energy Exergy

(simulation)
Thermosyphon Close [16] O O FPC Water SWH Z ¼38%; collector Z ¼ 43%

SWH systems
DeSa [17] O O O FPC Water collector Z ¼ 75%
Gupta and Garg [18] O O O FPC Water Water temperature varies 551–65 1C
Ong [20] O O O FPC Water Max SWH, Z ¼52%
Sodha and Tiwari [21] O FPC Water Max SWH Z ¼ 55%
Kudish et al. [22] O FPC Water Max SWH Z ¼ 46–54%
M. Raisul Islam et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25
Morrison and Braun O O O FPC Water Water temperature 63 1C and SF ¼0.65
[23]
Uhlemann and Bansal O O FPC Water Pressurized system: thermal Z ¼ 41–45%; collector Z ¼48%; Non-
[24] pressurized system: thermal Z ¼ 47–57%; collector Z ¼ 58%;
Hobson and Norton [25] O O FPC Water Design a nomogram for thermosyphon SWH
Shariah and Shalabi [26] O O FPC Water Max Solar fraction achieved: Aqaba: SF ¼0.92 Amman: SF ¼0.85
Soin et al. [28] O O FPC Acetone Efficiency of the two-phase collector was 6–11% than similar
petroleum- thermosyphon SWH
ether
Farrington et al. [29] O O FPC R-11 SWH Z ¼35%;
Radhwan and Zaki [35] O O FPC R-11 Efficiency of the SWH varies 60–80%
Essen and Essen [38] O O FPC with heat pipe R-134a, Detailed temp. distribution and cumulative collector efficiencies were
R-407C, determined
R-410A
Chien et al. [40] O O O FPC with heat pipe Alcohol Best charging efficiency of the SWH is 82%
Chen et al. [41] O O FPC with heat pipe Alcohol Proposed SWH Z ¼ 63% (18% higher than the conventional SWH systems)
Arab et al. [42] O FPC with PHP Water Collector Z ¼54%; water temp. raise 97.7% with PHP
Yamaguchi et al. [44] O Evacuated tube R744 (CO2) Collector Z ¼66%; heat recovery Z ¼65%;
U-pipe
Ng et al. [45] O O ETHP Water Collector efficiency: Thermomax, Z ¼ 59–66% BSERI, Z ¼ 58–74%
Redpath et al. [46] O O O ETHP Water By 2D particle imaging velocimetry, the flow regime was determined
Budihardjo and O O O ETC Water Measure the optical and heat loss characteristics in a single-ended water-
Morrison [49] in-glass ETC
ICS systems Chinnappa and O O O Built-in-storage Water Total energy collection for the year was 1250 kW h
Gnanalingam [54]
Mohamad [55] O O O FPC storage Water Storage tank Z ¼66% and collector Z ¼ 50%
Schmidt and O O Economically Single tube ICS Water Annual SF ¼ 0.65; annual Z ¼ 32%
Goetzberger [56] evaluated
Smyth et al. [59] O O O Built-in-storage Water Overall heat loss reduction up to 20% and thermal energy retention up to
30%
Garg and Rani [61] O O Built-in-storage Water Using insulating cover performance improved 70%
Kaptan and Killic [63] O O O Built-in-storage Water Mean collector Z ¼ 50–55%
Chauhan and Kadambi O O Built-in-storage Water Collection Z ¼ 72% for mass flow rate of 75.9 kg/h
[64]
Sokolov and Vaxman O O Built-in-storage Water Daily bulk Z ¼53%
[65]
Ecevit et al. [66] O O Built-in-storage Water For 0.9 m2 collector area bulk Z ¼ 57% and 1.9 m2 collector area bulk
Z ¼ 53%;
Reddy [73] O O Built-in-storage Water Water delivery temp. can be achieved over 50 1C with a drop of 1.5–2 1C
during nighttime
Canbazoglu et al. [78] O O Economically Built-in-storage Water Heat storage capacity with PCM was 2.59–3.45 times higher than
evaluated conventional SWH system
Goetzberger and O O Economically Built-in-storage Water Annual SF ¼ 0.41–0.56; annual Z ¼26–35% for 4 m2 collector area
Rommel [79] evaluated
Reddy and Kaushika O O O Built-in-storage Water Solar energy collection Z ¼20–40% at collection temperature of 40–50 1C
[84]
Tripanagnostopoulos O O Economically CPC Water Water delivery temperature can be achieved over 50 1C
and Yianoulis [85] evaluated
Tripanagnostospoulos O Economically CPC Water Two cylindrical tanks were tested; result showed the practicability for
and Souliotis [87] evaluated DHW system
Smyth et al. [89] O O O CPC with modified Optical Z ¼ 65% and operating Z ¼ 35–55%
cusp reflector
Kalogirou [90] O O O O CPC Water Optical Z ¼65% and system cost 13% lower than convention SWH systems
Tripanagnostospoulos O O O O CPC Water Economic analysis showed the system design is cost-effective against the
et al. [91] flat-plate SWH system
Helal et al. [92] O O Economically CPC Water Max. thermal Z ¼ 65%
evaluated
Direct Li et al. [94] O O O ETC Water Established a heat transfer model of all-glass vacuum tube collector used
circulation in SWH
system
M. Raisul Islam et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25
Walker et al. [95] O Economically ETHP Water System efficiency 34% for the commercial building
evaluated
Chong et al [96] O O O V-trough reflector Water Optical Z ¼ 70.54%
Indirect Chaturvedi et al. [97] O O O FPT R-12 COP ¼2.5–4.0 (30–70 Hz frequency range)
circulation
System Hawlader et al. [98] O O O Air collector COP (system) ¼6.0; Z (air-collector)¼0.77;
Chyng et al. [99] O O O Tube-in-sheet type R-134a COP ¼1.7–2.5 (year round); Twater ¼ 57.2 1C;
Kuang et al. [100] O O O FPC R-22 COP (monthly avg.)¼ 4–6; Z (collector) ¼0.4–0.6;
Li et al. [101] O O O Aluminum plate R-22 COP (seasonal) ¼5.25 Z (collector) ¼ 1.08; esystem ¼21%; Twater ¼ 50.5 1C;
Hepbasli [102] O O O FPC Water- esystem ¼44.04%; COPsystem ¼ 0.201; eDSWH ¼ 14.53%;
antifreeze
mixture
Huang et al. [103] O O Tube-in-sheet type R-134a COP (HP-mode) ¼2.58; COP (hybrid-mode) ¼3.32;
Guoying et al. [104] O O O Cu–Al spiral-finned R-22 COP (monthly avg.)¼ 3.98–4.32; Twater ¼ 55 1C;
tubes
Air systems Sakai et al. [106] O O O Economically Evapora-tor coil R-22 Solar fraction¼30%; saving of electric consumption ¼6 kW h/day
evaluated
Morrison et al. [107] O Fan–coil evaporator COP (annual)¼ 2.3 (accounted for 56% annual energy savings)
Ito and Miura [102] O O O FPC R-22 13% reduction in energy consumption
Zhang et al. [109] O O Evapora-tor coil R-22 COP(winter) ¼ 2.61 (To ¼ 0 1C); COP(summer)¼ 5.66 (To ¼ 35 1C);
COP(spring/autumn) ¼ 4.8 (To ¼25 1C);
Ji et al. [110] O O Evapora-tor coil R-22 Mode-1: WH: COP (avg.) ¼ 4.02; Mode-2: WH: COP (avg.) ¼3.42, 3.25,
2.52, 2.00 (for To ¼ 31, 25, 15, 4.5 1C)
5
Kalogirou [14] classified solar energy systems used water heat- analyzed. Ong [19,20] in his first performance study on SWH used a
ing application into five different categories: (a) thermosyphon ‘‘finite-difference method (FDM)’’ to predict the average water
systems, (b) integrated collector storage (ICS) systems, (c) direct temperature and the water flow rate. However, the measured
circulation systems, (d) indirect water heating systems, and (e) air experimental data were contradictory to the theoretical predictions.
systems. Hence, the model was modified by taking into account of the
experimental conditions and used the FDM to predict the gain in
3.1. Thermosyphon systems (passive) the temperature at a given time step. Their model was further
revised by taking into account of the fin efficiency, collector plate
This is a passive system (illustrated in Fig. 3) that works on the efficiency, and heat loss coefficient of the collector plate. The
principle of density difference to transport heat energy. Potable heat simulated values agreed well with the measured data confirming
transfer fluid (i.e., water) is heated by a solar collector and the natural the validation of the model. Using the formulation developed by
convection drives the water from the solar collector unit to the hot Ong, Sodha and Tiwari [21] analyzed the performance of thermo-
water storage tank unit. Water becomes less dense due to solar syphon system, using explicit expressions instead of FDM. The
heating and expands according to the temperature rise. Hot water is results show that it is possible to predict the performance of SWH
circulated to the storage tank, and the relatively cooler water from system accurately using simple explicit equations.
the bottom of the tank is circulated to the solar collector device. This Kudish et al. [22] adapted a common laboratory practice, such as
flow is dependent on the duration of sunshine, since it aids density a constant level device, to measure the thermosyphon flow as a
variation which in turn affects the flow of water. To reduce pipe function of thermosyphon head and water inlet temperature. A
friction, a larger pipe diameter is recommended rather than the standard efficiency test curve was drawn based on thermosyphon
normal size (2–3 in. diameter). Usually, connecting lines are kept at flow data and confirmed that their method can be used to test solar
an angle to prevent the development of larger air bubbles that would collectors which operates in thermosyphon circulation mode.
resist the flow of water. Also, the solar collector–inlet is connected to Instantaneous solar collector efficiency as a function of time was
the bottom of the storage tank to avoid reverse flow. In situations, also predicted and analyzed. Unlike the conventional vertical storage
where the collector working pressure is less than the direct supply of tank used in SWH, Morrison and Braun [23] used a horizontal tank
city water, suitable pressure reduction valves are used. Usually an and studied the numerical operational characteristics and compared
auxiliary heater is included to augment the heating process of a SWH, with the conventional ones. Their results showed that an optimum
in particularly when used in solar adverse regions [15]. Although, it is result could be achieved when the daily collector flow volume
not commonly used in the other parts of the world, in European and approximately equaled the daily hot water consumption volume.
North American regions, a double tank SWH storage system is used. However, their results showed that horizontally placed tank did not
Numerous analytical and experimental studies have been inten- perform well compared to the vertically positioned tank.
sively carried out on the thermosyphon SWH systems by several Studies have also been carried out to identify the advantages of a
researchers and the significant studies are reported in this paper. pressurized tank compared to the conventional non-pressurized
Close [16] developed a mathematical model to predict the heat gain type. Uhlemann and Bansal [24] performed a comparative study
in a thermosyphon driven SWH system with no draw-off during the between a pressurized SWH system and a nonpressurized type
hours of operation. This model was validated with the experimental (Fig. 4). Based on the theory developed by Close [16], performance
data. In order to numerically evaluate the performance of a solar of this system was evaluated. For the identical meteorological
collector integrated to a SWH system which was subjected to the conditions, it was found that the efficiency of the pressurized type,
load removal, DeSa [17] introduced a simplified lumped parameter and nonpressurized type of SWH was 41% and 47%, respectively.
model to predict the water temperature at the collector outlet. Hobson and Norton [25] identified thermal characteristics, and
Close’s analysis was further investigated in detail by Gupta and operating conditions of thermosyphon SWH, and determined a
Garg [18], Ong [19,20], and Sodha and Tiwari [21]. characteristic thermal performance curve for a directly heated
Gupta and Garg [18] initially predicted the thermal performance individual system based on a 30 day test data. A perfect fit between
of domestic SWHs for the natural circulation mode of operation, the predicted annual solar fraction (SF) and the characteristic curve
under no load conditions. Solar collector’s efficiency factor in terms was obtained. Analysis was further extended to identify precise
of the shape of the absorber surface and the material’s thermal design parameters of a direct thermosyphon SWH system.
specifications were incorporated in their model. The radiation Shariah and Shalabi [26] designed a SWH for Amman and Aqaba
intensity as well as ambient temperature was also harmonically in Jordan by taking into account of the geographical conditions.
Cold Water In:

