Summary 2014

Clinical Review & Education
Special Communication
Management of Sickle Cell Disease

Summary of the 2014 Evidence-Based Report
by Expert Panel Members JAMA. 2014 Sep 10;312(10):1033-48.
Barbara P. Yawn, MD, MSc, MSPH; George R. Buchanan, MD; Araba N. Afenyi-Annan, MD, MPH; Samir K. Ballas, MD; Kathryn L. Hassell, MD;
Andra H. James, MD, MPH; Lanetta Jordan, MD, MPH, MSPH; Sophie M. Lanzkron, MD, MHS; Richard Lottenberg, MD; William J. Savage, MD, PhD;
Paula J. Tanabe, PhD, RN; Russell E. Ware, MD, PhD; M. Hassan Murad, MD, MPH; Jonathan C. Goldsmith, MD; Eduardo Ortiz, MD, MPH;
Robinson Fulwood, PhD, MSPH; Ann Horton, MS; Joylene John-Sowah, MD, MPH
Editorial page 1004

IMPORTANCE Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a life-threatening genetic disorder affecting nearly Author Video Interview at
100 000 individuals in the United States and is associated with many acute and chronic jama.com
complications requiring immediate medical attention. Two disease-modifying therapies,
Related article page 1063
hydroxyurea and long-term blood transfusions, are available but underused.
Supplemental content at
OBJECTIVE To support and expand the number of health professionals able and willing to jama.com
provide care for persons with SCD. CME Quiz at
jamanetworkcme.com and
EVIDENCE REVIEW Databases of MEDLINE (including in-process and other nonindexed CME Questions page 1053
citations), EMBASE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of
Controlled Trials, CINAHL, TOXLINE, and Scopus were searched using prespecified search
terms and keywords to identify randomized clinical trials, nonrandomized intervention
studies, and observational studies. Literature searches of English-language publications from
1980 with updates through April 1, 2014, addressed key questions developed by the expert
panel members and methodologists.
FINDINGS Strong recommendations for preventive services include daily oral prophylactic
penicillin up to the age of 5 years, annual transcranial Doppler examinations from the ages of 2
to 16 years in those with sickle cell anemia, and long-term transfusion therapy to prevent stroke
in those children with abnormal transcranial Doppler velocity (ⱖ200 cm/s). Strong
recommendations addressing acute complications include rapid initiation of opioids for
treatment of severe pain associated with a vasoocclusive crisis, and use of incentive spirometry
in patients hospitalized for a vasoocclusive crisis. Strong recommendations for chronic
complications include use of analgesics and physical therapy for treatment of avascular
necrosis, and use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy for microalbuminuria in
adults with SCD. Strong recommendations for children and adults with proliferative sickle cell
retinopathy include referral to expert specialists for consideration of laser photocoagulation and
for echocardiography to evaluate signs of pulmonary hypertension. Hydroxyurea therapy is
strongly recommended for adults with 3 or more severe vasoocclusive crises during any
12-month period, with SCD pain or chronic anemia interfering with daily activities, or with
severe or recurrent episodes of acute chest syndrome. A recommendation of moderate
strength suggests offering treatment with hydroxyurea without regard to the presence of
symptoms for infants, children, and adolescents. In persons with sickle cell anemia,
preoperative transfusion therapy to increase hemoglobin levels to 10 g/dL is strongly
recommended with a moderate strength recommendation to maintain sickle hemoglobin levels
of less than 30% prior to the next transfusion during long-term transfusion therapy. A strong
recommendation to assess iron overload is accompanied by a moderate strength
recommendation to begin iron chelation therapy when indicated. Author Affiliations: Author
affiliations are listed at the end of this
article.
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Hydroxyurea and transfusion therapy are strongly
Corresponding Author: Barbara P.
recommended for many individuals with SCD. Many other recommendations are based on
Yawn, MD, MSc, MSPH, Olmsted
quality of evidence that is less than high due to the paucity of clinical trials regarding Medical Center, Department of
screening, management, and monitoring for individuals with SCD. Research and Education, 210 Ninth St
SE, Rochester, MN 55904 (byawn
JAMA. 2014;312(10):1033-1048. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.10517 @olmmed.org).
(Reprinted) 1033
Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
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Clinical Review & Education Special Communication Management of Sickle Cell Disease
S
ickle cell disease (SCD) was first reported in November oped by an expert panel convened in 2009 by the National Heart,
1910 by Herrick, 1 an internal medicine specialist in Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI).
Chicago, Illinois, who referred to “peculiar elongated
and sickle-shaped red blood corpuscles in a case of severe
anemia.” Substantial knowledge about SCD has been gained
Methods
since that first description. Yet the 2 most widely available
disease-modifying therapies, hydroxyurea and long-term The expert panel was composed of health care professionals with
transfusions, are underused, 2 , 3 and hematopoietic stem expertise in the areas of family medicine, general internal medi-
cell transplantation, the cine, pediatric and adult hematology, psychiatry and mental health,
ACS acute chest syndrome only curative approach, has transfusion medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, maternal/fetal
GRADE Grading of been used in only a small medicine, emergency department nursing, and evidence-based
Recommendations Assessment, propor tion of affec ted medicine. An independent methodology group assisted the expert
Development, and Evaluation
individuals.4 panel by performing literature searches, preparing evidence tables,
PAH pulmonary arterial hypertension
Sickle hemoglobin and summarizing the evidence. Rating the quality of evidence and
PSR proliferative sickle retinopathy (HbS), the predominant assigning the strength of recommendations was based on a modi-
RCT randomized clinical trial hemoglobin that is present fication of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Devel-
SCA sickle cell anemia in the red blood cells of opment, and Evaluation (GRADE) system.9
SCD sickle cell disease persons with SCD, results This summary report and the full SCD guideline (available at http:
from substitution of the //www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines/sickle-cell-disease
amino acid valine for glutamic acid at the sixth position of the -guidelines/) are designed to support primary care physicians,
β-globin chain.5 When deoxygenated, red blood cells from per- nurses, and other health care professionals who provide continu-
sons with SCD can develop a sickle or crescent shape, become ity of care or outpatient, inpatient, or emergency care to individu-
inflexible, and increase blood viscosity through intrinsic proper- als with SCD and thereby enhance the lives of persons living with
ties of the sickled cells as well as abnormal interactions of these the disease. Care for the wide array of complications may be com-
cells with leukocytes, platelets, vascular endothelium, and clot- plex and often requires consultation with experts in SCD care and
ting factors.6,7 management. The guideline is divided into sections related to
Several SCD genotypes exist (Table 1). The most prevalent health maintenance (including prevention and screening recom-
genotype, HbSS, and the much less common HbSβ0-thalassemia, mendations) as well as diagnosis and management of acute and
are both commonly referred to as sickle cell anemia (SCA) chronic complications. The final 2 sections address hydroxyurea
because they are phenotypically very similar and are associated with and blood transfusion therapies.
the most severe clinical manifestations. Between 70 000 and During development of the guideline, measures were taken to en-
100 000 individuals in the United States have SCD. Most of those sure the transparency of the evidence review process, and processes
affected are of African ancestry or self-identify as black, with a mi- were established to manage all potential or perceived conflicts of in-
nority being of Hispanic, Middle Eastern, or Asian Indian descent. terest. For each of the 5 topic areas, the expert panel (assisted by the
An additional 3.5 million people in the United States are heterozy- methodology group) developed an initial list of critical questions for-
gote carriers of HbS (HbAS genotype; ie, they have sickle cell trait).8 matted according to the PICOS (P = Population; I = Intervention,
Care for persons with SCD often lacks continuity. Primary exposure; C = Comparator; O = Outcome; S = Setting) framework10
care and emergency care health professionals need up-to-date for literature searches, formal evidence appraisal, and vetting.
clinical guidance regarding care of persons with SCD. This report
summarizes the Evidence-Based Management of Sickle Cell Dis- Literature Search
ease: Expert Panel Report 2014 (available at http://www.nhlbi.nih Search strategies were designed to have high sensitivity and low
.gov/health-pro/guidelines/sickle-cell-disease-guidelines/) devel- specificity to ensure the broadest capture of relevant data. To be in-
Table 1. Typical Laboratory Findings in Sickle Cell Disease and Sickle Cell Trait
Sickle Cell Genotype, %

Hemoglobin,
g/dLa HbS HbA HbA2 HbF HbC
Sickle cell disease
SS 6-9 >90 0 <3.5 <10 0
Sβ0-thalassemia 7-9 >80 0 >3.5 <20 0
Sβ+-thalassemia 9-12 >60 10-30 >3.5 <20 0
SC 9-14 50 0 <3.5 ≤1.0 45
Sickle cell traitb
AS Normal ≤40 >60 <3.5 ≤1.0 0
a
Abbreviations: HbA, normal adult hemoglobin; HbA2, minor variant of Levels apply in the absence of a blood transfusion in the past 4 months, are
adult hemoglobin; HbC, hemoglobin variant that causes manifestations of not absolute, and are applicable to adults and children only (not newborns).
sickle cell disease when paired with HbS; HbF, fetal hemoglobin; HbS, sickle b
Provided for comparison.
hemoglobin.
1034 JAMA September 10, 2014 Volume 312, Number 10 (Reprinted) jama.com

