Tutorial 08

Tutorial - 08
Section5: Optical Materials
ECE:209 (Electronic and Electrical Properties of Materials)
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
University of Waterloo

Tutor: Hamid

Solutions:

9.1 Refractive index and relative permittivity Using n = ε r , calculate the

refractive index n of the materials in the table given their low frequency relative
permittivities εr(LF). What is your conclusion?
Material → a-Se Ge NaCl MgO
εr (LF) 6.4 16.2 5.90 9.83
n (∼ 1 ─ 5 µm) 2.45 4.0 1.54 1.71

Solution
The results from the calculations are summarized in Table 9Q1-1.
For a-Se and Ge there is an excellent agreement between ε r (LF) and n. Both are
covalent solids in which electronic polarization (electronic bond polarization) is the only
polarization mechanism at low and high frequencies. Electronic polarization involves the
displacement of light electrons with respect to positive ions. This process can readily
respond to the field oscillations up to optical frequencies.
For NaCl and MgO ε r (LF) is larger than n. This is because at low frequencies both
these solids possess a degree of ionic polarization. The bonding has a substantial degree
of ionic character which contributes to polarization at frequencies below far-infrared
wavelengths.

n, optical for
Material εr (LF) ε r ( LF ) Comment
(1 - 5) µm range
a-Se 6.4 2.53 2.45 Electronic bond polarization
Ge 16.2 4.02 4.0 Electronic bond polarization
NaCl 5.9 2.43 1.54 Ionic polarization contributes to εr (LF)
MgO 9.83 3.14 1.71 Ionic polarization contributes to εr (LF)
Table 9Q1-1: Comparing ε r ( LF ) with n for the given materials
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9.7 Cauchy dispersion relation for zinc selenide ZnSe is a II-VI

semiconductor and a very useful optical material used in various applications such as
optical windows (especially high power laser windows), lenses, prisms etc. It transmits
over 0.50 to 19 µm. n in the 1 – 11 µm range described by a Cauchy expression of the
form
0.0485 0.0061
n = 2.4365 + 2
+ 4
− 0.0003λ 2 ZnSe dispersion relation
λ λ
in which λ is in µm. What is ZnSe's refractive index n and group index Ng at 5 µm?

Solution
0.0485 0.0061
Given, n = 2.4365 + + − 0.0003λ2 (1)
λ 2
λ4
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to λ, we obtain the following,

dn − 0.097 0.0244
= − − 0.0006λ
dλ λ3 λ5
where λ is in µm .
At λ = 5 µm:
Using equation (1), we calculate the refractive index n to be the following,

0.0485 0.0061
n = 2.4365 + + − 0.0003(5 × 10−6 ) 2 = 2.4309
(5 × 10 ) (5 ×10−6 ) 4
−6 2

The group index is defined as (see Equation 9.23 on Pg 785 of the text)
dn
Ng = n − λ (2)
dλ
from (2) we see that,

dn
N g (5 µm) = n(5 µm) − λ
dλ
− 0.097 0.0244
= 2.4309 − (5 × 10 −6 ) × [ −6 3
− − 0.0006 × (5 × 10 −6 )]
(5 × 10 ) (5 × 10 −6 ) 5
∴ Ng = 2.449
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9.10 Electric and magnetic fields in light The intensity (irradiance) of the red
laser beam from a He-Ne laser in air has been measured to be about 1 mW cm-2. What are
the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields? What are the magnitudes if this 1 mW
cm-2 beam were in a glass medium with a refractive index n = 1.45 and still had the same
intensity?