Solar Storage Tank
Potable
Controlling
Valve
Hot Water Out:
Potable
Sun Rays
Backup Water
Solar Collection Heater
Unit
Fig. 3. Basic principle of thermosyphon solar water heating system.

TRNSYS (Transient System Simulation Tool), a very convenient and The system could realize an efficiency of about 35%. After a pro-
efficient software package was used to optimize the design para- longed four year investigation on the hydronic and phase change
meters which in turn could enhance the SF of the system by about domestic water heating (DWH) systems, Bottum [30] concluded
7% to 25%. Further, it was reported that the optimum values of the that with proper installation and maintenance, hydronic system can
design parameters will not only improve the performance, but may also yield higher output. However, the refrigerant charged SWH has
also minimize the cost of the SWH system. The study also showed certain advantages of requiring less maintenance and can eliminate
that the variation in design parameters is highly sensitive to mild the risk of possible freezing of the working fluids in the collectors.
climate (Amman) than hot climate (Aqaba). Fanny and Terlizzi [31] developed a correlation ‘‘Fanny-Terlizzi
Apart from identifying optimum design parameters, several correlation’’ for R-11 driven SWH system. The experiments were
researches have been conducted to study the effectiveness in carried out indoor using Sun Simulator. The data was further
operating the SWH system involving 2-phase heat transfer process verified with the experimental data that was obtained for outdoor
using various refrigerants, compared to the conventional single phase conditions [32]. One of the disadvantages of using refrigerants
flow using water. The thermal performance of thermosyphon solar (which works on closed-loop) is its low efficiency compared to the
collector, charged with acetone, and petroleum-ether was studied by conventional open-loop system [33]. However, it is possible to
Soin et al. [27,28]. It was reported the efficiency of the two-phase increase the efficiency of the SWH systems by charging the collector
collector was only about 6–11% which was lower when compared to to the fullest; i.e., the fluid levels in the inlet of the tubes to be nearly
a direct thermosyphon SWH system. Schreyer [35] investigated the the same as the outlet [34]. Radhwan and Zaki [35] depicted the
effectiveness of fluorocarbon refrigerant, such as R-11, in the thermo- thermal nonequilibrium vapor generation process with fully
syphon collector for the domestic applications. The experimental refrigerant-filled collector tubes (Fig. 5) and showed the dependency
results showed that the peak instantaneous efficiency for two-phase of the thermophysical properties (temperature, pressure, and heat
refrigerant was higher than using the hydronic fluid. flux) of the refrigerant on the circulation flow rate while in phase
A similar work was carried out by Farrington et al. [29] on change. Similarly, Pluta and Pomierny [36] investigated the two-
R-11 charged DSWH system installed for a single-family residence. phase thermosyphon DWH system and emphasized on choosing the
Collector
Schematic Collector
Hot Tank Schematic
water
Tank
Floating
Valve
Warm Warm
water out water
Solar out
Solar Inlet
Radiation
Radiation
Supply
Water
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of (a) pressurized and (b) nonpressurized domestic thermosyphon SWH system [24].
Fig. 5. Thermosyphonic SWH: (a) refrigerant charged two-phase flow; (b) liquid and vapor regions for the unit element [35].
proper heat transfer medium, because it plays an important role in performed satisfactorily with heat collection efficiency of about
operating conditions of a thermosyphon system. 54% while the only thermosyphon mode without the PHP could
Apart from water, various other working fluids were tested for reach a maximum efficiency of 31–36%.
its effectiveness on the SWH system performance. Payakaruk Most of the refrigerants that are commonly used are either
et al. [37] investigated refrigerants, such as R-22, R-123, R-134a, chloro-fluorocarbon (CFC) or hydro-chloro-fluorocarbon (HCFC)
ethanol, and water at different filling ratios of 50%, 80%, and 100% which is known to have a detrimental impact on the environment.
and reported its influence on the thermal efficiency of the system. On the basis of global warming potentiality (GWP), the European
It is reported that the heat transfer characteristics of the system Union has passed legislation approving the phase-out process of
depend on the latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid; refrigerants having GWP more than 150 [43]. Research on natural
the lower the latent heat of vaporization, the higher will be the refrigerants, such as ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), air has
heat transfer rate. Esen and Esen [38] also studied the thermal gained momentum. The study reported that it was possible to effect
performance of closed two-phase thermosyphon heat pipe based natural convective flow, when CO2 fluid is heated to supercritical
solar collector (Fig. 6) using the refrigerants R-134a, R-407C, and state, because its density was strongly dependent on temperature
R-410A. A similar study was carried out by Chun et al. [39] using and pressure. This was sufficient to affect the water heating process.
different working fluids, such as acetone, methanol, distilled Experiment [44] showed that it was possible to obtain collector and
water, and ethanol-distilled water mixer, to measure the perfor- heat recovery efficiencies about 66.0% and 65.0%, respectively, even
mances using heat pipes. when operated in winter period.
To further identify the optimal filling ratio for the respective Other than a conventional use of the flat-plate or evacuated tube
maximum solar intensity values, Chien et al. [40] developed a collectors, the use of heat-pipe in an evacuated tube collector is
theoretical model and was validated with the experimented data. relatively new. Ng et al. [45] have proposed a theoretical model to
A charge efficiency of 82% was achieved in their test result which analyze the performance of evacuated-tube heat-pipe solar collector
is higher compared to the conventional SWH systems. As a follow and the model was validated with experiments. The performance
up of this reported work, they also analyzed [41] the influence of parameters, such as the collector efficiency and the useful energy
various heat transfer mechanisms, such as natural convection, gain were analyzed and the results showed that within a range of
geyser boiling, nucleate boiling, and film condensation in the two- coolant temperatures, they had linear characteristics. An experi-
phase thermosyphon SWH process. It was reported that by mental study on heat pipe evacuated tube SWH was carried out by
maintaining two-phase flow, it was possible to minimize heat Redpath et al. [46]. The internal heat transfer relationships in terms
losses and the system could attain about 18% in its characteristic of normalized Nusselt numbers were calculated and presented using
efficiency. Similarly, the use of refrigerants instead of water as the the experimental data. Further, two-dimensional Particle Imaging
working fluid in heat pipe based SWH system has also shown to Velocimetry (2D-PID) was used to visualize the thermosyphon fluid
have several merits in terms of effective heat transfer, because of regime. The study reported that the high cost related to the heat-
occurrence of the phase-change process. pipe evacuated tube SWH can be minimized by replacing the forced
Apart from using the conventional structure of heat pipes, the circulation to a thermosyphonic type. Enhancing the convective heat
feasibility of using extra-long pulsating heat pipes (PHP) having transfer can result in the overall improvement in the thermal
many U-turns with the capillary dimensions has recently been efficiency of the thermosyphon type SWH systems. A comprehen-
realized into the thermosython SWH systems. Arab et al. [42] sive study on different possible heat transfer augmentation techni-
constructed such PHP based thermosyphon SWH in order to ques were discussed by Jaisankar et al. [47] in the review. Among
investigate the performance with various filling ratios of distilled the various techniques, the effects of different design ratios of
water as working fluid. The configuration having 70% filling ratio twisted tapes (both helical and left–right arrangement) incorporated
Copper
absorber plate
Water Refrigerant
storage tank charging valve
Copper
heat pipe
Insulation
Water
storage tank
Glass cover
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of thermosyphon two-phase water heater with the use of heat pipe in a flat-plate solar collector [38].
into the heat exchanger and SWH systems were extensively studied. Their results showed that the solar collector tilt-angle has signifi-
Ho and Chen [48] introduced internal fins into the most common cant influence on the daily solar heat gain, but insignificant on the
sheet-and-tube solar collector to increase the effect of convective daily solar thermal conversion efficiency.
heat transfer coefficient. Their study summarized the effect of fins There are also many studies conducted with the introduction of
attached under various arrayed density in the recyclic operation and heat exchanger into the thermosyphon SWH systems. A detailed
concluded that higher collector efficiency could be achieved under theoretical analysis along with the experiments have been done
optimum parametric design. incorporating coiled copper tube as internal heat exchanger placed
Budihardjo and Morrison [49] simulated a water-in-glass evac- inside the storage tank by Koffi et al. [51]. Their results showed a
uated tube thermosyphon SWH device to measure the optical and 58% collector thermal effectiveness with a hot water temperature of
heat loss characteristics in a single-ended tube. This system is also 85 1C which was tested in the West African meteorological region.
popularly referred to as the ‘‘wet-tube concept’’. The investigated Huang et al. [52] introduced different types of thermosyphon
system incorporated pressure tubing inside an all-glass evacuated flat-plate SWH with a mantle heat exchanger. Experimental results
tube system that is commonly used in solar energy market. One of have shown that the mean daily efficiency of SWH using a mantle
the drawbacks is that it is applicable only for low-temperature heat exchanger can reach up to 50%. This reported value may be
application, because of the fact that the fluid is circulated in the lower than that of thermosyphon flat-plate SWH without heat
glass tube which cannot endure high pressures. In order to examine exchanger, but higher than that of an all-glass evacuated tubular
the influence of collector tilt-angles on the thermal performance of SWHs.
water-in-glass tubes SWH, Tang et al. [50] have tested two identical
experimental set-ups having tilt-angles of 221 and 461, respectively. 3.2. Integrated collector storage systems (passive)
Unlike the conventional SWH system in which a collector acts as