Management of Sickle Cell Disease Special Communication Clinical Review & Education
Table 2. Dates for Literature Review for Evidence Tables

Dates of No. of Included
Section Literature Search Studies Comments
Health maintenance January 1970 to 313a Penicillin prophylaxis through January 2011
April 1, 2014 Blood pressure screening through July 2011
General screening through April 2014
Immunizations through April 2014
Acute and chronic January 1970 to 552 No systematic reviews were conducted for fever, acute anemia, and
SCD complications April 2014 multisystem organ failure
Hydroxyurea therapy January 2007 to 415 Studies published prior to 2007 were obtained from the 2008 hydroxyurea
April 2014 report,11 which included a systematic review
No literature search was conducted for patient and family education
Transfusion therapy January 1970 to 301 No literature search was conducted for details of transfusion management
April 2014
Abbreviation: SCD, sickle cell disease.

a
Plus updated reports from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and the US Preventive Services Task Force.
clusive of the limited available literature in the field, searches in- April 1, 2014, included only RCTs that pertained specifically to indi-
cluded randomized clinical trials (RCTs), nonrandomized interven- viduals with SCD. The 8 additional studies identified were added to
tion studies, and observational studies. Case reports and small case the evidence tables. Throughout the process, the evidence tables
series were included only when outcomes involved harm or when as well as the full articles of all studies included in the evidence tables
rare complications were described. were available to the expert panel members.
Literature searches involved multiple databases (MEDLINE [in-
cluding in-process and other nonindexed citations], EMBASE, Evidence Framework
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Reg- The GRADE framework was used to assess and guide the reporting
ister of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, TOXLINE, and Scopus) and used of the quality of the evidence for specific critical questions. The
controlled (prespecified) vocabulary terms supplemented with key- AMSTAR12 (assessment of multiple systematic reviews) tool was used
words to define concept areas. The exact search terms can be found to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews. Recent
in the full online guideline document. Only studies published in Eng- well-conducted systematic reviews were identified that addressed
lish were included in the literature reviews. hydroxyurea therapy in children, adolescents, and adults.3,11,13 The
The work of the expert panel was performed in sequence to al- expert panel and methodology group appraised these reviews and
low the methodology group sufficient time to complete the litera- conducted additional searches to update the existing systematic re-
ture reviews and prepare the evidence tables. The dates of the ini- view through April 1, 2014, to find evidence for the benefits, harms,
tial comprehensive literature review are summarized in Table 2. After and barriers of using hydroxyurea and acute complications in chil-
the public comment period in August 2012, a final review of the lit- dren with SCD.14
erature was repeated for SCD-related RCTs and systematic reviews During the standard GRADE process, recommendations are re-
through April 1, 2014, to ensure that no more recent studies had been ported as either strong based on quality of evidence that is high or
published that might change the recommendations. Studies iden- weak based on all other evidence.9 However, the expert panel de-
tified in the final, limited literature review were used to supple- cided this was insufficient to represent the limited evidence avail-
ment the background materials when appropriate, and all RCTs were able for SCD and added a category of moderate strength for a rec-
included in the evidence tables. Nothing in the 8 trials identified in ommendation that is based on evidence from lower-quality RCTs and
the update from 2010 through April 1, 2014, required modification large well-conducted observational studies.
of the recommendations. The panel intends for moderate strength recommendations to
be used to populate protocols of care and provide guidance based
Evidence Synthesis on the best available evidence. Weak or moderate strength recom-
Literature searches using the criteria described above yielded 12 532 mendations are not intended to generate quality-of-care indica-
references. The expert panel also identified an additional 1231 po- tors or accountability measures or to affect insurance reimburse-
tentially relevant references. All abstracts were reviewed indepen- ment. Variations in care in the areas of weak or moderate strength
dently by 2 reviewers using an online reference management sys- recommendations may be acceptable, particularly in ways that re-
tem (DistillerSR) until the reviewers reached adequate agreement flect patient values and preferences. Conversely, strong recommen-
(κ ⱖ 0.90). A final subset of 1575 original studies was included in the dations represent areas in which there is high confidence in the evi-
evidence tables by the methodology group to summarize indi- dence supporting net benefit, and the recommendations are
vidual study findings and support the level of the quality of evi- expected to apply to most individuals with SCD.
dence (ie, confidence in the estimates of effect).
The tables include descriptions of study populations, SCD geno- Consensus Statements
types, interventions, and outcomes. Methodological details are dis- In addition to new systematic searches, recommendations from ex-
cussed in each evidence table, including the search questions. The isting evidence-based clinical practice guidelines were incorpo-
search strategies, study selection process, and a list of excluded stud- rated or adapted for the SCD guideline if they had prespecified clini-
ies appear at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines cal questions, were developed after a comprehensive literature
/sickle-cell-disease-guidelines/. The final update from 2010 through search, had explicit and clear criteria for the inclusion of evidence,
jama.com (Reprinted) JAMA September 10, 2014 Volume 312, Number 10 1035

grading the strength of 2 recommendations and the addition of clari-

Box 1. Criteria for Inclusion of Consensus-Based fying language in several sections of the guideline. Specifically, rec-
Recommendations
ommendations against screening of asymptomatic children with
Consensus-Adapted Recommendations neuroimaging using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or com-
Recommendations were based on the expert panel’s decision to adapt puted tomography (CT) and asymptomatic adults with neuroimag-
recommendations derived from existing evidence-based guidelines ing using transcranial Doppler, MRI, or CT were downgraded from
developed by other professional societies (eg, management of acute strong to moderate strength. Reviewers’ comments and the pan-
and chronic pain in sickle cell disease) el’s responses are posted with the full guideline.
Consensus-Panel Expertise
Systematic reviews conducted by the methodology group revealed Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Institute of Medicine
minimal or no supporting evidence (eg, management of acute hepatic In April 2011, 12 months after the start of this systematic review pro-
sequestration) cess, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) published a report19 to help
An adequate systematic review of the literature was not feasible be- guideline users determine what is a high-quality, trustworthy guide-
cause of anticipated low or no yield (eg, comparative effectiveness line. Although at that point the expert panel’s processes were al-
of management approaches for individuals with sickle cell disease ready identified and in progress, it was determined that those pro-
presenting with fever or worsening anemia) cesses were well aligned with the main points that the IOM standards
Therefore, these recommendations were based on the panel’s expert identified as critical to trustworthy guidelines (establishing trans-
knowledge, practice experience, and ability to extrapolate evidence parency, managing conflict of interest, guideline development group
from populations without sickle cell disease (eg, management of long-
composition, intersection between the clinical practice guideline and
term opioid therapy for chronic sickle cell disease pain)
systematic review, establishing evidence foundations for and rat-
ing strength of recommendations, articulation of recommenda-
tions, and external review).
and included recommendations that were explicitly linked to the The panel’s work began prior to the release of the IOM stan-
quality of supporting evidence. Recommendations based on out- dards. Therefore, some steps in our guideline development did dif-
side evidence-based recommendations are marked as consensus- fer from the IOM recommendations. A patient representative was
adapted recommendations (Box 1). The consensus-adapted recom- not included on the panel, the questions considered were not dis-
mendations were vetted by the expert panel and adapted from the seminated for public comment prior to the literature review, and at
US Preventive Services Task Force,15 the Advisory Committee on Im- this time, the NHLBI has no timeline to update the full SCD guide-
munization Practices,16 the World Health Organization and the US line document, but will consider how best to do so in the future.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,17 and the American Pain
Society.18 The full set of these consensus-adapted recommenda-
tions can be found in the full guideline document (http://www.nhlbi
.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines/sickle-cell-disease-guidelines/).
Results
Recognizing the need to provide practical guidance for com- Health Maintenance
mon problems that may lie outside of the evidence reviews, the pub- Young children with HbSS are at increased risk of invasive pneumo-
lished evidence was supplemented by the expertise of the panel mem- coccal disease. With universal newborn screening for SCD in the
bers, who have many years of experience in managing and studying United States, it is now possible to institute strategies to greatly re-
individuals with SCD. Recommendations based on the opinions of the duce mortality from invasive pneumococcal disease. All newborns
panel members are labeled as panel expertise consensus (Box 1) and identified with HbSS should promptly receive twice-daily prophy-
can be found in their entirety in the full guideline document. The areas lactic penicillin as well as pneumococcal vaccination (Table 3).22 Re-
covered by the consensus recommendations represent gaps in the cent changes have been made to the recommendations for pneu-
evidence base appropriate for future research. mococcal vaccination in both children and adults including those with
SCD. The changes address the use of both the PCV13 (conjugate 13-
Review by Experts valent vaccine) and the use of 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine.20
Prior to publication, the full guideline was reviewed by the NHLBI Many individuals with SCD have received and will continue to
Advisory Council, a separate panel of SCD experts, and the Na- receive multiple red blood cell transfusions putting them at in-
tional Blood Disorders Program coordinating committee. The guide- creased risk of blood-borne pathogens. Despite universal screen-
line was also posted on the NHLBI website in August 2012 for a pub- ing of all blood products within the US blood banking systems, hepa-
lic review and comment period, which resulted in the submission of titis C infections in the donor may occasionally escape notice.
more than 1300 comments from individuals and professional soci- Therefore, the US Preventive Services Task Force recommends hepa-
eties. The expert panel and NHLBI staff reviewed and developed a titis C screening of all individuals at high risk of contracting hepati-
response to each comment or recommendation, many of which re- tis C such as individuals with SCD who have or will receive multiple
sulted in revisions to the wording in the guideline. The final version red blood cell transfusions. Screening includes anti–hepatitis C vi-
of the guideline was then reviewed by SCD experts from the Ameri- rus antibody testing followed by confirmatory polymerase chain re-
can Academy of Pediatrics, the American Society of Hematology, and action testing. The frequency of repeated hepatitis C screening
the American Society of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology. All com- should be based on the frequency of the ongoing transfusions.15
ments were again reviewed by the expert panel and NHLBI staff and In addition, individuals with SCD are at increased risk for sev-
specific responses were developed. Those responses included down- eral complications related directly or indirectly to the vascular sys-

