6

Mechanics

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Chapter Overview: Some practical applications of calculus in mechanics are

E
considered in this chapter. Simple mathematical models enable solutions to be
found in terms of the familiar functions of this course.

ES
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Problems later in the chapter require some knowledge of Newton’s laws of motion,
and that acceleration be written as a function of x. Preparation for that is done
in Section 6A. Next, simple harmonic motion is presented, firstly in terms of time
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in Section 6B, and then in terms of displacement in Section 6C.
The work in Sections 6D and 6E takes the first step in making the theory of
motion more realistic by introducing a resistive force. Horizontal motion with
friction, and vertical motion in a resisting medium with constant gravity are
considered. In the following section, projectile motion is first reviewed and then
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extended to include a resistive force proportional to the velocity, based on the
work done in 6E. The chapter concludes with a collection of various problems
which either extend the theory learnt to new situations or are harder examples
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of applications of that theory. One specific example investigated is the simple

harmonic motion approximation for a pendulum.
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6A Forces and Acceleration

SA C

In the problems encountered in this chapter, the equations of motion are either
specified explicitly or given indirectly, such as by a balance of forces. Whilst this
is not a course in physics, a basic understanding of the laws of motion is required.
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Some Assumptions: A significant simplification is the assumption that an object

may be represented by a point mass, often called a particle. If the scale of the
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motion is large compared with the object, such as in the case of a ball bearing
thrown 5 m, then this assumption is reasonable. A second significant assumption
is that air is an ideal fluid and is not particulate in nature. At low to medium
speeds this is a satisfactory assumption.
A third assumption is that the forces due to the orbit of the earth around the
sun and due to the rotation of the earth on its axis are negligible in the problems
being considered. By way of example, in the problem of projectile motion without
air resistance, the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth is about
9·8 m/s2. The acceleration due to the orbit of the earth is about 6 × 10−4 m/s2,
and at the equator the acceleration due to the rotation of the earth is about
0·034 m/s2. Thus this third assumption seems reasonable.

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 6A Forces and Acceleration 219

Newton’s Laws of Motion: The equations of motion encountered in this course

are all derived from Sir Isaac Newton’s laws of motion, contained in his book
Principia, published in 1686. It is written in Latin, the scientific language of the
day. An early translation of the laws is as follows:
Law I Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line except in so far as it be compelled by impressed force
to change that state.
Law II The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed
force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.

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Law III To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In the second law, momentum is defined to be mv, the product of mass with

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velocity. The standard units used are kilograms, metres and seconds. The unit
of force is called the newton, with 1 N = 1 kg m s−2 . If these SI units are used

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then, in the second law, the constant of proportionality is 1. Thus

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d
F = (mv) ,
dt

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and if the mass is constant then
F = ma where a = v̇ .
If other units are used then these equations must be appropriately modified.
It may seem strange to state that the mass is constant, but in many cases the
mass is certainly not constant, such as a rocket as its fuel is burnt. In this course,
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however, the mass is always assumed to be constant.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION: When a force F newtons is applied to a constant

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1 mass m kg, which is free to move, the resulting acceleration is a m s−2 , where
F = ma
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In many situations it is simply a matter of integrating the force equation in order

to find the other details of the motion.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1: A body of mass 4 kg is acted upon by a variable force

F = 48(5 − t) newtons for 5 seconds. If the body starts from rest at x = 0 then
what is its final velocity and how far has it travelled?
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SOLUTION: From Newton’s second law, after dividing through by the mass,
dv
= 60 − 12t .
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dt
Integrating, v = 60t − 6t2 + C .
At t = 0 the velocity is v = 0, so C = 0 and
v = 60t − 6t2 .
Hence at t = 5, v = 150 m/s.
Integrating again gives the displacement:
x = 30t2 − 2t3 + D .
At t = 0 the body is at x = 0, so D = 0 and
x = 30t2 − 2t3 .
Hence at t = 5, x = 500 m.

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 220 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6A

Resolution of Forces: When two or more forces act on a body, the problem can often
be solved by resolving the forces. Typically the forces are resolved horizontally
and vertically to determine the equations of motion. Usually a force diagram,
called a free-body diagram , is helpful at this step. The sum of the components
can then be used in Newton’s second law.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2: In a conical pendulum, particle P

of mass m hangs from a ceiling on a wire of length `. The
a

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wire makes a constant angle α with the vertical and P
moves around a circle with constant angular velocity ω. l
h
Let r be the radius of the circular motion and let h be

E
the height of the cone traced out by the wire. P
r
(a) Draw a free-body diagram of the situation.