Solution
The average irradiance (intensity) is given by (see Equation 9.29)
1
I = c ε o nEo
2

2
For vacuum or air n = 1 and we can calculate the magnitude of the electric field from the
above relation as,

2I 2 (10 W m -2 )
Eo = = = 86.772 V m -1
cεo n ( 3×10 8
ms -1
)(8.85×10 -12
Fm -1
) (1)
The corresponding magnetic field is

nE (1) (86.772 V m −1
) = 2.892
Bo = o = 10 - 7 T = 0.2892 T
c ( 3 ×108 m s−1 )
If this beam was traveling in a glass medium of n = 1.45 and still had the same intensity
(1 mW cm-2), then

2I 2 (10 W m −2 )
Eo = = = 72.06 V m -1
cε o n ( 3 ×10 8
ms −1
)(8.85 ×10 −12
Fm −1
) (1.45)
and

n Eo (1.45 ) ( 86.772 V m )
−1

∴ Bo = = = 3.483 10 - 7 T = 0.3483 T
c ( 3 ×108 m s−1 )

9.11 Reflection of light from a less dense medium (internal reflection) A

ray of light which is traveling in a glass medium of refractive index n1 = 1.450 becomes
incident on a less dense glass medium of refractive index n2 = 1.430. Suppose that the
free space wavelength (λ) of the light ray is 1 µm.
a. What should be the minimum incidence angle for TIR?
b. What is the phase change in the reflected wave when θi = 85° and when θi = 90°?
c. What is the penetration depth of the evanescent wave into medium 2 when θi = 85°
and when θi = 90°?
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Solution
a. The critical angle θc for TIR is given by (see Equation 9.31)
sinθc = n2/n1 =1.430/1.450
∴ θc = 80.47°
b. Since the incidence angle θi > θc, there is a phase shift in the reflected wave. The phase
change in Er, ⊥ is given by φ⊥ (see Equation 9.44). With n1 = 1.450, n2 = 1.430 and θi =
85°, the phase change is

⎡⎛ 2 1/ 2 ⎤
⎞
⎛ 1.43 ⎞
⎢ ( ) ⎟⎟ ⎥
2
⎡ ( sin 2 θ − n 2 ) ⎤ ⎜ sin 85 ° − ⎜ ⎟
1/ 2
⎢ ⎜
φ⊥ = 2 arctan ⎢
i
⎥ = 2 arctan ⎢ ⎝
⎝ 1.45 ⎠ ⎠ ⎥ = 116.45o
⎥
⎢ cos θi ⎥ ⎢ cos85° ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
For the Er,// component (see Equation 9.45), the phase change is
⎧⎪ (
⎡ sin 2 θ − n 2
φ // = 2⎨arctan ⎢ i )1/ 2
⎤ 1 ⎫⎪
⎥ − π⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ n cos θ i
2
⎥⎦ 2 ⎪⎭

⎧ ⎡⎛ 2 1/ 2 ⎤
⎞ ⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ( sin 85° ) − ⎜
2 ⎛ 1.43 ⎞ ⎥ ⎪
⎟ ⎟
⎪⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎝ 1.45 ⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎥ 1 ⎪⎪
∴ φ// = 2 ⎨arctan ⎢ 2 ⎥ − π ⎬ = 62.1
o

⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 1.43 ⎞
cos85° ⎥ 2 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ 1.45 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎩⎪ ⎭⎪
(Note: If we were to invert the reflected field, this phase change would be 117.9°).
We can repeat the calculation with θi = 90° to find φ⊥ = 180° and φ// = 0°.
Note that as long as θi > θc, the magnitude of the reflection coefficients are unity. There is
a change only in the phase.
c. The amplitude of the evanescent wave as it penetrates into medium 2 is
Et,⊥(y,t) ≈ Eto,⊥exp(−α2y)
We ignore the z-dependence, expj(ωt − kzz), as this only gives a propagating property
along z. The field strength drops to e-1 when y = 1/α2 = δ, which is called the penetration
depth. The attenuation constant α2 is given by (see Equation 9.47)
1

2π n2 ⎡⎛⎜ n1 ⎞⎟ ⎤2
2

α2 = sin θ i − 1⎥
2

λ ⎢⎣⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎦
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2π (1.43) ⎡⎛ (1.45 ) ⎞ ⎤
2 2