Table 3. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Health Maintenance in Sickle Cell Disease (SCD)
Strength of Quality of
Evidence-Based Health Maintenance Recommendations for SCDa Recommendation Evidence
Prevention of invasive pneumococcal infection
Administer oral penicillin prophylaxis (125 mg for those aged <3 y and 250 mg for those aged ≥3 y) twice daily Strong Moderate
until age 5 y in all children with HbSS
Discontinue prophylactic penicillin in children with HbSS at age 5 y unless they have had a splenectomy or invasive Moderate Moderate
pneumococcal infection; ensure completion of pneumococcal vaccination series before discontinuation
Ensure that persons of all ages with SCD have been vaccinated against Streptococcus pneumoniae Strong Moderate
Immunizations
Children aged 6-18 y with functional or anatomic asplenia should receive 1 dose of PCV13 (conjugate 13-valent
vaccine)
Adults aged ≥19 y who have not received pneumococcal vaccine but have functional or anatomic asplenia and who
have not previously received PCV13 or PPSV23 (23-valent polysaccharide vaccine) should receive 1 dose of PCV13
first, followed by a dose of PPSV23 at least 8 wk later, with subsequent doses of PPSV23 to follow current PPSV23
recommendations for adults at high risk
A second PPSV23 dose is recommended 5 y after the first PPSV23 dose for persons aged 19-64 y with functional Consensus Adaptedb
or anatomic asplenia
In addition, those who received PPSV23 before age 65 y for any indication should receive another dose of the
vaccine at age 65 y or later if at least 5 y have elapsed since their previous PPSV23 dose
Adults aged ≥19 y with previous PPSV23 vaccination and functional or anatomic asplenia who received ≥1 doses of
PPSV23 should be given a PCV13 dose ≥1 y after the last PPSV23 dose was received
For those who require additional doses of PPSV23, the first such dose should be given no sooner than 8 wk after
PCV13 dose and at least 5 y after the most recent dose of PPSV23
Screening for hepatitis C: screen for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in persons at high risk for infection (eg, those Consensus Adaptedc
with multiple transfusions) and offer 1-time screening for HCV infection to all adults born between 1945 and 1965
Electrocardiogram screening: do not screen asymptomatic children or adults with SCD with electrocardiograms Weak Low
Screening for retinopathy
Refer to an ophthalmologist for a dilated eye examination to evaluate for retinopathy beginning at age 10 y Strong Low
For persons having a normal dilated retinal examination, rescreen at 1- to 2-y intervals Consensus Panel expertised
Screening for risk of stroke using neuroimaging
In children with sickle cell anemia (SCA), screen annually (beginning at age 2 y and continuing until at least Strong Moderate
age 16 y) with transcranial Doppler, according to the methods used in the STOP studies
In children with conditional (170-199 cm/s) or elevated (≥200 cm/s) transcranial Doppler results, refer to a Strong High
specialist with expertise in long-term transfusion therapy aimed at preventing stroke
In children with genotypes other than SCA (eg, HbSβ+-thalassemia or HbSC), do not perform screening with Strong Low
transcranial Doppler
In asymptomatic children with SCD, do not perform screening with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or Moderate Low
computed tomography (CT)
In asymptomatic adults with SCD, do not perform screening with neuroimaging (transcranial Doppler, MRI, or CT) Moderate Very low
Screening for pulmonary disease: do not screen asymptomatic children and adults with pulmonary function tests Moderate Low
Contraception, reproductive counseling, and opioid use during pregnancy Consensus Adaptede
c
Abbreviation: STOP, Stroke Prevention Trial in Sickle Cell Anemia. Consensus-adapted recommendations from the US Preventive Services Task
a
The order of the recommendations was chosen to reflect the frequency with Force (USPSTF). Box 1 contains criteria for consensus-adapted
which they will likely need to be implemented. For example, immunization recommendations.
d
recommendations apply to all individuals with SCD, whereas pulmonary Box 1 contains criteria for panel expertise consensus.
function assessment or contraceptive information may be needed for only a e
Consensus-adapted recommendations from the World Health Organization
portion of those with SCD. (WHO) and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).21 Box 1
b
Consensus adapted from 2014 recommendations of Advisory Committee on contains criteria for consensus-adapted recommendations.
Immunization Practices (ACIP).20 Box 1 contains criteria for consensus-
adapted recommendations.
tem. Based on varying quality levels of evidence, strong recommen- based on the lack of evidence regarding their efficacy or effective-
dations are made related to screening for hypertension, retinopathy, ness in providing any improved outcomes or advantage in asymp-
and risk of stroke using transcranial Doppler in children aged 2 to 16 tomatic individuals.
years. The frequency of such screening is often based on expert opin- The US Preventive Services Task Force and the Advisory Com-
ion as it is for these recommendations. For example, dilated eye ex- mittee on Immunization Practices have developed evidence-
amination is recommended to be completed every 1 to 2 years when based recommendations for preventive services, screening, and im-
the previous evaluation was negative. Recommendations are made munizations appropriate for all children and adults. The expert panel
against neuroimaging screening in asymptomatic children, adoles- decided that it is important to highlight the use of these recommen-
cents, and adults to assess for risk of future stroke. Other fre- dations in the care of all persons with SCD because those living with
quently used screening procedures such as electrocardiography and chronic disease often fail to receive this type of routine preventive
pulmonary function tests also have recommendations against use care.23 Pregnancy in women with SCD may present additional health