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(b) The horizontal force required to keep the particle in circular motion is mrω 2,

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directed towards the axis of the cone. By resolving the forces horizontally
and vertically, obtain an expression for ω in terms of `, α and g.

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(c) The period of the motion is 2πω
. Show that when ` =
period is always less than 2 seconds.

SOLUTION: Let T be the tension in the wire.

g
π2
(about 0·994 m) the

T
(a) The diagram is shown on the right.
a
(b) The vertical component of tension is T cos α. The only P
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other vertical force is due to gravity and is −mg, the minus
sign indicating a downwards force. As there is no vertical
acceleration, the sum of the vertical forces is zero. Thus mg
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T cos α − mg = 0
or T cos α = mg (1)
The horizontal component of tension keeps the particle in
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circular motion. So
T sin α = mrω 2 (2)
Now in the cone sin α = r` so from equation (2)
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T r` = mrω 2
or T = m`ω 2
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Substitute this result into (1) to get

m`ω 2 cos α = mg
g
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so ω2 =
cos
s α
`
g
or ω= .
` cos α
(c) From the given formula for the period,
s
` cos α
period = 2π
g
√
= 2 cos α (when ` = πg2 .)
Hence the the period is always less than 2 seconds,
with period → 2− seconds as α → 0+ .

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 6A Forces and Acceleration 221

Other Forms of Acceleration: There are some problems

where the equation of motion is more naturally expressed
using displacement. For example, it is easy to measure
the displacement x of one end of a spring when a mass
x
m is hung from it. It is found that x is proportional to m
the force so the resulting equation is
v̇ = −kx (for some constant k.)
In order to do anything meaningful with this equation it is necessary to rewrite

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the acceleration v̇ as a derivative in x instead of t. This is done as follows.
dv dv dx
= × (by the chain rule)
dt dx dt

E
dv
= ×v (by the definition of velocity)
dx

ES
dv dv

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thus =v .
dt dx
Putting this into the equation of motion for the spring gives

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dv
dx
= −kx
which is a variable separable differential equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3: A spring is hung from a ceiling and extended a distance

a metres then released from rest. It is found that the equation of motion for the
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spring is ẍ = −x, where x metres is the displacement of the end of the spring at
time t seconds. Show that −a ≤ x ≤ a.
dv
SOLUTION: Replace the acceleration ẍ with v and double to get
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dx
dv
2v = −2x
dx
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which is variable separable. Next integrate both sides to get

v 2 = C − x2
for some constant C. But at t = 0, x = a and v = 0 so
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0 = C − a2
thus C = a2 , and rearranging the equation gives
x2 + v 2 = a2 .
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Graphing v against x, this is the equation of a circle, and hence −a ≤ x ≤ a.

Note that this does not prove that the end of the spring ever reaches x = −a.
That will be done later in this chapter.
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Notice that the equation was doubled in the first line of the solution above. This
made the integration easier. There is another approach which is often used.
d2 x dv
2
=v
dt dx
 
1 dv dv
=2 v + v
dx dx
d
= 12 (v × v) (by the product rule)
dx
d2 x d 1 2

that is = v .
dt2 dx 2

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 222 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6A

WORKED EXAMPLE 4: A particle starts at the origin with velocity v = 1 m/s. It

is found that its displacement x metres at time t seconds satisfies ẍ = e−2x .
(a) Find an expression for v 2 in terms of x.
(b) Explain why the velocity must always be positive.
√
(c) Hence show that v → 2 as t → ∞.
SOLUTION:
(a) From above

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d 1 2

v = e−2x
dx 2
d

E
so v 2 = 2e−2x
dx
thus v 2 = C − e−2x

ES
PA T
for some constant C. Now apply the conditions v(0) = 1 and x(0) = 0.
1= C −1
so C=2
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(b) Now at t = 0, x = 0 and v = 1, so the particle begins moving to the right.
That is, x becomes positive and v is positive. In order for v to change sign, it
must first be zero, which cannot happen for x ≥ 0. Hence v remains positive.
(c) Since v 2 = 2 − e−2x , v ≥ 1 for all time and hence as t → ∞ so too x → ∞.
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Thus lim v 2 = lim v 2
t→∞ x→∞
= lim 2 − e−2x
x→∞
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= 2,
√
and since v > 0, take the positive square root to get lim v = 2.
t→∞
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OTHER FORMS OF ACCELERATION: The four common forms of acceleration are