( )
2
∴ α2 = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ sin 85° − 1⎥ = 1.28×106 m -1
(1×10 m ) ⎢⎣⎝ 1.43 ⎠
−6
⎥⎦

so the penetration depth is, δ = 1/α2 = 1/(1.28×106 m-1) = 7.8 × 10-7 m, or 0.78 mm. For
90°, repeating the calculation we find, α2 = 1.5 × 106 m-1, so that δ = 1/α2 = 0.66 mm.
We see that the penetration is greater for smaller incidence angles.

9.12 Internal and external reflection at normal incidence Consider the

reflection of light at normal incidence on a boundary between a GaAs crystal medium of
refractive index 3.6 and air of refractive index 1.
a. If light is traveling from air to GaAs, what is the reflection coefficient and the
intensity of the reflected light in terms of the incident light?
b. If light is traveling from GaAs to air, what is the reflection coefficient and the intensity
of the reflected light in terms of the incident light?

Solution
a. The light travels in air and becomes partially reflected at the surface of the GaAs
crystal which corresponds to external reflection. Thus n1 = 1 and n2 = 3.6. Reflection
coefficient is given by (see Equation 9.42),
n − n 1 − 3.6
r// = r⊥ = 1 2 = = 0.565
n1 + n2 1 + 3.6
This is negative which means that there is a 180° phase shift. The reflectance R (see
Equation 9.49), which gives the fractional reflected power.
R = ( r⊥ ) = ( −0.565 ) = 0.319 = 31.9 %
2 2
∴

b. The light travels in GaAs crystal and becomes partially reflected at the crystal-air
interface which corresponds to internal reflection. Thus n1 = 3.6 and n2 = 1. Then,
n1 − n2 3.6 − 1
r// = r⊥ = = = 0.565
n1 + n2 3.6 + 1
There is no phase shift. The reflectance is again 0.319 or 31.9%. In both cases, a and b,
the amount of reflected light is the same.
________________________________________________________________________
9.13 Antireflection coating
a. Consider three dielectric media with flat and parallel boundaries with refractive
indices n1, n2, and n3. Show that for normal incidence the reflection
coefficient between layers 1 and 2 is the same as that between layers 2 and 3 if
n2 = n1n3 . What is the significance of this?
b. Consider a Si photodiode that is designed for operation at 900 nm. Given a choice of
two possible antireflection coatings, SiO2 with a refractive index of 1.5 and TiO2 with
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a refractive index of 2.3 which would you use and what would be the thickness of the
antireflection coating you chose? The refractive index of Si is 3.5.

Solution
a. For light traveling in medium 1 when incident on the 1-2 interface at normal incidence
the reflection coefficient is,
n3
1−
n1 − n2 n1 − n1n3 n1
r12 = = =
n1 + n2 n1 + n1n3 n3
1+
n1
For light traveling in medium 2 when incident on the 2-3 interface at normal incidence
the reflection coefficient is,
n1 n3
−1 1 −
n2 − n3 n n − n3 n3 n1
r23 = = 1 3 = =
n2 + n3 n1n3 + n3 n1 n3
+1 1+
n3 n1

∴ r23 = r12

Significance: For an efficient antireflection effect, the waves A and B (see Figure 9Q13-
1) should interfere destructively and to obtain a good degree of destructive interference
between waves A and B, the two amplitudes must be comparable. This can be achieved
by r12 = r23.
d
n1 n2 n3

A
B

Surface Antireflection Semiconductor of

coating photovoltaic device

Figure 9Q13-1: Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the reflected light
intensity.
b. The best antireflection coating should have a refractive index n2 such that n2 = (n1n3)1/2
= [(1) (3.5)] 1/2 = 1.87. Given a choice of two possible antireflection coatings, SiO2 with a
refractive index of 1.5 and TiO2 with a refractive index of 2.3, SiO2 would be a good
choice as it is closer to 1.87.
To find the thickness of the coating with a 900 nm wavelength (see Equation in example
9.10),
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⎛ λ ⎞
d = m⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4n2 ⎠
where m = 1, 3, 5, … is an odd integer.
(900 nm )
For SiO2: d=
4(1.5)
∴ d = 150 nm
or odd multiples of d.
For TiO2 (if chosen):
(900 nm )
d=
4(2.3)
∴ d = 97.8 nm
or odd multiples of d.