risks, such as preterm delivery, stillbirth, maternal mortality, and se- dren, but the complication also may result from bone marrow em-
vere fetal anemia.24,25 Therefore, the ability of health profession- bolism, intrapulmonary aggregates of sickled cells, atelectasis, or
als to provide information on available contraception and reproduc- pulmonary edema. Acute chest syndrome can rapidly proceed to re-
tive issues is important in the care of persons with SCD. The expert spiratory failure or death and requires immediate hospitalization and
panel chose to summarize and include guidance for reproductive is- thorough evaluation. Treatments include antibiotics, oxygen supple-
sues as reviewed and summarized by the World Health Organiza- mentation, and exchange transfusion in those who experience se-
tion and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.17 vere respiratory distress. Risk of ACS can be reduced by the use of
incentive spirometry during hospital admissions for vasoocclusive
Managing Acute Complications crises34 or by preoperative transfusion.37 Acute chest syndrome oc-
New clinical approaches and treatments22,26,27 have increased rates curs with increased frequency in persons with asthma or prior ACS
of survival in persons with SCD. However, the average lifespan of per- events.
sons with SCD remains about 3 decades shorter than other individu- Acute stroke is a common and devastating complication of SCD,
als living in the United States,28,29 due in large part to acute and particularly among persons with SCA.38 In the absence of primary
chronic complications related to vascular occlusion. Vasoocclusive stroke prevention, approximately 10% of children with HbSS will
crisis, commonly referred to as acute pain crisis, is the most com- have overt stroke and an additional 20% to 35% will have silent ce-
mon such event and is usually accompanied by severe pain. Nearly rebral infarction, which can cause cognitive decline and predispose
all individuals with SCD will experience a vasoocclusive crisis dur- them to additional silent infarcts and overt strokes.39 Stroke in those
ing their lifetime. The first episode may occur as early as 6 months with SCD often has similar presenting signs and symptoms as in per-
of age, often presenting as dactylitis, and thereafter may occur with sons without SCD, including being preceded by transient ischemic
variable frequency, usually in the extremities, chest, and back.30-33 attacks. Regular transfusion therapy or, when transfusion therapy
The vasoocclusive crises are a particularly complex manage- is not possible or has had to be discontinued, hydroxyurea therapy
ment concern. Health care professionals must appreciate the se- may prevent recurrent strokes.40
vere nature of the pain and the urgent need for effective pain relief Additionally, transfusion therapy may prevent an initial stroke
therapies (Table 4). Patients presenting with a vasoocclusive crisis in children with abnormal transcranial Doppler velocity identified by
are at risk for other complications such as acute chest syndrome regular transcranial Doppler ultrasound screening (see the health
(ACS), requiring rapid triage, evaluation, and administration of an- maintenance and blood transfusion management sections of this
algesics. Patients with SCD experiencing acute pain crises may be summary report). Silent central nervous system infarcts can pre-
incorrectly identified as those with drug-seeking behavior or addic- sent with nonfocal signs such as developmental delays or poor or
tion. It is important that the preferences and needs of the indi- declining school performance in children, or changes in social, role,
vidual seeking care be heard, respected, and responded to with the or work functioning in adults. Throughout their lives, persons with
same attention as applied to any other individuals with serious physi- SCD should be considered for formal neurocognitive evaluation when
ological pain. Pain management should include parenteral opioids assessments reveal any of these concerns.
for severe pain administered in a timely manner, guided by an indi- Other less common complications include priapism, hepatobi-
vidualized prescribing and monitoring protocol written by the pa- liary complications, acute splenic sequestration, acute kidney in-
tient with his/her SCD health care clinician or team, or by an insti- jury, acute cholecystitis, and acute aplastic crisis due to parvovirus
tutional SCD-specific protocol when an individualized protocol is not B19 infection. Each of these complications requires immediate at-
available. In children and adults hospitalized for a vasoocclusive cri- tention, often similar to the care provided to individuals with the
sis, the use of incentive spirometry can limit the risk for ACS.34 same problems but without SCD. Several of these acute complica-
People with SCA have an increased risk of severe bacterial in- tions (eg, acute aplastic crisis) had no available evidence for man-
fection, resulting primarily from reduced or absent splenic function.35 agement, limiting the panel to consensus recommendations based
By 2 or 3 months of age, as their level of fetal hemoglobin declines, on expert opinion, which are not the focus of this report but can be
infants with SCA develop splenic impairment. The result is an ex- found in the full guideline document.
tremely high risk of septicemia and meningitis, primarily due to Strep-
tococcus pneumoniae. It is imperative to promptly identify and treat Managing Chronic Complications
suspected bacterial infections. One of the signs that the expert panel Chronic complications of SCD can involve most organs and organ sys-
strongly recommends as a reliable indicator of such diseases is fe- tems during the lifespan of affected individuals. In addition, certain
ver (ⱖ38.5°C) to which clinicians should respond more aggres- acute complications, such as stroke and priapism, often do not re-
sively than they might in people without SCD. solve completely but evolve into subacute or chronic phases that
Acute chest syndrome is another frequently occurring and se- require special approaches to management. A unified definition of
rious acute complication of SCD.36,37 Clinically, ACS can develop at each complication of SCD was published in 2010,41 which should con-
any time and typically presents as sudden onset of some combina- tinue to facilitate clinical communications, management, and fur-
tion of cough, shortness of breath, retractions, and rales accompa- ther research to better describe the etiology, natural history, and care
nied by a new pulmonary infiltrate on chest radiograph. Children usu- for these conditions.
ally have a fever and upper- or middle-lobe involvement, whereas Most of the chronic complications have not been the subject of
adults are often afebrile and present with multilobe disease. There high-quality observational studies or RCTs, thus leaving few areas
are no distinctive laboratory features of ACS, although hemoglobin in which strong recommendations were possible (Table 5). The ex-
concentration often declines sharply.37 The most common etiol- pert panel’s evidence-based recommendations for managing chronic
ogy is infection (eg, viral, bacterial, or mycoplasma), especially in chil- complications are supplemented with information on chronic pain

Table 4. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Managing Acute Complications of Sickle Cell Disease (SCD)
Evidence-Based Recommendations for Managing Acute Complications of SCDa Recommendation Evidence
Vasoocclusive crisisb
Continue treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in adults and children with a Moderate Low
vasoocclusive crisis associated with mild to moderate pain in those who report relief with NSAIDs in the absence of
contraindications
Rapidly initiate treatment with parenteral opioids in adults and children with a vasoocclusive crisis associated with Strong High
severe pain
Initiate around-the-clock opioid administration by patient-controlled analgesia or frequently scheduled doses vs Moderate Low
as requested administration in adults and children with a vasoocclusive crisis associated with severe pain
Use incentive spirometry during hospitalization for vasoocclusive crisis to reduce the risk of acute chest syndrome Strong Moderate
(ACS)
Do not administer a blood transfusion unless there are other indications for transfusion in children and adults with Moderate Low
a vasoocclusive crisisc
Use an individualized prescribing and monitoring protocol (written by the patient’s SCD clinician) or an SCD- Consensus Panel expertisee
specific protocol whenever possible to promote rapid, effective, and safe analgesic management and resolution of
the vasoocclusive crisis in children and adultsd
Acute chest syndrome
Treat persons with SCD who have ACS with an intravenous cephalosporin, an oral macrolide antibiotic, Strong Low
supplemental oxygen (to maintain oxygen saturation of >95%), and close monitoring for bronchospasm, acute
anemia, and hypoxemia
In persons with sickle cell anemia, give simple blood transfusion (10 mL/kg of red blood cells) to improve oxygen- Weak Low
carrying capacity to persons with symptomatic ACS whose hemoglobin concentration is >1.0 g/dL below baseline;
if baseline hemoglobin is ≥9 g/dL, simple blood transfusion may not be required
In persons with HbSC disease or HbSβ+-thalassemia, consult an SCD expert regarding decisions about transfusion Strong Low
Perform urgent exchange transfusion in consultation with hematology, critical care, or apheresis specialists, when Strong Low
there is rapid progression of ACS as manifested by oxygen saturation of <90% despite supplemental oxygen,
increasing respiratory distress, progressive pulmonary infiltrates, decline in hemoglobin concentration despite
simple transfusion, or all of these
Encourage use of incentive spirometry while awake Strong Moderate
Acute stroke
Consult an SCD expert and perform exchange transfusion in persons with SCD who develop acute stroke confirmed Consensus Panel expertisee
by neuroimaging
Initiate a program of monthly simple or exchange transfusions in children and adults who have had a stroke Moderate Low
Initiate hydroxyurea therapy when it is not possible to initiate a transfusion program in children and adults who Moderate Low
have had a stroke
Priapism
Initiate interventions to include vigorous oral or intravenous hydration and oral or intravenous analgesia when an Strong Low
episode of priapism lasts ≥4 h
Consult with a urologist when an episode of priapism lasts ≥4 h Consensus Panel expertisee
Do not use transfusion therapy for immediate treatment of priapism associated with SCD Moderate Low
Consult with a hematologist for possible preoperative transfusion if surgical intervention is required Consensus Panel expertisee
Hepatobiliary complications
Treat asymptomatic gallstones with watchful waiting in children and adults with SCD; in those who develop Strong Moderate
symptoms specific to gallstones, treat with cholecystectomy (the laparoscopic approach is preferred if surgically
feasible and available)
Splenic sequestration
Provide immediate intravenous fluid resuscitation in persons with hypovolemia due to severe acute splenic Strong Low
sequestration
Consult an SCD expert and begin transfusion in persons who have acute splenic sequestration and severe anemia to Strong Low
increase hemoglobin to a stable level, while avoiding overtransfusion
Consult an SCD expert to address the performance and timing of splenectomy in persons with recurrent acute Moderate Low
splenic sequestration or symptomatic hypersplenism
Acute renal failure
In a patient with an acute increase in serum creatinine level of ≥0.3 mg/dL, (1) monitor renal function daily, Consensus Panel expertisee
including serum creatinine level, fluid intake, and fluid output; (2) avoid potential nephrotoxic drugs and imaging
agents; and (3) evaluate the patient thoroughly for all potential etiologies in consultation with a nephrologist
as needed
Do not give blood transfusions to treat acute renal failure unless there are other indications for transfusion Consensus Panel expertisee
Use renal replacement therapy (eg, hemodialysis) when needed for acute renal failure Consensus Panel expertisee
a
The order of the recommendations was chosen to reflect the frequency with Management of Sickle Cell Disease” in the full guideline document at http:
which they will likely need to be implemented. For example, vasoocclusive //www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines/sickle-cell-disease-guidelines/.
crisis is more common than episodes of ACS or priapism. d
More information on the pain algorithm appears in the eFigure in the
b
The consensus-adapted pain recommendation appears in eSection 1 of the Supplement.
Supplement. e
Box 1 contains criteria for panel expertise consensus.
c
More information appears in the chapter entitled “Blood Transfusion in the