2

d x dv dv d 1 2
2 = =v = v .
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2 2
dt dt dx dx
In each problem, choose the form most suitable for integration.
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d 1 2

Integrating Twice: When acceleration is written as v , integration will often
dx 2
yield v 2 as a function of x, such as v 2 = a2 − x2 in Worked Example 3. Rewriting
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this equation:
 2
dx
= a2 − x2 ,
dt
which is a non-linear first order differential equation. Such equations are usually
too difficult to solve in this course, and no further progress is possible.
If, however, the sign of v can be established then the appropriate square root can
be taken and a second integration performed. The sign of v may be determined
either mathematically (as in Worked Example 4) or, more typically, from the
physics of the situation.

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 6A Forces and Acceleration 223

WORKED EXAMPLE 5: Experiments suggest that acceleration due to gravity is

inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the centre of the planet.
Thus, if x is altitude and R is the radius of the earth then
d2 x −k
2
= where k is a positive constant.
dt (x + R)2
The negative sign indicates the acceleration is downwards.

An object is dropped from x = R. Let g be the acceleration due to gravity at

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the surface of the earth.
p
(a) Show that the object hits the ground with speed Rg.

E
(b) Find an expression for the time taken in terms of x, R and g.

ES
SOLUTION: Given that ẍ = −g at x = 0, it follows that −g = −kR−2 .

PA T
Hence k = R2 g.
(a) Rewrite the given differential equation as

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d
dx


v 2 = −2k(x + R)−2
v 2 = 2k(x + R)−1 + C
Using the initial condition v = 0 at x = R,
C = −kR−1 .
2k k
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Hence v2 = −
x+R R
k 2R − (x + R)
= ×
x+
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R  R
R−x
= Rg (from the value of k above.)
R+x
p
Clearly at x = 0, v 2 = Rg and hence the speed is Rg.
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(b) From the physical situation, the velocity is always negative. Thus
s
p R−x
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v = − Rg ×
R+x
so taking reciprocals and rearranging yields
s
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p dt R+x
Rg × =− .
dx R−x
p Z
R+x
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Integrating, Rg × t = − √ dx
R 2 − x2
Z  
R x
=− √ +√ dx
R 2 − x2 R 2 − x2
p p
x
so Rg t = −R sin−1 ( R ) + R 2 − x2 + D .
But x = R at t = 0 so
0 = −R sin−1 1 + D
and D = πR2
.
 
s   s 2
R π x x
Hence t= − sin−1 + 1 − 2.
g 2 r R

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 224 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6A

Exercise 6A
1. In each part, the velocity v is given as a function of x. It is known that x = 1 when t = 0.
Express: (i) t in terms of x, (ii) x in terms of t.
(a) v = 6 (c) v = −6x3 (e) v = 1 + x2
(b) v = −6x−2 (d) v = e−2x (f) v = cos2 x
d 1 2
2. In each motion of the previous question, find ẍ using the result ẍ = ( v ).
dx 2

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d 1 2
3. In each part, the acceleration ẍ is given as a function of x. By replacing ẍ with ( v ),
dx 2
express v 2 in terms of x given that v = 0 when x = 0.

E
(a) ẍ = 6x2 1 1 1
(b) ẍ = x (c) ẍ = (d) ẍ =
e 2x + 1 4 + x2

ES
PA T
dv
4. In each part, the acceleration ẍ is given as a function of v. By replacing ẍ with ,
dt
express t in terms of v.
E EC v
2
(a) ẍ = 2 and when t = 0, v = 0

(b) ẍ = v 2 and when t = 0, v = 21

(c) ẍ = 2 + v and when t = 0, v = 1

dv
5. In each part, the acceleration ẍ is given as a function of v. By replacing ẍ with v ,
dx
express x in terms of v.
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v2
(a) ẍ = and when x = 0, v = 1 (c) ẍ = 2 + v and when x = 0, v = 0
4
3
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(b) ẍ = and when x = 0, v = 6

v
6. A particle of mass m moves in a straight line subject to a force F . At time t, the
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displacement of the particle is x and the velocity is v. The particle was initially at rest at
the origin.
(a) If F = 6t − 4 and m = 2, find x when t = 4.
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(b) If F = 2x + 1 and m = 1·5, find the positive value of v when x = 3.