expansion pipe an absorber of sunlight, the ICS system utilizes both the collector as
glass cover well as the storage tank as an absorber to collect solar radiation. In
most cases, the entire exterior part of the reservoir acts as an
absorber
absorber. However, these systems are subjected to heavy heat
channel losses, especially during non-sunshine hours. Several measures,
insulation such as selective absorber surface coatings, insulating materials,
and a single or double glazing glass covers have been used to
tank reduce the heat losses. A few other techniques were also attempted
Ta to culminate the heat loses: movable protection cover, insulated
Tw
baffle plate, and utilizing phase change material (PCM) inside the
water storage tank. Researchers have also attempted to use transparent
thermal diode insulating materials for the appropriate exposed parts. Further, to
reduce the heat losses, the storage tank was operated on thermal
stratification modes, by drawing the hot water from the top of the
insulation storage tank and cold water inlet to the bottom of the tank.
Numerous studies on the design and thermal performance
improvements of ICS system SWH are presented in the literature.
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of ICS solar water heating system designed by Technological development in the ICS SWH systems have compre-
Mohamad [55]. hensively discussed by Smyth et al. [53]. Several design parameters,
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the cross section of ICS system investigated by Schmidt and Goetzberger [56].
such as storage tank design and its’ orientation, methods of glazing, on a tubular design provided with a baffle plate and confirmed that
insulation, reflectors, use of PCM in the storage tank, use of baffle the collection efficiencies can be significantly improved by optimiz-
plates, and this influence on optical efficiency and thermal perfor- ing the baffle plate and the insulation thickness of the storage tank.
mance have also been detailed in their study. The first draw-off Similar to the above discussed work, Chauhan and Kadambi
rectangular shaped ICS SWH system was introduced by Chinnappa [64] worked on an inexpensive SWH having a rectangular storage
and Gnanalingam [54]. The system contained about 13 m length tank of 70 l capacity. The water in the storage tank was in direct
metallic coil (diameter¼7.5 cm) inserted in the wooden box with contact with the absorber plate which was placed on the top of
the bottom being insulated and the top being provided with a double storage tank. Four different modes of operation, such as (a) flow
paned glass cover. The study reported that, the system performed aided by a pump, (b) thermosyphonic flow, (c) draw-off water at
well providing hot water (around 50 1C) about 30–50 gallons, on a water temperature around 50–60 1C, and (d) continuous flow of
clear sunny day. water over the absorber plate at the rates of 38 kg/h, 60 kg/h, and
Similar to the above work, an easy-to-manufacture integrated 76 kg/h, were tested. When operated under natural convection
SWH system was studied by Mohamad [55] in which a thermal mode, the system could attain a thermal efficiency around 50–53%,
diode was used to avoid the reverse flow of hot water during the with hot water attaining a temperature of about 50–57 1C. Instead
night time (Fig. 7). The results proved that the thermal diode of rectangular geometry storage tank Sokolov and Vaxman [65] and
significantly reduces the heat losses. Various studies have suggested Ecevit et al. [66] introduced a triangular shaped storage tank in an
that tubular storage system is better than rectangular storage ICS system. Results have shown that it is possible to achieve a bulk
system, since it is more pressure resistant, and be able to connect efficiency of about 60%, which is much higher than a conventional
water mains directly. For use in colder regions, such as Freiburg, thermosyphon system (35%) [67].
Germany, an effective ICS system combining the tubular-shaped The use of phase change material in the water storage medium
storage tank with a reflector of involute geometry was proposed by has been reviewed in detail by Shukla et al. [68]. An ICS system
Schmidt and Goetzberger [56]. Their system is schematically incorporated with latent heat storage was investigated by Prakash
depicted in Fig. 8. The thermal performance of a SWH system et al. [69]. During the effect of sunlight, water gets heated and
involving more than one storage tank connected in series was eventually heat is transferred to the PCM stored in the form of
analyzed by Sodha et al. [57]. A correlation for the general design capsules at the bottom of the tank. During the period of no
method of ICS systems to evaluate the annual solar fractions of the sunshine, and the time of withdrawal of hot water from the
systems was developed by Panico and Clark [58]. To mitigate the storage tank, the PCM releases energy by changing its state from
heat loses to the surrounding environment, a novel built-in-storage liquid to solid that keeps the water warm.
vessel design was proposed by Smyth et al. [59]. Their experimental Paraffin wax (MP 54 1C) was used as thermal energy storage
results reported a 20% heat loss reduction by the system. A similar medium [70]. To further improve its efficiency, a reflector was
work utilizing a heat exchanger was attempted by Kumer and utilized to effect solar energy collection. The system could ensure
Tiwari [60]. Fig. 9 shows the schematic of the system in which a good recovery of hot water supply over a 24 h cycle, with an
heat exchanger plate was incorporated to augment the heat efficiency of about 60%. Galenen and Brink [71] and Kumer [72]
transfer. ICS systems are generally employed for low cost system also used Paraffin as the heat storage element. Reddy [73] also
applications. Garg and Rani [61] designed a rectangular storage tank tested transient performance of an ICS water heating system,
with a nighttime insulating cover to maintain the water tempera- using Paraffin as PCM. PCM was stored in a rectangular enclosure
ture above 40 1C. In order to enhance the performance further, a provided with fins to augment the heat transfer. The study shows
baffle plate was used inside the absorber tank [61,62]. Results that maximum water temperature, minimizing the heat losses.
showed that, if the system with baffle plate and is covered with The temperature of water without any fins was measured to be
insulation during night time, the system can supply hot water up to 50 1C with a drop of 1–2 1C during nighttime. However, with an
55 1C in the early morning hours. Kaptan and Kilic [63] also worked optimal nine-fin configuration, the maximum water temperature
Fig. 9. Built-in-storage solar water heater incorporated with heat exchanger plate designed by Kumer and Tiwari [60].
Fig. 10. Cross-sectional view of heat storage tank combined with PCM was designed by Canbazoglu et al. [78].
could reach up to about 83 1C which is comparatively higher than used over the absorber/collector plate (Table 2). The listed works
the other ICS configurations. Several other phase change materials, utilized evacuated-tube and integrated-collector-storage system,
such as ammonium alum (NH4Al(SO4)2 12H2O, MP 95 1C), fatty and was tested using indoor sun simulator. Reddy and Kaushika
acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid with melting temperature [84] also worked on the temperature insulation materials,
varying 50 1C to 70 1C have been used for ICS water heating but experimental studies were conducted under outdoor condi-
system [74–77]. Canbazoglu et al. [78] compared PCM-charged tions and it was possible to attain the storage efficiencies around
SWH systems with that of the conventional SWH systems with no 20–40%.
PCM. PCM-filled polyethylyne bottles were set in their storage Apart from using a conventional flat-plate collector integrated
system in three rows. The cross-sectional view of the system to an ICS device concentrated collectors have also been used to
is shown in Fig. 10. Various hydrated salt-PCMs, such as zinc assist the operation of ICS device. Several other significant studies
nitrate hexahydrate (Zn(NO3)2 6H2O), disodium hydrogen phos- have been carried out on the stationary compound parabolic
phate dodecahydrate (Na2HPHO4 12H2O), calcium chloride hexa- collector (CPC) solar concentrating devices. The use of ICS type
hydrate (CaCl2 6H2O), and sodium sulfate decahydrate (Glauber’s solar systems of horizontal cylindrical shape with the aid of
salt–Na2SO4 10H2O) were tested. The variations in water tem- stationary asymmetric CPC curved mirror envelop were designed
peratures at the midpoint of the water storage system with (Fig. 11), constructed, and tested by Tripanagnostopoulos and
respect to the collector outlet temperatures were investigated. Yianoulis [85]. What made this work unique was that a hot air
Without drawing-off the hot water during night, the system could trap was created between the absorber surface and the reflector
attain about 46 1C. Results were compared with the conventional to suppress the thermal losses. Their results showed that it was
SWH system and found that the hot water production and the possible to attain storing water temperature to about 50 1C, even
accumulated heat in the SWH system were roughly 2.6–3.5 times during low solar radiation ( 600 W/m2). They further modified
higher in case of with the PCM-charged system. the system by incorporating two series connected cylindrical
Numerous studies have been conducted to enhance the thermal storage tanks placed horizontally in asymmetric CPC reflectors.
performance of an ICS device by incorporating transparent insula- These low cost and long-lasting systems were designed to operate
tion material to the appropriate sections of the solar collector and efficiently using two inverted cylindrical surfaces by mitigating
storage tank [79–83]. Goetzberger and Rommel [79] have summar- thermal losses. The geometrical shape of inverted cylindrical
ized different types of transparent insulating materials that could be surface used in DSWH systems are illustrated in Fig. 12.
The horizontal and vertical positioned ICS storage systems reflector cavity with proper insulation. With such modification, it
with symmetric CPC and involute reflector troughs were tested by was possible to retain 60% of the collected energy for a continuous
Tripanagnostopoulos and Souliotis [87]. A comparative assess- period of 16 h of non-solar periods.
ment was made between the CPC and involute reflector troughs To further improve thermal performance of the CPC integrated
in terms of daily mean efficiency and results have shown that CPC ICS device, Kalogirou [90] proposed a built-in-storage system
reflectors could achieve higher mean daily efficiency (37–60%), comprising of two cylinder storage tanks. Later, some design
while involute troughs could achieve higher efficiency only at low improvements were made by Tripanagnostopoulos et al. [91] to
working temperature conditions. To minimize heat losses in an attain an efficient and low cost ICS system. Both single and double
ICS system, Smyth et al. [88,89] have proposed a modification. cylindrical horizontal tanks, constructed in symmetric and asym-
That is, to place 2/3rd of the storage vessel in a ‘W’ modified metric truncated CPC reflector troughs were tested. Two cylinders
concentrating cusp and the remaining part to be kept outside the connected in series showed better water temperature stratification
Cylinder Tank
Section A-A’
Hot Air Trap
ICS Type-I
Section A-A’
Cylinder Tank
partially exposed
Section B-B’
ICS Type-II
Fully Exposed Section B-B’