Table 5. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Managing Chronic Complications of Sickle Cell Disease (SCD)
Evidence-Based Recommendations for Managing Chronic Complicationsa Recommendation Evidence
Chronic pain recommendationsb Consensus Adaptedc
Avascular necrosis
Evaluate all children and adults with SCD and intermittent or chronic hip pain for avascular necrosis by history, physical Strong Low
examination, radiography, and magnetic resonance imaging, as needed
Treat avascular necrosis with analgesics and consult physical therapy and orthopedic departments for assessment and Strong High
follow-up
Pulmonary hypertension
Refer persons who have symptoms or signs suggestive of pulmonary hypertension for echocardiography Strong Moderate
Renal complications
Refer persons with proteinuria (>300 mg/24 h) to a nephrologist for further evaluation Strong Low
For adults with microalbuminuria without other apparent cause, initiate angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor Moderate Moderate
therapy
For adults with proteinuria without other apparent cause, initiate ACE inhibitor therapy Moderate Low
Initiate ACE inhibitor therapy for renal complications when indicated even in the presence of normal blood pressure Moderate Low
Renal replacement therapy (eg, hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, renal transplantation) should be used in persons with Strong Low
SCD if needed
Ophthalmologic complications
Refer children and adults with vitreoretinal complications of proliferative sickle retinopathy (PSR) refractory to medical Strong Low
treatment for evaluation and possible vitrectomy
Refer persons of all ages with PSR to an ophthalmologist for evaluation and possible laser photocoagulation therapy Strong Moderate
Leg ulcers
Treat leg ulcers in persons with SCD with initial standard therapy (eg, debridement, wet to dry dressings, topical agents) Moderate Low
Evaluate persons with chronic recalcitrant deep leg ulcers for osteomyelitis Moderate Low
Evaluate possible etiologies of leg ulcers to include venous insufficiency and perform wound culture if infection is Moderate Low
suspected or if the ulcers deteriorate
Treat with systemic or local antibiotics if leg ulcer site is suspicious for infection and wound culture is positive and Moderate Low
organisms are susceptible
Stuttering or recurrent priapism
Consult an SCD specialist and urologist for evaluation and therapy of recurrent or stuttering priapism, especially when Weak Low
episodes increase in severity or frequency
a b
The order of the recommendations was chosen to reflect the frequency with More information appears in eSection 1 and in the eFigure in the Supplement.
which they will likely need to be implemented. For example, chronic pain will c
Box 1 contains criteria for consensus-adapted recommendations.
probably be more common than avascular necrosis or leg ulcers.
management in eSection 1 in the Supplement. The panel recom- and disability. Therapy is usually conservative, nonsurgical manage-
mends that primary care clinicians and other clinicians involve ap- ment until joint replacement is determined to be necessary.
propriate consultants and specialists in management decisions for Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is caused by restric-
chronic complications. tion in the lumen and stiffening of the walls of the pulmonary
Sickle cell pain often becomes chronic, resulting in poorer qual- arteries. It is defined as an elevation of the mean pulmonary arte-
ity of life.33,42 Early and aggressive treatment of acute sickle cell pain rial pressure (>25 mm Hg at rest) as determined by right heart
may reduce the development of chronic pain.43 Adults reported catheterization. Pulmonary arterial hypertension is an indepen-
chronic SCD pain on more than 50% of days surveyed,33 and chil- dent risk factor for mortality in individuals with SCD.47 The expert
dren reported SCD pain on nearly 10% of days surveyed.41 Chronic panel found insufficient evidence to recommend for or against
pain is often associated with other morbidities, including depres- screening for PAH in asymptomatic people with SCD. Conversely,
sion, anxiety, despair, insomnia, loneliness, helplessness, and de- individuals with SCD who have symptoms that may indicate the
pendence on pain medications.30,44,45 In the systematic review, little presence of PAH (eg, exercise intolerance, fatigue, peripheral
evidence was found related specifically to the chronic pain of per- edema, chest pain) should be evaluated for PAH initially by
sons with SCD. Therefore, the expert panel chose to adapt selected echocardiography, with confirmation of diagnosis by right heart
recommendations from the American Pain Society developed in col- catheterization.
laboration with the American Academy of Pain Medicine 18,30 An estimated 23 million individuals living in the United States have
(eSection 1 and eFigure in the Supplement). chronic kidney disease, including 4% to 18% of persons with SCD.48
Avascular necrosis, which is also known as aseptic necrosis, os- In 1 study,49 renal failure was observed in 4.2% of persons with SCA.
teonecrosis, or ischemic necrosis, is a syndrome of bone death due Inthosedevelopingrenalfailure,68%previouslyhadproteinuria,40%
to compromised blood supply. Avascular necrosis occurs in about 10% had nephrotic syndrome, and 33% had hypertension.49 Evaluation of
of persons with SCD, and the hip joint is the most common site.46 Avas- proteinuria and microalbuminuria may provide opportunities to treat
cular necrosis of the femoral head often causes chronic severe pain renal complications and delay renal failure.

Table 6. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Hydroxyurea Therapy

Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Hydroxyurea Therapy Recommendation Evidence
In adults with sickle cell anemia (SCA) who have ≥3 moderate to severe pain crises associated with sickle cell disease Strong High
(SCD) during a 12-mo period, initiate treatment with hydroxyurea
In adults with SCA who have sickle cell–associated pain that interferes with daily activities and quality of life, initiate Strong Moderate
treatment with hydroxyurea
In adults with SCA who have a history of severe or recurrent acute chest syndrome (ACS), initiate treatment with Strong Moderate
hydroxyureaa
In adults with SCA who have severe symptomatic chronic anemia that interferes with daily activities or quality of life, Strong Moderate
initiate treatment with hydroxyurea
In infants 9 mo of age or older, in children, and in adolescents with SCA, offer treatment with hydroxyurea regardless Strongb and Highb and
of clinical severity to reduce complications (eg, pain, dactylitis, ACS, anemia) related to SCD moderatec moderatec
In adults and children with SCD who have chronic kidney disease and are taking erythropoietin, add hydroxyurea Weak Low
therapy to improve anemia
Discontinue hydroxyurea therapy in women who are pregnant or breastfeeding Moderate Low
Use an established prescribing and monitoring protocol to ensure proper use of hydroxyurea and maximize benefits Strong High
and safety
In persons with HbSβ+-thalassemia or HbSC who have recurrent SCD-associated pain that interferes with daily Moderate Low
activities or quality of life, consult an SCD expert for consideration of hydroxyurea therapy
In persons not demonstrating a clinical response to appropriate doses and duration of hydroxyurea therapy, consult Moderate Very low
an SCD expert
a c
More information appears in the chapter entitled “Managing Acute Moderate recommendation and moderate quality of evidence for children
Complications of Sickle Cell Disease” in the full guideline. older than 42 months and adolescents.
b
Strong recommendation and high quality of evidence for persons aged 9 to 42
months.
Chronic ophthalmological complications of SCD include prolif- sons with SCD, but other mechanisms of action and benefits exist.
erative sickle retinopathy (PSR) and vitreous hemorrhage. The pres- For example, hydroxyurea lowers the number of circulating leuko-
ence of PSR is associated with significant visual loss,50 and its peak cytes and reticulocytes and decreases their expression of adhesion
prevalence occurs earlier in HbSC disease (eg, age ranges of 15-24 molecules, thus reducing vascular occlusion.54 Hydroxyurea also in-
years in men and 20-39 years in women) than in HbSS.51 Evaluation creases red blood cell size (higher mean corpuscular volume) and
of PSR should include referral to an ophthalmologist for consider- improves cellular deformability, which increases blood flow and re-
ation of laser therapy. duces vasoocclusion. In addition, nitric oxide released directly from
Leg ulcers are another form of vascular complication seen in per- hydroxyurea metabolism may contribute to local vasodilation.55
sons with SCD and are treated with standard therapy as well as evalu- Hydroxyurea therapy substantially reduces the frequency of
ation for venous etiologies. Antibiotic therapy is reserved for ulcers painful episodes and ACS events and the need for erythrocyte trans-
with culture-proven bacterial infection. When ulcers are persis- fusions and hospitalizations.56 Long-term hydroxyurea administra-
tent, coexistence of osteomyelitis should be assessed. tion results in a reduction in mortality.57,58
Stuttering priapism, the occurrence of multiple self-limited epi- The primary basis for recommending hydroxyurea therapy in
sodes of unwanted, often painful erections lasting less than 4 hours, adults come from the Multicenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell
combined with prolonged priapism, affects as many as 35% of males Anemia.56 This RCT enrolled only adults with SCA who had experi-
with SCD. Even though stuttering priapism is self-limited, recurrent enced more than 3 vasoocclusive crises during the previous year. The
episodes may lead to chronic or persistent priapism, adversely af- inclusion criteria were based on earlier clinical data showing an
fecting quality of life or resulting in impotence. Chronic hormonal association of more than 3 vasoocclusive crises and markedly lower
therapy may reduce or eliminate the episodes but without evi- survival rates. Two-year trial results and follow-up at 9 and 17
dence of improvement in functional outcomes. Therefore, treat- years57,58 demonstrated improved outcomes in those who contin-
ment decisions must be based on the balance of potential benefits ued hydroxyurea therapy (Table 6).
and the risk of adverse effects including reduced sexual function.52 Only a limited population of adults with SCD was studied, fail-
ing to account for many individuals with significant SCD burden but
Hydroxyurea Therapy who experience less than 3 vasoocclusive crises during a 12-month
Long-term daily oral hydroxyurea treatment has been shown to re- period. Based on observation studies and extrapolation from the Mul-
duce or prevent many acute and chronic complications of SCD. A ri- ticenter Study of Hydroxyurea in Sickle Cell Anemia56 and other RCTs,
bonucleotide reductase inhibitor, hydroxyurea has been in use since the panel recommends hydroxyurea therapy for adults with fewer
the 1970s to treat persons with myeloproliferative neoplasms. In the pain crises but whose SCA results in significant interference with daily
1980s, hydroxyurea was identified as a promising drug candidate activities or quality of life as well as individuals who have severe or
for SCD by increasing fetal hemoglobin levels. Hydroxyurea has since recurrent ACS or severe symptomatic anemia.
been shown to have rapid absorption and near-complete bioavail- For infants, children, and adolescents who have SCA, hydroxy-
ability and to be therapeutic with once-daily oral dosing.53 urea treatment results have closely and consistently mirrored those
Increasing the concentration of fetal hemoglobin is the pri- of adults. Hydroxyurea treatment of children beginning as early as
mary effect of hydroxyurea and provides the greatest benefit to per- 9 months of age yields improvements in laboratory parameters such