1
(c) If F = and m = 0·25, find t when v = 4.
v+2
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1
(d) If F = and m = 0·5, find x when v = 3.
v+2
DEVELOPMENT
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7. Three forces act on an object of mass 2 kg. These forces are represented by the vectors
12i + 23j , 9i − 7j and −5i + 14j . Calculate the magnitude and direction of the acceleration
e e e e e e
of the object.
8. The diagram on the right shows two forces of magnitude
−→ −−→ B
20 N and 15 N represented by the vectors OA and OB. A
−→ −−→ 15N 20N
(a) Express OA and OB as component vectors.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the resultant of the two 54° 32°
forces, correct to the nearest newton. O
(c) Determine the direction of the resultant, correct to the
nearest degree.

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 6A Forces and Acceleration 225

9. Tom can paddle his canoe with a force of 20 N. He starts paddling from a point on the
south bank of a river and steers the canoe at 90◦ to the bank. He experiences a force of
6 N acting due east due to the current, and he also has to contend with a force of 4 N due
to a breeze blowing from the north-east.
(a) Express the resultant force on Tom and his canoe as a component vector.
(b) Hence find the magnitude (in newtons to one decimal place) and direction (in degrees
to one decimal place) of the resultant force.
10. [A formula from physics] A particle moves with constant acceleration a, so that its equa-

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tion of motion is ẍ = a. Its initial velocity is u. After t seconds, its velocity is v and its
d 1 2
displacement is s. Use ( v ) for acceleration to show that v 2 = u2 + 2as.
dx 2

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11. A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 20 m/s. Taking g = 10m/s2, upwards as positive,
and the ground as the origin of displacement, the equation of motion is then ẍ = −10.

ES
PA T
(a) Show that v 2 = 400 − 20x, and find the greatest height.
√
(b) Explain why v = 400 − 20x while the ball is rising.
(c) Integrate to find the displacement–time function, and find how long it takes the ball
E EC to reach its greatest height.
12. Assume that a bullet, fired at 1 km/s, moves through the air with deceleration proportional
to the square of the velocity, so that ẍ = −kv 2 for some positive constant k.
dv
(a) If the velocity after 100 metres is 10 m/s, use ẍ = v to find x as a function of v,
dx
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then find how far the bullet has travelled when its velocity is 1 m/s.
dv
(b) If the velocity after 1 second is 10 m/s, use ẍ = to find at what time the bullet has
dt
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velocity 1 m/s.
13. A particle has acceleration ẍ = e−x , and initially v = 2 and x = 0. Find v 2 as a function
of x, and explain why v is always positive and at least 2. Then briefly explain what
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happens as time goes on.

14. A particle has velocity v = 6 − 2x, and initially the particle was at the origin.
SA C

(a) Find the acceleration at the origin.

 
(b) Show that t = − 21 ln 1 − 31 x, and hence find x as a function of t.
(c) Describe the behaviour of the particle as t → ∞.
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15. An object is initially at rest at the origin. It moves in a straight line away from the origin
with acceleration 2(1 + v) m/s2. Find, correct to 3 significant figures:
(a) how long it takes for the velocity to reach 20 m/s,
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(b) the distance travelled when the velocity reaches 20 m/s.

16. A particle P of mass m starts from the origin O with velocity u and moves in a straight
x
line. When OP = x, where x ≥ 0, the velocity v of P is given by v = u + , where k is a
k
positive constant.
(a) Prove that the force acting on P is at all times proportional to v, and state the
constant of proportionality.
(b) Given that the velocity is 3u at the point A, find:
(i) the distance OA in terms of k and u.
(ii) the time, in terms of k, taken by P to move from O to A.

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 226 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6B

17. A particle of mass 0·5 kg is acted upon by a force F = x − 21 newtons. Initially the
particle is at rest 5 metres on the positive side of the origin.
(a) Find v 2 in terms of x, and hence explain why the particle can never be at the origin.
√
(b) Find where the speed of the particle is 2 5 m/s, justifying your answer, and describe
the subsequent motion.
2
18. A particle of mass 2 kg
√ is subject to a force of 6x newtons. Initially the particle is at
x = 1 with velocity − 2 m/s.
(a) Find v 2 as a function of x.

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(b) Then find the displacement–time function, and briefly describe the motion.
19. The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by ẍ = 3(1 − x2 ), where

E
x metres is the displacement of the particle. Initially the particle was at the origin with
velocity 4 m/s.