to Sun
ICS Type-III
Fig. 11. Three different types of Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) system designed by Tripanagnostopoulos et al. [85].
Cylindrical Storage
Tank Arrangement
Solar Radiation Solar Radiation
Concentrating
Parabolic
Collector reflector
Fig. 12. Cross sectional view of the asymmetric CPC reflected two cylindrical storage tank ICS system proposed by Tripanagnostopoulos et al. [86].
and the asymmetric CPC reflectors have contributed for thermal observed between the predicted and computed collector outlet
loss reduction. One of the highlight of this study is its simplicity temperatures, and the deviation was within 5%. The system
in design and cost-effectiveness. Cost reduction of these ICS schematic is shown in Fig. 13.
systems are due to the use of iron oxide glazing, economical matt Walker et al. [95] designed and installed a direct circulation
black coating for the absorber surface, and stainless steel sheet SWH system (Fig. 14) at the Social Security Administration’s Mid-
(or aluminized Mylar) for the reflector surface. The involute shaped Atlantic Center in Philadelphia. Evacuated-tube heat-pipe solar
geometry of the parabolic reflector was further designed using a collector of 36 m2 net absorber area was employed to energize the
single cylinder tank with a reflector including three parabolic storage tank. The simplicity in design and low erection cost made
branches by Helal et al. [92] to make the ICS system more compact the system attractive to be implemented in commercial buildings.
and less costly with improved performance for a medium-sized Unlike conventional systems, in this system the incoming water
family. was preheated in the recirculation loop.
A new type of inverted absorber ICS SWH placed in a tertiary Due to the fact that evacuated tube collector generate high
cavity of CPC reflectors incorporated with a secondary tubular temperatures beyond 100 1C, it might be a point of concern when
shaped reflector was tested by Smyth et al. [93]. Different transpar- operating in regions where the ambient temperature and solar
ent baffles were positioned in the ICS cavity and the results showed radiation availability is high during summer. To prevent thermal
that the incorporation of baffle plates could not only improve the losses from the evacuated tube, a high temperature switch can be
optical efficiency, but also increase the thermal retention at a rate of employed. This control switch can overcome the abovementioned
59.3% by suppressing the convection losses. issue. To overcome the two temperature extremes, such as over-
heating in summer and freezing in winter, air can be used as the
3.3. Direct circulation systems (active) working fluid in the circulation tubes rather than using water
directly. A fan is used to mobilize the air through the flow
Unlike thermosyphon systems, direct circulation systems distribution tubes and the concentric air-to-water heat exchanger
require a pump to circulate water from storage tank to the collector delivers the heated water to the horizontal storage tank.
to get heated. The hot water flows back to the storage system and is Apart from what was previously discussed, different types of
ready for the end-user. The pump is usually controlled by a solar energy collecting devices flat plate collector, evacuated tube
differential thermostat that regulates water at the top header by a collector, ICS system, and concentrating collector devices, a
sufficient margin to the bottom of the tank. A check valve prevents relatively new V-trough SWH system is also available in the
the reverse circulation to avoid nighttime thermal losses from the commercial market. An easy to manufacture and cost effective
collector. The collectors can be positioned either above or below the V-trough SWH employing direct circulation mode was analyzed
storage tank as pump is used to activate circulation. Direct circula- by Chong et al. [96]. By combining solar absorber with a V-shaped
tion system is generally used only under situations when freezing is trough reflector, the thermal performance of the SWH was
not a concern. Sometimes, water from the cold storage tank or city substantially improved. The test was carried out with and without
water supply can be used directly into the system. Care should be glazing and insulating materials. It was reported that the proto-
taken when quality of water is hard or acidic, in a direct circulation type could achieve an optical efficiency of 71% with a maximum
system since it would result in scale deposition which in turn may outlet water temperature to 82 1C and 67 1C for with and without
cause clogging or corrosion of the collector tubes. Direct circulation insulation, respectively.
systems more commonly employ a single storage tank which is with
an auxiliary heater. However, in few case-studies, two-tank storage
systems have been used as well. 3.4. Indirect water heating systems (active)
During the inevitable situations, when the direct circulation
system has to be employed, to operate in adverse weather condi- Indirect systems of SWH utilize two circulation loops to effect
tions (where ambient temperature can go below 0 1C) certain heating: (a) the closed-collector loop and (b) the open storage
modifications are introduced in the design of SWH system to tank loop. Usually, the heat transfer fluid is circulated within the
overcome the freezing issues. One such modification is to operate closed-collector loop, to gain the heat and is then passed through
the direct circulation system in drain-back mode. Generally, a a heat exchanger where heat is transported to the potable water
differential controller integrated pump is used to circulate water that flows in an open loop to the storage tank. There are several
from the storage tank to the solar collectors. A drain-down valve different types of working fluids used in the closed loop, such as
provides the freeze protection function. While turned on by the water, refrigerants, and anti-freeze mixtures. The heat exchanger
controller, the valve isolates the solar collector inlet from the storage can either be an internal system (placed inside the water storage
tank outlet. At the same time, the differential controller opens a tank or outside of the storage tank) or as an external system. An
valve that permits water to drain away from the collector. In order expansion tank integrated with a pressure relief valve is used in
to drain water out from the bottom of collectors, a vacuum breaker the closed circulation loop system. In the pressurized system, the
is installed at the top of each collector to allow the air circulation. tank is provided (an additional expansion tank) to have a control
For well-known reasons, such as, low cost and superior anti- on temperature and pressure of the working fluid. However, for
freeze performance, all-glass vacuum tube collectors are commonly the unpressurized system, the tank is provided to release the
used in direct circulation SWH system. In the past few decades, pressure when required to vent.
majority of vacuum tube collectors were used for domestic water There exists numerous works [97–104] related to the indirect
heating purposes. As expected, the performance of vacuum collec- mode of SWH systems and some significant investigations are
tors is higher than flat-plate collector due to low convection heat discussed in this section. A variable capacity direct expansion
loss from the absorber. The heat transfer model evaluates the solar-assisted HP system for the DWH purpose was tested by
performance of all-glass vacuum tube collectors incorporated in a Chaturvedi et al. [97]. The system used a bare solar collector acting
direct circulation system was developed by Li et al. [94]. This as an evaporator for the heat pump system. The system was tested
simplified model takes into account of natural circulation in single for the widely varying ambient conditions, and accordingly the
glass tube as well as forced flow circulation in the manifold header. compressor speed was varied through a variable frequency drive.
The flow equations were obtained by analyzing the friction losses The observational results showed that the coefficient of performance
and buoyancy forces inside the tube. A positive agreement was (COP) of the system can be enhanced extensively by reducing the
Solar Collector Unit:

=47°
=55°
n=32 Fan-coil Unit
Unit-1 Unit-2 Unit-3
Valve Air Flow
Pump T
T
Unit-4 Unit-5 Unit-6
Flow meter Plate Heat

Exchanger
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up developed by Li et al. [94].
Evacuated Tube
Heat-pipe Solar
Collector Array
Upper Roof
Ground Level
Recirculation
Loop To load
Control
Pump Unit
Supply Return
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of a recirculation loop applied to the SWH systems of commercial building [95].
speed of the compressor when the ambient temperatures are higher. reported to be 7.0 and 5.0, respectively. Similarly, the SF was 0.65
Hence, such systems perform better in summer compared to winter. and 0.61, respectively.
Hawlader et al. [98] designed, fabricated, and tested a com- The performance of an integral-type solar assisted heat pump
bined solar-assisted HP dryer and water heater that had been (ISAHP) water heater was carried out by Chyng et al. [99] and the
examined under the ambient conditions of Singapore. The system schematic of the modeled system is shown in Fig. 15. Simulations
consisted of a variable-speed reciprocating compressor, solar were performed based on the assumption that, except the storage
collector as evaporator, water storage tank and, an air-cooled tank, all other components are at steady-state. The model agreed
condenser. To assess the influence of different variables and the well with the experimental data and the predicted results were
performance of the system, a Formula Translation (FORTRAN)-aided within 10% of the measured data.
simulation program was developed. The system performance Analytical and experimental studies on a direct-expansion solar-
with and without an auxiliary water heater, was compared in assisted heat pump (DX-SAHP) water heating system (Fig. 16) were
terms of the performance parameters, such as SF and COP. conducted by Kuang et al. [100]. The system comprised of a 2 m2
The COP values of the predicted and experimental studies were bare flat-plate collector was used as an evaporator as a part of the
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of integral-type solar-assisted heat pump (ISAHP) system [99].
refrigerant cycle. The long-term thermal performance of the system mode operated independent of electrical energy input, to higher
was predicted by a simulation model. The results have shown that thermal efficiency. The designed and constructed prototype was
monthly average COP ranged from 4 to 6, while the solar collector tested outdoors and the schematic is shown in Fig. 17. The results
efficiency varied from 40% to 60%. A similar work was carried out showed that the COP of the hybrid-mode of operation could attain
by Li et al. [101]. The DX-SAHP system comprised of 4.2 m2 solar as high as 3.32, and as such its performance was higher by about
collector as evaporator area, a 0.75 kW hermetic compressor of 29% compared to the HP mode of operation.
rotary type, 150 l water storage tank with a copper coil of 60 m Guoying et al. [104] carried out a numerical study to evaluate
length submerged into the tank, a thermostatic expansion valve, the operational performance of a solar air-source heat pump
and R-22 refrigerant was used as the working fluid. The system was (SASHP) water heater (Fig. 18). This system was specially designed
shown to heat 150 l of water a day to a temperature of 51 1C, when which utilizes a flat-plate solar collector being provided with
the maximum solar radiation received at noon was about 955 W/m2. spiral-finned tubes to collect energy both from solar radiation, as
The exergy analysis on each of the element of the DX-SAHP water well as from the surrounding air. For the given meteorological
heating system, identified that most heat losses occurred in the conditions of Nanjing, China, the theoretical results showed that
compressor, followed by the collector, and the condenser. To the designed SASHP water heater of 150 l capacity could efficiently
further enhance the thermal performance (for the SWH system as heat water up to 55 1C.
well as all the other components), additional methods were also
suggested. Hepbasli [102] also carried out exergy analysis to
evaluate the performance of a solar-assisted domestic hot water 3.5. Air systems (active)
tank coupled with ground-source heat pump (GSHP). Along with
the GSHP system components, a solar collector of 12 m2 surface Unlike water or other refrigerants, air has also been used as
area and a water storage tank was integrated to it. Results proved working fluid, for its unique advantages. Compared to the conven-
that, it is possible to attain 14.5% efficiency for residential SWH tional SWH system, air can be used as a working fluid even during
system and 44.06% when the entire system is taken into account. freezing weather conditions, is non-corrosive, and requires only low
Apart from heat pumps, heat pipes were also utilized for water maintenance requirements. However, the system is generally large
heating application. Huang et al. [103] worked on heat pipe solar- and requires considerably large space for air handling unit. A typical
assisted conventional heat pump (HPSAHP) water heating system. arrangement of a solar air heating system incorporated with a
The performance of the combined solar heat pipe collector and pebble bed storage unit is illustrated in Fig. 19. Fans and dampers
conventional HP were examined to calculate the overall COP of are incorporated to aid the system operation. The heat gained by
the system. When solar radiation was low, the system operated in the air in the collector duct is released through a heat exchanger to
HP mode. However, during the clear sunny days, the heat-pipe aid domestic hot water supply of up to 80 1C.
Collector/evaporator
Hot water
Water tank
valve
Condenser
Thermostatic
Filter-dryer
expansion Cold water
valve (TEV) Sight glass
inlet
Accumulator
Compressor
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of DX-SAHP water heater presented by Kuang et al. [100].
Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of heat-pipe solar-assisted heat-pump system presented by Huang et al. [103].
A major drawback of the air systems is that air has low heating energy enhanced the total electrical energy savings and the need
capacity and its performance deteriorates further when the for reverse cycle defrosting operation was eliminated. A common
ambient temperature is very low. Research has been carried out form of air-source HP water heater as a packaged product is
to overcome the disadvantages that are inherent to air assisted comprised of a water-cooled condenser, a compressor, and a
HPs to certain extent. Sekai et al. [106] studied a specific HP fan-coil evaporator. Condenser may either be separated from
system that could overcome the aforementioned problem. An the storage tank through which water is pumped from storage
air-source HP was designed to operate on a HP cycle and was tank and placed at the top of the unit or a wrap-around coil on the
provided with an auxiliary heater to meet the demand during wall of the storage tank. An air-source HP of this kind (Fig. 20)
insufficient solar radiation. The HP mode of operation was was evaluated by Morrison et al. [107] for its seasonal perfor-
activated during day-time and the study showed that, the solar mance and annual load variation of the system and was reported
Collector/evaporator Compressor Condenser Hot water
Water tank
Expansion valve City water
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of SAS-HPWH designed by Guoying et al. [104].
Auxiliary water heating are not popular, because of its high initial costs, and
Fan Unit to unreliability in operation.
Unit house
Apart from the above discussed solar water heating systems,
Heat Exchanger literature [140,111,112] shows that photovoltaic (PV) panels were
also utilized to demonstrate water heating. Though it has some
merits such as not requiring freeze protection and simple installa-
Damper
tion, these systems are not popular because of the current cost and
P To water line the PV modules. Similarly, studies on photovoltaic thermal collec-
tors have been used to affect water heating. Recently, Xu et al. [113]
have analyzed experimentally a low-concentrating photovoltaic/
Preheat Water thermal collector integrated heat pump system. Fixed truncated
Main Tank heater parabolic concentrators were used to reflect solar radiation on the
supply Return air
photovoltaic cells, and R134a was used as refrigerant in the HP
from
mode. It was reported that the system could provide the hot water
house
up to 70 1C with an average COP of 4.8 in summer period.
Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of standard air system configuration [105].
4. Economic aspects of solar water heating systems