as total hemoglobin and fetal hemoglobin levels and decreased num-

Box 2. Consensus Treatment Protocol for Implementation bers of sickle cell–related acute clinical events such as pain and ACS.59
of Hydroxyurea Therapy
The panel recommends that hydroxyurea therapy be offered in chil-
Recommended Laboratory Tests Before Starting Therapy dren beginning at 9 months of age, including those who are
Complete blood cell (CBC) count with white blood cell (WBC) differ- asymptomatic.
ential, reticulocyte count, platelet count, and red blood cell (RBC) The panel chose to recommend offering treatment as a mecha-
mean corpuscular volume (MCV) nism to open discussion with families about the risks and benefits
Quantitative measurement of fetal hemoglobin if available of therapy in asymptomatic infants. Long-term observational stud-
(eg, hemoglobin electrophoresis, high-performance liquid ies suggest sustained beneficial effects of hydroxyurea therapy for
chromatography) young persons without the adverse effects of excessive myelotox-
Renal and liver function tests icity, deleterious effects on growth and development, altered female
Pregnancy test for women fertility, accumulation of mutations, or increased carcinogenicity.59-62
A consensus treatment protocol that includes dosing and monitor-
Initiating and Monitoring of Hydroxyurea Therapy
ing schedules for implementation of hydroxyurea therapy is pre-
Baseline elevation of fetal hemoglobin should not affect the deci-
sented in Box 2.
sion to initiate hydroxyurea therapy
Specific clinical situations can require more specialized ap-
Both males and females of reproductive age should be counseled
proaches. Pregnant or lactating women with SCA are not consid-
regarding the need for contraception while taking hydroxyurea
ered candidates for hydroxyurea. Consideration of reduced dosing
Starting dosage for adults (500 mg capsules): 15 mg/kg/d (round up
strategies should be used in persons with SCA and renal disease. In
to the nearest 500 mg); 5-10 mg/kg/d if patient has chronic kidney
disease addition, there are many persons with HbSC disease or other vari-
ant SCD genotypes for whom no current evidence is available re-
Starting dosage for infants and children: 20 mg/kg/d
garding the risks and benefits of hydroxyurea therapy. In such in-
Monitor CBC count with WBC differential and reticulocyte count at
stances, an SCD specialist should be consulted if one is not already
least every 4 wk when adjusting dosage
involved in the collaborative care of the patient.
Aim for a target absolute neutrophil count ⱖ2000/μL; however,
younger persons with lower baseline counts may safely tolerate
absolute neutrophil counts down to 1250/μL
Blood Transfusion in the Management of SCD
Normal donor erythrocytes contain normal hemoglobin (HbA), and
Maintain platelet count ⱖ80 000/μL
their transfusion into patients with SCD reduces the percentage of cir-
If neutropenia or thrombocytopenia occurs:
culating erythrocytes that contain HbS. Sickled erythrocytes pos-
Temporarily stop hydroxyurea dosing sess many unfavorable physiological properties and induce vascular
Monitor CBC count with WBC differential weekly changes that promote vasoocclusion. Sickled erythrocytes increase
When blood counts have recovered, reinstitute hydroxyurea at a blood viscosity through intrinsic properties of the sickled cells as well
dose of 5 mg/kg/d lower than the dose given before onset of as through abnormal interactions of these cells with leukocytes, plate-
cytopenia lets, vascular endothelium, and clotting factors.6,7 Transfusion of nor-
If dose escalation is warranted based on clinical and laboratory find- mal donor erythrocytes is used to mitigate these effects.
ings, proceed as follows: When considering transfusion in a patient with SCD, distinc-
Increase by 5-mg/kg/d increments every 8 wk tions must be made between episodic (ad hoc, acute, or prophylac-
Give until mild myelosuppression (absolute neutrophil count of tic) and long-term (recurrent) transfusion, as well as the
2000-4000/μL) is achieved, up to a maximum of 35 mg/kg/d transfusion technique (eg, simple, manual exchange, or erythrocy-
Once a stable dose is established, laboratory safety monitoring should tapheresis). Exchange transfusions more efficiently decrease the per-
include CBC count with WBC differential, reticulocyte count, and centage of HbS-containing erythrocytes, allow transfusion of in-
platelet count every 2-3 mo creased volumes of donor cells, and limit the risk of iron overload.
People should be reminded that the effectiveness of hydroxyurea de- Conversely, exchange transfusions may increase the direct costs of
pends on their adherence to daily dosing; they should be counseled transfusion, require specialized equipment, and often require per-
not to double up doses if a dose is missed
manent venous access.63
A clinical response to treatment with hydroxyurea may take 3-6 mo; Surgical procedures in persons with SCD are associated with sig-
therefore, a 6-month trial on the maximum tolerated dose is re-
nificant risk for SCD and non–SCD-associated morbidity as well as
quired prior to considering discontinuation due to treatment failure
(whether due to lack of adherence or failure to respond to therapy)
an increased risk of death. Transfusions are commonly used during
the perioperative period to prevent postoperative vasoocclusive cri-
Monitor RBC MCV and fetal hemoglobin levels for evidence of con-
sistent or progressive laboratory response
ses, stroke, or ACS.64 The Transfusion Alternatives Preoperatively
in Sickle Cell Disease study65 demonstrated a lowered risk of post-
A lack of increase in MCV, fetal hemoglobin, or both, is not an indi-
cation to discontinue therapy
operative complications in persons with SCD undergoing medium
risk surgery when their preoperative hemoglobin level was in-
For the patient who has a clinical response, long-term hydroxyurea
therapy is indicated
creased to 10 g/dL. The expert panel translated this result into the
recommendation that red blood cell transfusion be used in all adults
Hydroxyurea therapy should be continued during hospitalizations
or illness
and children with SCA to bring their preoperative hemoglobin level
to 10 g/dL prior to any surgical procedures involving general
anesthesia.65