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(a) Find v 2 as a function of x.

PA T
(b) Does the particle ever change direction? Justify your answer with clear reasoning.
ENRICHMENT

E EC
20. Newton’s law of gravitation says that an object falling towards a planet has acceleration
ẍ = −kx−2 , for some positive constant k, where x is the distance from the centre of the
planet. Show that if the body starts from
s rest at a distance D from the centre, then its
2k(D − x)
speed at a distance x from the centre is .
Dx
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21. A projectile is fired vertically upwards with speed V from the surface of the Earth.
(a) Assuming the same equation of motion as in the previous question, and ignoring air
resistance, show that k = gR2, where R is the radius of the Earth.
M R

(b) Find v 2 in terms of x and hence find the maximum height of the projectile above the
centre of the earth.
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(c) [The escape velocity from the Earth] Given that R = 6400 km and g = 9·8 m/s2 , find
the least value of V so that the projectile will never return.


22. The velocity of a particle moving on the positive x-axis is given by v = 8 − 3e−2t m/s.
Z Z
SA C

v
(a) Show that dv = 2 dx.
8−v
(b) Find, correct to 3 significant figures, the distance travelled by the particle as its speed
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increases from 0 m/s to 7 m/s.

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6B Simple Harmonic Motion and Time

Many things naturally exhibit repeated patterns or oscillations. The human body
provides many examples such as the heart beating, the lungs breathing or the
vocal chords vibrating. Elsewhere in nature there are the waves on a beach, the
tides of the ocean or the phases of the moon. Man-made phenomena include the
regular motion of a piston in a steam engine or combustion engine, or the regular
ebb and flow of traffic caused by the phases of traffic lights. The mathematics
behind each of these examples is extremely complicated, but each can be based
on the oscillations observed in the graphs of the sine and cosine functions. This
is what will be studied in the next two sections.

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 6B Simple Harmonic Motion and Time 227

Simple Harmonic Motion: The shape of the graph of x = sin t is called sinusoidal.
A translation, dilation or any combination of these two does not change the basic
shape. Thus the graphs of functions like x = 3 cos(2t + π2 ) are also sinusoidal.
Whenever the graph of displacement x versus time t for a particular motion is
sinusoidal, that motion is called simple harmonic motion, or SHM for short.
Accommodating the combinations of translations and dilations, both vertically
and horizontally, the equation of simple harmonic motion is commonly written
in one of two ways:

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x = a cos(nt + α) + c,
x = a sin(nt + β) + c.

E
Sometimes a third equation is used and that will be discussed later.
The physical meanings of the values a, n and c are the x

ES
2p
same in both these equations. The constant c is called

PA T
n
x=c+a
the centre of motion, as the wave oscillates symmetrically
either side of the horizontal line x = c, as seen in the x=c

E EC
graph on the right. The value a is the amplitude of the
motion because the wave moves at most a away from the
centre. Thus x always lies in the range c − a ≤ x ≤ c + a.
The constant n is used to calculate the period = 2π
n
, which
x=c-a
t
is the time between two peaks or two troughs.
At any time t the quantities (nt + α) and (nt + β) are each called the phase of
PL R
the motion, as their values determine the location, rather like the way that time
dictates the phases of the moon. The constant angles α and β are each called
the initial phase of the motion, as they determine the initial displacement. When
M R

t = 0 the two forms of the equation give

a cos α + c = a sin β + c
and so cos α = sin β.
O

π
Hence the angles are complementary and β = 2
− α, though it is not necessary
to memorise this formula.
SA C

WORKED EXAMPLE 6: A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion according

to the equation x = 2 sin( π2 t + π6 ) + 3.
(a) Write down its centre, amplitude and extremes of displacement.
N

(b) Determine the period, initial phase and location at t = 0.

(c) Determine when the particle is next at the same location.
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SOLUTION:
(a) The centre is x = 3, the amplitude is 2 so the extremes are x = 1 and x = 5.
(b) The period is 2π ÷ π2 = 4, with initial phase π6 . At t = 0, x = 2 sin π6 + 3 = 4.
(c) Solving x = 4 gives
2 sin( π2 t + π6 ) + 3 = 4
thus sin( π2 t + π6 ) = 21
π
so 2
t + π6 = π6 , 5π6
, 13π
6
,...
π 2π
or 2 t = 0, 3 , 2π, . . .
that is t = 0, 34 , 4, . . .
Hence the particle is next at x = 4 when t = 34 .