that the system could attain an yearly average COP of 2.3
(accounting for 56% annual energy savings). Although the tested 4.1. Techno-economic evaluation of SWH systems
COP is significantly lower than other conventional types of SWHs
or solar-assisted HPs, the installation flexibility of these systems The potential of any renewable technology is dependent on the
have a scope in solar-adverse regions. Currently air-source HP proper assessment of planning and promoting the system among
products are commercially available and are used in regions that the end-users. A method to evaluate the market potential for
encounter harsh weather conditions. domestic water heating has been presented by Voinvontas et al.
To improve the performance of air assisted heat pump water [114]. The method has been based on a geographical information
heating systems, studies have been carried out by Ito and Miura, system (GIS) in the domestic sector of Greece. The model took
utilizing dual heat sources: air and water. At steady state condi- into consideration the parameters associated with geographical
tions, for the heat pump, when the temperature of a specific variability that influenced solar radiation and power require-
source was greater than the sum of the temperature of its degree ments for the specified area. The size of the population and the
of superheat and the evaporation temperature of the other number of families greatly influenced the energy demand in
(alternative) heat source, heat would be absorbed from both heat residential energy uses. The above discussed model provides
sources at the same time. This resulted in a higher evaporation some special insight into the energy savings and profits that
temperature as well as higher COP compared to a single heat could be obtained from a large-scale deployment of domestic
source system [108]. water heating systems. The model takes into account of two main
Zhang et al. [109] worked on optimization of air source HP financial factors; power generation cost, and the net present value
water heating system. This system included a HP, a water storage of the investment. For Greece, based on the current installation
tank, and connecting pipes. The energy gained in the evaporator of domestic water heating systems ( 2 106 m2 collector area), it
from the air source is transported via a Rankin cycle to release has been estimated an energy saving of about 1200 GW-h/yr. The
heat to the cold water. This system employed a rotary compressor study further shows that, it is possible to increase energy savings
to run the thermodynamic cycle to heat the water from its to about 3169 GW-h/yr, if the estimated 75% of homes install the
temperature up to a pre-set water temperature of 55 1C. SWH systems. Currently, this model is helpful to analyze the
A novel combined air-conditioning and a water heating system variation in energy demand with the time discrepancies of solar
was introduced by Ji et al. [110]. Such split-type air-conditioner radiation. However, it was restricted only to the domestic sector
unit under out-door conditions could affect both space cooling and did not account for the variation in load. A typical domestic
and water heating, simultaneously. But the air-to-water HPs for hot water load pattern has been analyzed by Mutch [115].
Fig. 20. Air-source heat pump water heater (a) with wrap-around condenser coil, and (b) with external condenser [107].
As expected the hot water demand in the morning and evening it could lead to a potential savings of 1.1 million kW-h of
hours was generally higher than the rest of the day. To support electricity per year. The estimated technical potential, economic
the large fractions of these loads, water heated by solar energy potential, and market potential (with no auxiliary heating) are
must be stored one day prior to the consumption. Minor varia- 1700 m2, 1540 m2, and 300 m2 of collector area, respectively. The
tions of time discrepancies on load patterns do not have any proposed framework is generic in nature and provides accurate
major impact on the performance of DWH systems. However, information about SWH system required for any specific area and
variations in peak demand during weekend closures of commer- henceforth, policy makers could use this as a tool to track and
cial buildings may have a significant influence on water heater promote SWH systems nationwide.
performance and its optimal design parameters. Another simple method to evaluate the effectiveness of SWH
The techno-economic evaluations play an important role in systems is to assess the energy savings by the product of the SF and
establishing a strong market strategy for solar water heating the numbers of SWH integrated buildings. Denholm [118] has
systems and also persuade necessary information for energy policy published a detailed on the technical potential of SWH to reduce
decisions. Chandrasekar and Kandpal [116] have developed a fossil fuel use and green house gas emissions in United States.
comprehensive nomograph to determine the potential number of Several technical factors were investigated in evaluating the feasi-
households who can use water heating systems in India. Factors, bility of SWH systems: (a) the orientation of house roofs, (b) the
such as the availability of shadow-free sunshine hours, space minimum size of roofs, (c) the fraction of shadow covering the solar
availability, practical awareness of system operation, cost of the collector, and (d) the capability of supplying hot water according to
SWH system, financial constraints, and motivation plays a role in the demand. It was also reported some other related nontechnical
the establishment of water heating systems in the residential factors: (a) the cost estimation of SWH, (b) aesthetics, (c) local
buildings. A simple framework for financial evaluation of SWH building codes, (d) percentage of buildings in use by tenants, and
systems was also developed which took into account of net present (e) ordinances. The study has reported the current technical poten-
value of the system, the benefit to cost ratio, internal rate of return, tial of SWH in US is estimated to about 1 quad (1.055 1018 J) of
and the payback period. Based on a thorough investigation, the primary energy savings per year. To implement the cost-benefit
study reports that, the operation and maintenance cost of the analysis more effectively, Pan et al. [119] proposed the concept of
system as well as capacity utilization plays as key factors in the number of effective solar days and effective solar radiation (ESR)
penetration of this solar water technology in the domestic market. instead of using the total annual solar radiation parameter which
The above discussed model presented inputs for assessing the may overestimate the amount of energy benefits. ESR calculation
utilization of SWH systems in India. Using some of these inputs, was based on the tap water temperature and the solar insolation for
Pillai and Banerjee [117] developed a methodology to estimate each region of Taiwan to figure out the applicability of SWH. This
the potential for SWH systems for India, by taking into account of model estimated the ratios of ESR to total annual solar radiation in
both micro and macro level inputs as shown in Fig. 21. The the range of 82–89%, and the payback periods from 6 to 15 years, for
methodology was end-user based and hence, the end uses of the different geographical regions of Taiwan.
target area initially identified and classified on the basis of The popular f-chart method [120] and the demographic data
application sector. The potential was then estimated for each for a target region can also be used to assess the estimated power
type of end-use based on its hot water use pattern and other savings due to the installation of domestic SWH systems. Finan-
micro level factors. As a case study, the developed methodology cial profits can be estimated using economic indices and profit
was implemented to a target residential area of 2 sq. km which potential of the manufacturing may be estimated by comparing
included hospitals, hotels, and nursing homes. The study reported all of the economic costs and benefits regarding SWH. These costs
that with installation of SWH systems ( 1700 m2 collector area), included material and labor costs as well as taxes. Market prices
INPUTS OUTPUTS
Weather data Technical Potential of
- Solar Radiation SWHS
- Ambient temperature
Economic Potential of
Population data SWHS
- Income groups
- Occupation Market Potential of SWHS
- Household size MODEL
Potential Fuel Saving
Economic data
- Price of conventional fuel Load Curve of Electricity
- Capital cost of SWHS for Heating (No SWHS)
Infrastructure Monthly average hourly