Table 7. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Transfusion Therapy

Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Transfusion Therapy Recommendation Evidence
Indications for prophylactic perioperative transfusiona
In adults and children with sickle cell anemia (SCA), transfuse red blood cells to bring the hemoglobin level to Strong Moderate
10 g/dL prior to undergoing a surgical procedure involving general anesthesia
In persons with HbSS disease who require surgery and who already have a hemoglobin level higher than 8.5 g/dL Strong Low
without transfusion, are receiving long-term hydroxyurea therapy, or who require high-risk surgery (eg,
neurosurgery, prolonged anesthesia, cardiac bypass), consult a sickle cell disease (SCD) expert for guidance
as to the appropriate transfusion method
In adults and children with HbSC or HbSB+-thalassemia, consult an SCD expert to determine if full or partial Moderate Low
exchange transfusion is indicated before a surgical procedure involving general anesthesia
Appropriate management and monitoring
Red blood cell units that are to be transfused to individuals with SCD should include matching for C, E, and K Moderate Low
antigens
In persons with SCA who do not receive transfusions long-term and who are therefore at risk for hyperviscosity due Moderate Low
to high percentages of circulating HbS-containing erythrocytes, avoid transfusing to a target hemoglobin level
>10 g/dL
In children with SCA who receive transfusions long-term, the goal of transfusion should be to maintain a HbS level of Moderate Moderate
<30% immediately prior to the next transfusion
The expert panel recommends that clinicians prescribing long-term transfusion therapy follow an established Moderate Low
monitoring protocol
Management and prevention of transfusion complications
Consult the blood bank for a workup of a possible delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction in a patient with any Strong Moderate
of the following signs or symptoms: acute anemia, pain, or jaundice within 3 weeks after a blood transfusion
In persons who receive long-term transfusion therapy, perform serial assessment of iron overload to include Strong Moderate
validated liver iron quantification methods such as liver biopsy, magnetic resonance imaging R2, T2, and R2;
the optimal frequency of assessment has not been established and will be based in part on the individual patient’s
characteristics
Administer iron chelation therapy (with consultation with a hematologist) to persons with SCD and documented Moderate Moderate
transfusion-acquired iron overload
a
More information appears in eSection 2 in the Supplement.
The benefits of long-term transfusion are varied; the highest- ibilities. These reactions should be considered in the differential di-
quality evidence is from RCTs related to primary prevention of stroke agnosis of a patient with worsening anemia, jaundice, or pain after
in children (Table 7).26,66 The use of transfusions for an abnormal transfusion. Transfused erythrocytes, whether administered spo-
transcranial Doppler velocity (ⱖ200 cm/s) has resulted in a declin- radically or on a regularly scheduled basis, present a substantial iron
ing incidence of primary overt stroke in children with SCA.67 load to the recipient, given the lack of a physiological means to re-
Additional recommendations to provide transfusions for acute move excess iron. Repeated transfusion of erythrocytes causes iron
SCD complications are based on moderate- and low-quality evi- accumulation outside the normal pathways of iron regulation and
dence and expert panel consensus in instances in which there is an thus can lead to iron overload and organ dysfunction. Chelation
expectation of high potential risk of mortality when transfusions are therapy can be used to remove excess iron.
withheld (eg, ACS, acute stroke, severe anemia from transient Although red blood cell transfusion can help ameliorate many
aplastic crisis due to parvovirus B19, and splenic and hepatic seques- SCD complications, transfusion therapy is associated with a wide va-
tration). Persons with previous stroke and children with elevated riety of adverse reactions from mild to severe or even fatal.68 Many
transcranial Doppler velocities (ⱖ200 cm/s) are candidates for long- of the recognized hazards of transfusions are amplified in persons
term transfusion therapy (Table 8). with SCD.69,70 Decisions to administer blood transfusions in per-
Transfusions are associated with several possible complica- sons with SCD must be based on risk-benefit assessments and are
tions or risks, including hyperviscosity, alloimmunization, hemoly- often made in consultation with a hematologist, transfusion medi-
sis, and iron overload (eSection 2 in the Supplement). Transfusion cine specialist, or SCD expert. The expert panel chose to comment
of donor erythrocytes will raise the hematocrit of circulating blood, on a few such situations in which evidence has shown no benefit or
resulting in increased viscosity that could be problematic for per- no evidence of benefit has been published but transfusion has been
sons with SCD by triggering vasoocclusion. reported to be used. The panel makes explicit recommendations in
Following a transfusion, if the donor erythrocytes have a dif- Table 9 against the routine use of transfusions in uncomplicated va-
ferent antigenic profile from those of the recipient’s own erythro- soocclusive crises, priapism, asymptomatic anemia, acute kidney in-
cytes, an immunological response by the recipient against the for- jury in the absence of multisystem organ failure.
eign antigens can result in alloimmunization. Alloantibodies persist
for many years, although their titer may wane to low or undetect-
able levels. Alloimmunization usually limits the ability to identify com-
Discussion
patible blood units for future transfusions, so efforts to avoid al-
loantibody development are warranted. Providing care to individuals with SCD can be challenging. This SCD
Delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions develop 7 to 28 days guideline is being made available to provide the latest evidence-
after red blood cell transfusions with minor blood group incompat- based recommendations to manage this condition and to help en-

Table 8. Sickle Cell Disease Complications and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Transfusion
Transfusion Strength of Quality of
Complication Method Recommendation Evidence
Symptomatic severe acute chest syndrome (defined by an oxygen saturation Exchange Strong Low
<90% despite supplemental oxygen)
Acute splenic sequestration plus severe anemia Simple Strong Low
In children and adults who have had an acute stroke, initiate a program Simple or exchange Moderate Low
of monthly transfusions
Hepatic sequestration Exchange or simple Consensus Panel expertisea
Intrahepatic cholestasis Exchange or simple Consensus Panel expertisea
Multisystem organ failure Exchange or simple Consensus Panel expertisea
Aplastic crisis Simple Consensus Panel expertisea
Symptomatic anemia Simple Consensus Panel expertisea
b
Child with transcranial Doppler reading >200 cm/s Exchange or simple Strong High
Adults and children with previous clinically overt stroke Exchange or simple Moderate Low
a
Box 1 contains criteria for panel expertise consensus.
b
Indicates the time-averaged mean maximal cerebral blood flow velocity.
Table 9. Sickle Cell Disease Complications and Evidence-Based Doppler. The quality of evidence for this recommendation is low,
Recommendations Against Use of Transfusion including observational studies, which do not demonstrate ben-
efit from transcranial Doppler screening. Additional observational
Complication Recommendation Evidence studies reported a significantly lower incidence of stroke in chil-
Uncomplicated painful crisis Moderate Low dren with SCD genotypes other than SCA compared with those
Priapism Moderate Low with SCA. Therefore, the benefit of screening is assessed as low
Asymptomatic anemia Consensus Panel expertisea with a moderate to high potential risk from repeated screenings
Acute kidney injury in the absence Consensus Panel expertisea based on unwarranted use of health care resources and the small
of multisystem organ failure to modest potential risk of testing and treatment in children who
Recurrent splenic sequestration Weak Low have false-positive test results. In addition, no therapy has been
a
Box 1 contains criteria for panel expertise consensus. proposed for this group of children if they did have a positive
screening test.
Disparity in quality levels of evidence and strength of recom-
gage health care professionals in supporting their implementation mendations is not unique to this guideline. Even though the origi-
at the practice level. nal descriptions of GRADE reserve strong recommendations for
Some of the strong recommendations appearing in this only those areas with high-quality evidence, 8 this appears to
guideline are supported by low- or very low–quality evidence. ignore the realities of practice and research. In a recent publica-
Such disparities in strength of recommendations and quality lev- tion in response to publication of the Endocrine Society
els of evidence appear to contradict the evidence basis of the guidelines,71 some members of the GRADE working group have
guideline and use of the GRADE system. For example, our recom- identified instances in which strong recommendations are appro-
mendation to refer to an ophthalmologist for a dilated eye exami- priate with low- or even very low–quality evidence. Although this
nation to evaluate for retinopathy beginning at age 10 years is a panel made their decisions prior to publication of GRADE’s tax-
strong recommendation with low-quality evidence. Such referrals onomy, it is a valuable affirmation our work. For example, the
have become the standard of care and there is observational strong recommendation for referral for dilated eye examinations
study evidence of a significant risk of proliferative retinopathy based on low-quality evidence fits under the taxonomy category
that requires dilated eye examination to accurately identify and of best practice.71
stage the extent of retinopathy. The panel chose a second variation of the GRADE system by add-
The expert panel decided that the benefit of referral to an oph- ing a third strength of recommendation (moderate) to the usual
thalmologist was potentially substantial, and the risk associated with GRADE system of only strong and weak recommendations.8 GRADE
such referrals was low. Furthermore, it is unlikely that any RCTs will is a useful tool for guiding the grading of the quality of evidence and
ever be performed to assess referral for dilated eye examination (vs the strength of recommendations. Yet, it must be responsive to the
not doing dilated eye examinations). The panel acknowledges that needs of the user and to the topic being assessed by allowing flex-
studies might be completed that provide higher-quality evidence to ibility. The expert panel decided that limiting recommendations to
modify the frequency but decided this did not justify lowering the only 2 categories of strong and weak unnecessarily constrained the
strength of the recommendation. advice it could give to primary care clinicians. Other groups such as
A second example highlights an instance in which low-quality the American College of Cardiology have also found it advanta-
evidence is used to support a strong recommendation against use geous to modify the number of levels of evidence or levels of rec-
of screening. The panel made a strong recommendation stating, ommendations suggested by GRADE.
in children with genotypes other than SCA (eg, HbSβ + - The American Thoracic Society guidelines72 also address care
thalassemia or HbSC), do not perform screening with transcranial of individuals with SCD focusing on the diagnosis of pulmonary