9.17 Complex refractive index Spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements on a

germanium crystal at a photon energy of 1.5 eV show that the real and imaginary parts of
the complex relative permittivity are 21.56 and 2.772 respectively. Find the complex
refractive index. What is the reflectance and absorption coefficient at this wavelength?
How do your calculations match with the experimental values of n = 4.653 and K =
0.298, R = 0.419 and α = 4.53 × 106 m-1?

Solution
We know that εr′ = 21.56 and that εr″ = 2.772. The real part n and the imaginary part K of
the complex refractive index are solutions of the following system of equations (see
Equation 9.60)
n2 − K2 = 15.2254 and 2nK = 0.172
We can take K from the second equation and substitute for it in the first equation,
2
⎛ 2.772 ⎞ 2
n −⎜ ⎟ = 21.56
⎝ 2n ⎠
This is a quadratic equation in n2 that can be easily solved to find the four roots:
n1,2 = ±4.653 and n3,4 = ±0.298
Since n and K should be positive, and for photon energies of about 1.5 eV (more than the
bandgap energy), n should be greater than one. Thus, n = 4.653 is the only root having
any physical significance. Knowing n, we can find K = εr′′/2n = 2.772/[(2)(4.653)] =
0.298 (In fact, one of the roots above is K!). Both values compare very well with the
experimental results.
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Using Equations 9.62 and 9.57, we can calculate the reflectance R and the absorption
coefficient α, respectively.
(n − 1) 2 + K 2 (4.653 − 1) 2 + 0.2982
R= = = 0.42
(n + 1) 2 + K 2 (4.653 + 1) 2 + 0.2982

2π 2π E ph 2π (1.5 eV )
α = 2k ′′ = 2ko K = 2 K =2 K =2 ( 0.298)
λ hc ( 4.135 ×10 −15
eV s )( 3 ×108 m s −1 )

α=4.52 × 106 m-1

Since n and K were in good agreement with the experiment, α and R are also very close
to their experimental values.

9.21 Fundamental absorption Consider the semiconductors in Figure 9.23, and

those semiconductors listed in Table 9.3.
a. Which semiconductors can be candidates for a photodetector that can detect light in
optical communications at 1550 nm?
b. For amorphous Si (a-Si), one definition of an optical gap is the photon energy that
results in an optical absorption coefficient α of 104 cm−1. What is the optical gap
of a-Si in Figure 9.23?
c. Consider a solar cell from crystalline Si. What is the absorption depth of light at 1000
nm, and at
500 nm?

Solution
a. Since λop = 1550 nm and only those semiconductor materials that have their λg > λop
can detect the
light, we can only use, from Table 9.3, In 0.53Ga 0.47 As , Ge, InAs, and InSb for our
photodetector.
b. From Figure 9.23, when α = 10 4 cm −1 = 106 m −1 , λop ≈ 650 nm

hc
Thus, Eopt = = 1.909 eV or 1.91 eV
λopt

c. From Figure 9.23, when λop = 500nm, α = 1.3 × 10 6 m −1 and

when λop = 100nm, α = 7 × 10 m . 3 −1
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1 1
Thus, δ (500 nm) = = = 0.7692 µm or 0.77 µm
α2 1.3 ×106
1 1
and δ (1000 nm) = = = 142.86 µm or 143 µm
α2 7 ×103