- Potential end use sectors savings in electricity
- No. of end use points in each sector
- Roof area availability
Hot Water Usage Patterns
Fig. 21. Input and output parameters for modeling the potential approximation of solar water heating system [117].
of SWH product generally depend on the size of the system, controller, and other space related costs [124]. Government
its brand name, and the place of purchase. rebate subsidies also have an impact on the market penetration
of SWH systems. According to the US Energy Policy: 2005 (Section
4.2. Cost reduction trend in SWH systems 1335), tax credit amounting to 30% of the total purchase amount
of qualified SWHs [125]. This Credit also applies to cover asso-
Due to technological feasibility and economic viability among ciated costs with equipment and cost of labor related to installa-
various other applications, SWH systems are one of the most popular tion, piping, and wiring.
systems of utilizing solar energy as the energy source. There exist The Social Security Administration (SSA) and general services
numerous low temperature applications for various end-uses, such administration (GSA) in Philadelphia switched their auxiliary heat-
as residential hot water production, space heating/cooling, commer- ing component of SWH system from using fuel oil and natural gas to
cial buildings, hotels, schools, swimming pool heating, industrial solar radiation [95] mainly due to high gas prices. As an alternative
process heat, solar-assisted district heating, desalination, and crop approach, this cost-effective design could provide advantages of
drying. SWH technologies are already well developed and can be avoiding additional tanks and piping for the preheating system of
easily marketed at considerably low prices. A comparison of cost and flat-plate collectors. The use of evacuated-tube collectors made the
typical characteristics of SWH systems used by US and China market system possible with a recirculation loop of SWH at the roof of the
is presented in Table 4. From the energy utilization perspective, building. Modifying the existing system with the reheating of water
Xiaowu and Ben [122] conducted an energy analysis based on ‘‘Three heating system could be yet another alternative way to implement
Procedure Theory’’ in which three sub-procedures, such as conver- cost effective retrofits of SWH systems on existing commercial
sion procedure, utilization procedure, and recycling procedure are building. This moderation could in turn increase the market pene-
closely related to each other. To provide a good assessment of saving tration of this type of SWH system. ASHRAE reported the Active
cost of the system and to increase the efficiency of the domestic- Solar System Design Manual [126] that presents the details about
scale SWH, an exergy analysis of the system was also conducted. This this reheating approach.
helps to figure out exergy losses and identify the most inefficient
component of any SWH system. The study reported that the storage 4.3. Factors influencing SWH economics
tank is the weakest unit and suggested to maintain stratification in
the tank, to minimize losses. Following typical phases of any technology development, eco-
Apart from the domestic uses, hot water and pressurized steam nomic aspects also plays a major role in dictating the marketability
are used for industrial applications. The cost of the industrial SWH of the product. Economic performance of the SWH system depends
system varies depending on the thermal capacity, storage conve- on several important factors, such as (a) the insulating materials
nience, and pressure requirement for the system. Another growing and the method of insulation, (b) materials used to construct,
market for SWH is the commercial building sector. Many govern- (c) the effectiveness of bonding between collector tubes and fins,
ment policies are now in place to promote solar units for common (d) thermal conductivity of tubes and fins, (e) corrosion resistance
household purposes, such as water heating, space heating, and of the exposed parts and water contacts, and (f) the life span of the
cooling applications. To meet such dependencies, solar energy entire system in various climatic conditions. Another important
driven products need to be manufactured in a proportionate rate. factor that influences on the performance of SWH system is the
However, adopted policies have the goal to achieve 20–30% of the water quality. Especially in the urban regions of the developing
potential uses in future [123]. countries where quality of water is not maintained, major issues are
Total cost of SWH system which includes the costs associated encountered in terms of scale formation in the connecting pipes
with manufacturing to the installation stage is influenced by and the collector system, resulting in poor performance. Solving
various factors, such as costs related to engineering expertise, such issues demand some modifications to the SWH system. An
labor for installation, cost of solar thermal collectors, structural external heat exchanger with a heat transport medium could
costs of mounting racks, plumbing supplies, pumps, data logger, resolve this problem. In the case of a large scale SWH system, a
Table 4
Comparison of costs and other general characteristics of SWH market between US and China [121].
Characteristics US market China market
Typical installed cost $5,000–10,000 $300–1,000

(domestic, 2–4
people)
Most common Indirect (with pump) Thermosyphon (no pump)
technology
Tank capacity 80 gal 30–50 gal
Collector sizes 50 square feet 20 square feet
Backup system Conventional electric/gas Electric heating element
Quality Highest, SRCC certified Low, many not certified and shorter system life
Typical installation Collectors on pitched roof, indoor tank, complex design, building not Collectors and tank on the roof (flat or pitched type roof),
designed for SWH, limited SWH experience, high labor costs. simple system, experienced installers, low labor costs.
Market volume 30,000 installs/year 6000,000 instalations/year
number of collectors need to connect in series to energize the Muneer et al. [130] to learn the prospectus of introducing SWH
storage tank. Hot water production capacity of above 3000 l/day of systems in the textile industries. An economic analysis of the
such systems are usually connected by an array of collectors in proposed SWH system was carried out to find the monetary
series with considerable length of pipes which require a driving viability of the system and it was reported that the payback
pump to circulate the heat transport medium rather using the period is about 6.7 years.
thermosyphon mode of operation [127]. Another cost-effective In order to improve the performance of PV panels as well as to
approach is to install DSWH systems by integrating the collector improve the economics of such system, PV-thermal systems were
and water supply piping with the initial floor-plan of new homes to introduced. A photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar system provide the
be constructed. A collective approach can be adopted by installing a generation of electricity as well as heat energy simultaneously.
community SWH facility which would supply the demand of a Water is used as coolant to absorb the waste heat from the PV
group of houses. Optimization of solar collector area to the storage panel, and this waste water (coolant) could be utilized for domestic
tank capacity for a hybrid SWH was studied by Misra [128]. It was purposes. In typical warm climate regions, liquid PV/T systems are
reported that the use of auxiliary heater inside the storage tank particularly useful for domestic hot water production. An economical
causes large amount of heat loss due to the fact that the hot water evaluation of a PV/T water heating system was carried out by Sok
storage tank needs to maintain a large volume of water at constant et al. [131] for the Northern part of China. Though the objective was
delivery temperature. Reducing the auxiliary energy consumption noble, the study reported that such systems are not economically
could improve the economics of the system. Therefore, it was viable due to the inherent high costs of the PV panel. An estimated
recommended to provide auxiliary heater at the load point. annual generation of 790 kW-h thermal energy and 100 kW-h
In order to obtain techno-economically feasible standardized electric energy were compared with the current low energy priced
water heating systems, it is important to evaluate the viability of other conventional SWH systems and reported that in the current
the chosen SWH system design. Such studies will serve as one of the market, the hybrid PV/T could not make enough economic savings.
promotional measures in deploying them in the market. The need for Thermal energy output from a PV/T system can easily be replaced by
viability studies of DSWH systems has been detailed by Srinivas [127] an 85% efficient gas water heater considering an equivalent amount
and has presented an exclusive viability study on the development of energy consumption. However, a combination of lower initial
and dissemination levels of DSWH systems in Indian households. investment, operational costs, higher PV thermal conversion effi-
Various factors and sub-elements related to the dissemination barrier ciency, and financial support could make the hybrid system attrac-
of DSWH systems which impede the widespread use among the end- tive. Recently because of a large demographics and the recent
users were analyzed. Srinivas suggested four simple dimensions limitation of roof space per household, the Chinese government
along with its characteristic features to overcome the barrier and to has considered the PV/T technology to be an alternative option and
make such systems economically viable: technical dimension, eco- are now showing commitment towards policy development to make
nomic dimension, commercial dissemination dimension, and social the hybrid PV/Thermal technologies cost-effective, which may
and behavioral dimension. Among these, technological barrier was become economically viable in the near future.
pointed out as one of the major barriers which included the efficiency Another collective approach is the ‘‘solar combi-system’’ which
of SWH system, quality of elements used, product life cycle, and supplies space heating and cooling demands along with the hot
reliability of components, method of sophistication used, and ease of water production. This system utilizes many small solar collector
running (installation, maintenance, and operation). Besides this, units connected together in series. A back-up system of non-solar
economical dimension also influence the viability of the system secondary heat source is necessary for the uninterrupted heat
which is largely dependent on low energy cost, subsidies of market services to the connected areas. About 10–60% of the collective
competitive items, and cost of operation/maintenance. hot water and heating requirement can be met in the most part of
The net savings of a SWH system is also dependent on its size. the central and the northern Europe by employing such system [2].
SWH systems though popularly employed to meet the domestic In many parts of Europe, regional heating and cooling systems use
hot water supply; they are also utilized to serve the hot water solar energy integrated with the conventional sources. In Germany
demand in the industrial sector. A capacity of 8000 kW-h thermal alone, eight solar-assisted district heating systems were con-
SWH plant was modeled and installed by Nagaraju et al. [129] to structed by the end of 2003, which have the prospect to serve
supply a demand of 110,000 l/day of about 85 1C for the egg 30–95% of total heating and hot water demands per year.
powder plant. Solar collector having an exposed area of 2560 m2,
four storage tanks (each having storage capacity of 57.5 m3), and 4.4. Installed market structure and related costs of SWH systems
distribution pumps were integrated together to serve as a SWH
system. It was reported that the annual net savings of fossil fuel Solar thermal collectors are mainly used for heating water to
consumption was about 78%. A similar study was carried out by provide heating or cooling depending on the domestic and industrial
180
Non-residential
160
Residential
140
120
Capacity (MWth)
100
80
60
40
20
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Fig. 22. Annual installed U.S. capacity for solar heating and cooling, 2001 to 2010 [133].
Table 5 Table 6
Status of the solar water heating systems, characteristics and the energy costs in Averaged profile dependent efficiencies measured from different water heating
world market [132]. systems [138].
Application Typical characteristics Typical energy costs, Systems Average COP ASHRAE NREL/BA
(U.S. cents/kW h) (all year 90.2 Draw
around) Draw schedule
Solar hot water Size: 2–5 m2 2–20 (household) schedule (Avg. COP)
(household); (Avg. COP)
20–200 m2 1–15 (medium)
(medium/multi-family); Standard Electric 50 gal. tank 0.85 0.87 0.83
0.5–2 MWth 1–8 (large) Solar flat plate differential w/ 3.41 3.55 3.29
(large/district heating); 80 gal. tank
Types: Evacuated tube, ICS w/50 gal. tank 1.44 1.63 1.28
Flat-plate Solar flat plate PV pumped w/ 2.43 2.94 2.34
80 gal.
Tankless electric 0.89 090 0.87
Natural gas 40 gal. tank 0.54 0.54 0.55
sectors’ requirement. It has been estimated by solar energy indus- Tankless natural gas 0.71 0.72 0.70
tries association (SEIA) and Green Technology Media that SWH
installation has increased by 6% in 2010 relative to the previous
year solar market in US [133]. Fig. 22 shows the shipment details of
solar collectors in US from the year 2001 to 2010. Among the
residential installations, pool heating by utilizing solar thermal were taken into account. The California Energy Commission [136]
collectors has increased 13% in US. Approximately 81% of medium- had created a comprehensive economic model for SWH devices in
temperature collectors for the year 2008 were used for water collaboration with the solar industry. Based on a conservative life-
heating. The increase in shipment of medium-temperature collectors time of 10 years, the annual cost for heating water using solar
over last decade is supposed mostly due to the Federal tax credits collector ranges between $514 and $527, depending on the
and state incentives. In 2010, California Solar Initiative adopted new energy factor (ratio of useful energy to the energy consumption).
program to increase the number of SWH installations by adopting The cost of the SWH system also varies depending on the location,
state rebates. Though this initiative, a customer can reduce the hot water load, and utility costs. For low capacity heating, such as
associated capital cost of a typical residential SWH ranging from pool heating, the installation cost varies from $100 to $2400 per
$2000 to $3000 up to 30% by taking advantages of the initiatives square meter of collector area. However, installation costs for the
[134]. A global characteristic status of SWH systems and related glazed SWH systems vary from $640 to $1600 per square meter of
energy costs are listed in Table 5 for reference. solar collector area [137]. According to National Institute of
Morrison and Wood [112] had surveyed and presented a Building Science, an installed SWH system against electricity
detailed 20 year-progress report which includes various SWH can reduce the water heating bills up to 80%. Based on the life-
designs on current market trend. The primary exporters of SWHs cycle analysis, the energy independence and security act (2007)
are Australia, Greece, and USA; most other countries only supply estimated the life-cycle of a SWH system is about 40 years.
domestic demand. Solar water heaters have two main merits, Florida Solar Energy Center carried out a performance testing
such as reducing the impact on environment pollution and on seven types of water heating systems which utilized either
serving as an alternative replacement to the conventional fuel. solar energy, or commercial energy sources, such as electricity or
Wood and He [135] have illustrated a life-cycle-cost model to natural gas. A comprehensive report was published in the 2010
evaluate the total cost and benefits of ownership. Both, the power [138] and the results are summarized in Table 6. The reported
generation technologies, and SWH service life of each component results indicate that solar flat-plate water heating system of an
80 gallon capacity consumed the lowest daily average energy technical improvement of the system while the developing coun-
consumption and performed well with a reasonably higher COP tries also play a great role in training the skilled labor in taking care
compared to other water heating systems. of the maintenance aspects.
4.5. Social impacts and environmental issues