Table 10. Evidence-Based Strong Recommendations With High-Quality Evidence

Recommendation Recommendation Evidence
In children with conditional (170-199 cm/s) or elevated (≥200 cm/s) transcranial Doppler results, refer to a specialist Strong High
with expertise in long-term transfusion therapy aimed at stroke prevention
Treat avascular necrosis with analgesics and consult physical therapy and orthopedic departments for assessment Strong High
and follow-up
Rapidly initiate treatment with parenteral opioids in adults and children with a vasoocclusive crisis associated Strong High
with severe pain
Use simple or exchange transfusion for children with transcranial Doppler reading >200 cm/sa Strong High
In adults with sickle cell anemia who have ≥3 moderate to severe pain crises associated with sickle cell disease Strong High
during a 12-mo period, initiate treatment with hydroxyurea
Use an established prescribing and monitoring protocol to ensure proper use of hydroxyurea and to maximize Strong High
benefits and safety
In infants 9-42 mo of age or older, children, and adolescents with sickle cell anemia, offer treatment with Strong High
hydroxyurea regardless of clinical severity to reduce complications (eg, pain, dactylitis, acute chest syndrome, anemia)
related to sickle cell disease
a
Indicates the time-averaged, mean-maximal cerebral blood flow velocity.
hypertension. The American Thoracic Society guidelines recom- This review has a number of limitations. The literature search
mend “risk stratification guides clinical decision making in SCD,” was conducted in English only, although we are unaware of any ma-
which is mortality risk stratification for adults and morbidity risk jor clinical trials published in other languages that would have af-
stratification in children aged 8 years or older. Even though the fected the results. During the extensive review process, none of the
guidelines indicate that mortality risk stratification can be accu- external reviewers commented about missing evidence. GRADE was
rately assessed by Doppler echocardiography or N-terminal pro- used to guide the evidence review, but was modified. Whenever an
brain natriuretic peptide as a reasonable noninvasive alternative, existing system of evaluating evidence is modified, issues of valid-
these tests are not clearly recommended, leaving the clinician to ity arise. However, there is limited information about the validity of
determine whether this is a specific recommendation or only a any commonly used system of evaluating evidence, including
statement of opinion. The guidelines do state “The committee GRADE.
members routinely perform risk stratification on their patients The processes used by the panel were able to fulfill most of the
with SCD…” suggesting that this is an expert opinion–based rec- criteria that the IOM have recommended for creating high-quality
ommendation. For translation into practice, the American Tho- guidelines, but not all.19 Most significantly, the expert panel did not
racic Society guidelines state for risk stratification, “perform a include a patient or a patient representative.
baseline study … and intervals of every 1 to 3 years seem The literature review concluded in April 2014. We are aware of
reasonable.”72 No age of initiating screening is given. 2 recent publications that may affect SCD management. The first sug-
Justification for risk stratification is based on decision making gests that nonmyeloablative allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell
regarding (1) the frequency of follow-up screening, (2) identifying transplantation may be of value in adults with sickle cell phenotype
persons who may benefit from treatment shown to improve out- with or without thalassemia.73 The second, the Silent Infarct Trans-
comes (eg, hydroxyurea), and (3) anticipating future health care fusion Trial,74 shows that children with SCA and silent stroke have
needs of that individual. No evidence is presented to show how cur- fewer strokes and new silent infarcts when treated with long-term
rent test results would predict timing of the next screening or that transfusion therapy.
mortality risk stratification can improve the ability to anticipate future Our systematic review revealed that evidence is lacking in
health care needs or exactly what is entailed in anticipating future many areas important to care for individuals with SCD. There are
needs. only 7 recommendations in which the quality of evidence is high
Conversely, our guideline reports that there is insufficient evi- and the strength of the recommendation is strong (Table 10).
dence to make a recommendation supporting regular screening with Most of the recommendations for pain management (both acute
Doppler echocardiography and the value of the use of N-terminal and long-term) were consensus adapted from general pain guide-
pro-brain natriuretic peptide for risk stratification was not as- lines, which may not adequately address the severe, episodic, and
sessed. No evidence was identified from the published literature of difficult to quantify pain associated with SCD. Little evidence
any morbidity or mortality benefit of identifying or treating PAH in exists to guide contraception and maternity care in persons with
asymptomatic individuals. This expert panel agrees that increasing SCD. Several potential acute and chronic complications also have
the use of proven SCD therapies (eg, hydroxyurea) should be con- very limited evidence on which to base recommendations (eg,
sidered for most persons with SCD but could find no evidence that monitoring and addressing renal function and blood pressure in
echocardiographic screening for PAH would increase the use of hy- children and adults with SCD, ocular complications and manage-
droxyurea or that hydroxyurea therapy provides benefit in management of fever in young children with SCD). Research is needed to
ment of PAH. Without evidence to demonstrate the value of the ini- address many of the identified gaps in the care of persons with
tial echocardiographic screening in asymptomatic individuals, the SCD in screening for and prevention of complications, as well as
expert panel did not consider such issues as anticipating future health treatment and reduction of high morbidity and mortality. Table 10
care needs or time to next screening. presents the strongest recommendations supported by high-

quality evidence that the panel could make, highlighting the with SCD, demonstrating the extensive knowledge gaps in
paucity of evidence available. SCD and care of affected individuals. The expert panel realizes
that this summary report and the guidelines leave many
uncertainties for health professionals caring for individuals
with SCD and highlight the importance of collaboration between
Conclusions
primary care health professionals and SCD experts. However, we
The process of developing guidelines for the management hope that this summary report and the SCD guideline begins to
of children, adolescents, and adults with SCD has been challeng- facilitate improved and more accessible care for all affected indi-
ing because high-quality evidence is limited in virtually every viduals, and that the discrepancies in the existing data will
area related to SCD management. The systematic review of trigger new research programs and processes to facilitate future
the literature identified a very small number of RCTs in individuals guidelines.
ARTICLE INFORMATION evidence review process and to manage all serving on a data and safety monitoring board for
Author Affiliations: Olmsted Medical Center, potential or perceived conflicts of interest. At the Pfizer. No other disclosures were reported.
Rochester, Minnesota (Yawn); University of Texas initial expert panel meeting, expert panel members Funding/Support: The National Heart, Lung, and
Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Buchanan); were asked by the panel co-chairs to disclose Blood Institute (NHLBI) sponsored the development
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (Afenyi- interests and relationships that could potentially of this guideline to assist health care professionals in
Annan); Thomas Jefferson University, Cardeza influence their participation or pose a potential the management of common issues of sickle cell
Foundation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Ballas); conflict of interest. Dr Afenyi-Annan reported disease. The NHLBI established the expert panel and
University of Colorado, Denver (Hassell); University receiving individual and institutional payment invited the panel members. All members served as
of Virginia, Charlottesville (James); Foundation for related to consultant work from the Transfusion volunteers and received no compensation from the
Sickle Cell Disease Research, University of Miami, Safety Summit, Novartis Pharmaceuticals NHLBI or any other entity for their participation.
Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida (Jordan); Corporation, and Hall, Booth, Smith & Slover, PC
(legal expert witness); and educational support Role of the Sponsor/Funder: The NHLBI had a role in
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, the design and conduct of the study; collection,
Maryland (Lanzkron); University of Florida, from Duke University Comprehensive Sickle Cell
Center (mentored research training supplement). management, analysis, and interpretation of the data;
Gainesville (Lottenberg); Brigham and Women’s preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript;
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Dr Ballas reported receiving individual payment
related to work on a speaker’s bureau for Novartis; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Massachusetts (Savage); Duke University, Schools
of Nursing and Medicine, Durham, North Carolina and individual payment for serving on advisory Disclaimer:Thecontentissolelytheresponsibilityofthe
(Tanabe); Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical boards for HemaQuest and Sangart. Dr Hassell authors and does not necessarily represent the official
Center, Cincinatti, Ohio (Ware); Mayo Clinic College reported receivng individual payment for serving views of the NHLBI, the National Institutes of Health, or
of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota (Murad); on advisory boards for Pfizer, ApoPharma, the US Department of Health and Human Services.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Foundation for Women and Girls with Blood Correction: This article was corrected on October
Bethesda, Maryland (Goldsmith, Ortiz, Fulwood, Disorders, and PFO Research Foundation; receiving 6, 2014, to fix an incorrect complication description
John-Sowah); American Institutes for Research, consultant fees from AGA Medical Corp; receiving in Table 9. This article was also corrected on
Silver Spring, Maryland (Horton). Dr Goldsmith is individual and institutional grant support from January 21, 2015, to replace the last sentence
now with the Rare Diseases Program, Office of New Terumo, GlycoMimetics, and Emmaus; and serving before the Discussion section.
Drugs, US Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, on the board of directors for Mount Evans Home
Maryland. Dr Ortiz is now a private senior Health & Hospice. Dr James reported receiving REFERENCES
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Clinical Review & Education

Management of Sickle Cell Disease

Editorial page 1004

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Sickle Cell Genotype, %

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Table 2. Dates for Literature Review for Evidence Tables

Abbreviation: SCD, sickle cell disease.

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grading the strength of 2 recommendations and the addition of clari-

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Table 6. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Hydroxyurea Therapy

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as total hemoglobin and fetal hemoglobin levels and decreased num-

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Table 7. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Use of Transfusion Therapy

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Table 10. Evidence-Based Strong Recommendations With High-Quality Evidence

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Copyright 2014 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

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