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 228 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6B

The function in this last example is the one graphed above in the discussion. By
chance, both the values of a and c are integers whilst both n and β are irrational.
In general, there are no restrictions except that each is a real number.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: A particle with displacement x at time t is in simple

harmonic motion if either
x = a cos(nt + α) + c or x = a sin(nt + β) + c .
3
The centre of motion is c, the amplitude is a and the period is 2π

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n
. The
quantities (nt + α) and (nt + β) are each called the phase of the motion. Each
angle α or β is called the initial phase.

E
SHM and Transformations: As stated earlier, motion which is simple harmonic

ES
may be the result of shifts or dilations. The transformations applied to x = cos t

PA T
in order to obtain x = a cos(nt + α) + c are investigated in Extension 1. Here the
horizontal transformations will be done first and the vertical second. Of course,

E EC
that order can be reversed.
First shift x = cos t left by α to get x = cos(t + α). Both of these functions have
period 2π. Now stretch horizontally by factor n1 to get x = cos(nt + α) which has
period 2πn
. Next stretch the wave vertically by factor a, giving x = a cos(nt + α).
Finally shift the graph up by c so that the centre, also called the mean position,
is at x = c. A similar sequence of transformations is applied to x = sin t. The five
PL R
graphs that follow show such a sequence from x = sin t to x = 2 sin( π2 t + π6 ) + 3.
y x x
M R

1 1 4p 1
2p 3 t
x p 5p 11p t 5 11 17
O

-1 p -1 3 6 6 -1 3 3 3
SA C

x = sin t shift left by π6 stretch t by π2

x = sin(t + π6 ) x = sin( π2 t + π6 )
N

x x

2 5
U

5 11 17 t 3
3 3 3
-2 1
5
3
11
3
17
3
t

stretch x by 2 shift up by 3
x = 2 sin( π2 t + π6 ) x = 2 sin( π2 t + π6 ) + 3
In a few cases it may be convenient to apply the
horizontal transformations in
the opposite order by writing x = a cos n(t + αn ) + c. In this case a horizontal
stretch by factor n1 is followed by a shift left by αn . The value αn is sometimes
called the phase shift.

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 6B Simple Harmonic Motion and Time 229

Choosing the Origin: In many practical problems the location of the origin is not
specified or may be changed without significantly altering the problem. In such
problems, the origin should be chosen so that the equation of simple harmonic
motion is one of the following four cases.
x = a cos nt — the motion starts at the top and moves downwards,
x = −a cos nt — the motion starts at the bottom and moves upwards,
x = a sin nt — the motion starts at the centre and moves upwards,
x = −a sin nt — the motion starts at the centre and moves downwards.

G D
Notice that in each case c = 0. In the first case α = 0, and in the second case
α = π which accounts for the negative sign. Likewise, in the third case β = 0
and in the fourth case β = π.

E
ES
WORKED EXAMPLE 7: A weight is hung from a stand on a table by a spring and

PA T
set in vertical motion. The weight oscillates between 15cm and 35 cm above the
table, and it takes 2 seconds to complete one cycle. It is found that the motion
of the weight may be modelled by simple harmonic motion.
E EC
(a) What is its height above the table 43 s after it passes through the lowest point?
(b) For how long in each cycle is the weight at or below 18cm? Approximate the
answer correct to two decimal places.

SOLUTION: Let the centre of motion be x = 0, 25cm above the table. The
problem involves time after the bottom of the wave, so let t = 0 there. The
PL R
amplitude of the motion is a = 10 and the period is 2 = 2π
n
so n = π. Hence put
x = −10 cos πt
M R

x=0
3
(a) At t = 4
the displacement is 35 cm
3π
x = −10 cos 4
√
O

15 cm
=5 2
√ .
hence the height is 25 + 5 2 =. 32·07 cm.

(b) The question is equivalent to solving x

SA C

10
−10 cos πt ≤ −7
or cos πt ≥ 0.7
1 2 t
N

For equality, the first positive and negative solutions -7

.
are t =
. ±0·253, thus the weight is at or below 18cm -10
for about 0·51 seconds each cycle.
U

CHOOSING THE ORIGIN: Whenever possible, choose the origin of displacement and
time so that the equation of motion is one of the following cases:
x = a cos nt — the motion starts at the top and moves downwards,
4
x = −a cos nt — the motion starts at the bottom and moves upwards,
x = a sin nt — the motion starts at the centre and moves upwards,
x = −a sin nt — the motion starts at the centre and moves downwards.