5. Conclusions
Both environmental and social impacts must also be taken into
account while assessing the economic feasibility of SWH systems. This review paper primarily discussed the design features and
In 2011, International Energy Agency (IEA) analyzed at a global related technical advancements of the SWH systems in terms of
level the contribution of solar heating towards CO2 reduction. It energy efficiency and cost effectiveness. One of the widely acknowl-
was reported that a significant reduction in CO2 can be achieved edged benefits of the SWH systems is in the potential of energy
(Fig. 23) by using flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors [139]. savings. Therefore, the economic evaluation and the life cycle
National Renewable Energy Laboratory of DOE reported that the analysis are a necessary assessment to determine the feasibility of
technical prospects of SWH in US market is estimated be around such systems. All of the economic evaluation factors that affect the
1 quad of annual primary energy savings which in turn results to SWH systems are also discussed in this review to find the specific
an annual reduction of approximately 50–70 million metric tons energy efficient approaches depending on the size and particular
of CO2 discharge to the atmosphere [118]. Further, the reported energy demands. Using all of the discussed factors of this review,
annual savings associated to SWH could translate to over 8 billion the actual penetration of the SWH systems in any demographic area
dollars in retail power costs benefiting the consumers. These can be assessed. This accurate economic potential assessment is
savings can avoid the conventional fuel price escalation. Promoting necessary to increase the number of SWH consumers. Although few
the development of SWH utilization also helps people to convey countries/places are more concerned in promoting SWH systems by
their concerns about ecological safety. China spends substantial overcoming all of the technical and economical barriers, it is not
amount of capital on publicity and awareness to improve the SWH been equally promoted in the rest of the world because of several
penetration into the commercial market. economical and technical issues. In this study it was observed that
In addition to other positive effects on the society, the promotion the installation of SWH systems are more feasible on a large area
of alternate energy products will help decrease unemployment, compared to small unit wise installation per households in terms of
increase income, and create more indirect jobs. Table 7 represents energy conservation and per unit energy cost over initial costs. In
the new jobs created by solar thermal application of leading many large scale applications, such as commercial building sectors,
countries. For example, China and Germany share a significant both economical and technological feasibility assessment can con-
fraction of the total employment in this sector [132]. Especially, in tribute in the reduction of energy cost. In the case of packaged SWH
the case of SWH products, the jobs mainly relate to the erection and units, currently many small enterprises are in the manufacturing
installation of the system in houses. Jobs regarding renewable stages worldwide. However, the cost and quality of the products are
energy technologies exceeded 3.5 million in 2010. In general, still not in the satisfactory level. More government rebates and
developed economies contribute significantly in carrying out the benefits could help the small scale manufacturers to flourish more
30
26.36
25
CO2 reduction, (million tons/region)
20
15
9.55
10
5
1.46 1.54 1.23 1.12 0.73 0.64 0.21
0
China Europe Middle Asia Central Japan Australia US and Africa
East and South and New Canada
America Zealand
Fig. 23. Contribution to CO2 reduction by flat-plate and evacuated tube collectors in operation by economic region in 2009 [139].
Table 7
Jobs in solar energy industries in the year 2010 [132].
Industry Estimated jobs worldwide No. job opportunities
Solar hot water 300,000 China 250,000/Spain 7,000

Solar PV 350,000 China 120,000/Germany 120,000/Japan 26,000/U.S. 17,000/Spain 14,000
Solar thermal power 15,000 Spain 1,000/U.S. 1,000
Total existing renewable energy industries 43500,000 –
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 (2013) 1–25

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Solar water heating systems and their market trends

Nomenclature MP melting point

Selected indicators 2007 2008 2009 2010

increase in its reliability. Renewable energy research has become Table 2

2. A brief history of solar water heating systems

Theoretical Experimental Energy Exergy

Thermosyphon Close [16] O O FPC Water SWH Z ¼38%; collector Z ¼ 43%

Cold Water In:

Fig. 3. Basic principle of thermosyphon solar water heating system.

Unlike the conventional SWH system in which a collector acts as

Fully Exposed Section B-B’

Solar Collector Unit:

Unit-1 Unit-2 Unit-3

Valve Air Flow

Flow meter Plate Heat

Collector/evaporator Compressor Condenser Hot water

Expansion valve City water

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of SAS-HPWH designed by Guoying et al. [104].

4. Economic aspects of solar water heating systems

Infrastructure Monthly average hourly

Hot Water Usage Patterns

Characteristics US market China market

Typical installed cost $5,000–10,000 $300–1,000

4.5. Social impacts and environmental issues

Industry Estimated jobs worldwide No. job opportunities

Solar hot water 300,000 China 250,000/Spain 7,000

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