Speed and Acceleration: In simple harmonic motion the displacement x is given

as a function of time t. Hence it is easy to differentiate to find the velocity and
acceleration. For simplicity here, assume that the centre of motion is the origin.

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 230 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6B

Let x = a cos(nt + α) Let x = a sin(nt + β)

then ẋ = −na sin(nt + α) , then ẋ = na cos(nt + β) ,
and ẍ = −n2 a cos(nt + α) . and ẍ = −n2 a sin(nt + β) .
Hence ẍ = −n2 x . Hence ẍ = −n2 x .
Several important observations can be made from this algebra. The maximum
speed is |ẋ| = na, which occurs when | sin(nt + α)| = 1, or (nt + α) = π2 + kπ.
At these values cos(nt + α) = 0 and so x = 0. That is, the maximum speed

G D
of an object in SHM occurs as it passes through the centre of motion. Further,
the minimum speed is zero, which occurs when (nt + α) = kπ. At these values
|x| = a. That is, the minimum speed corresponds with the turning points at the

E
extremes of the motion.

ES
The maximum acceleration is |ẍ| = n2 a, which occurs when | cos(nt + α)| = 1,

PA T
or (nt + α) = kπ. At these values |x| = a. That is, the maximum acceleration of
an object in SHM corresponds with the extremes of the motion, as it is changing
direction. The minimum acceleration is zero when (nt + α) = π2 + kπ. At these
E EC
values |x| = 0. That is, the minimum acceleration occurs as the object passes
through the centre of motion.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8: An object is in simple harmonic motion with a period of

π
3 seconds. At a certain moment its position is 3 cm above the centre of motion,
and it is moving towards the centre of motion with speed 24 cm/s.
PL R
(a) Determine its equation of motion and hence find its maximum speed.
(b) Find when it next has the same displacement, correct to two decimal places.
M R

SOLUTION: Let the centre of motion be x = 0. Let the moment it is observed

correspond with t = 0. From the period, n = 2π ÷ π3 . That is n = 6. Since it is
initially moving downwards, the velocity is initially negative.
O

Let x = a cos(6t + α)
then ẋ = −6a sin(6t + α) .
At t = 0, from the given information,
SA C

a cos α = 3 (1)
and −6a sin α = −24
or a sin α = 4 . (2)
N

Squaring and adding, it is clear that

a2 = 25
U

thus a=5 (a > 0.)

From equations (1) and (2) it follows that α is acute, so
.
α = cos−1 53 =
. 0·9273
(a) The maximum speed is |ẋ| = 6a = 30 cm/s.
(b) The object will return to its original position when
5 cos(6t + α) = 5 cos α
so cos(6t + α) = cos α
The first time this happens is, by the symmetries of cosine, when
6t + α = 2π − α
.
thus t = 31 (π − α) =
. 0·74 s.

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 6B Simple Harmonic Motion and Time 231

SPEED AND ACCELERATION:

• The maximum speed is at the centre of motion where the acceleration is zero.
5
• The maximum acceleration occurs at the extremes of the motion where the
speed is zero. That is, at the stationary points.

The Differential Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion: Above it was shown:
for x = a cos(nt + α) and for x = a sin(nt + β)

G D
ẍ = −n2 a cos(nt + α) , ẍ = −n2 a sin(nt + β) .
Look carefully at the expressions for displacement and acceleration. It should
be clear that in both cases the acceleration is related to the displacement by the

E
autonomous second order linear differential equation
ẍ = −n2 x .

ES
PA T
Applying Newton’s formula for force gives F = −mn2 x. This means that the
force required to keep an object in SHM is proportional to its displacement. The
negative sign indicates that the force is directed towards the centre of motion. The
E EC
equation may be used to test whether or not a given motion is simple harmonic
with centre the origin. If the centre is x = c instead then this equation becomes
ẍ = −n2 (x − c) ,
and the proof of this is left as an exercise.
PL R
THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: If an object is moving in
simple harmonic motion with centre x = c and period 2πn then
M R

6 ẍ = −n2 (x − c) .
Consequently the force associated with this motion is directed towards the
centre. This equation may be used as a test for simple harmonic motion.
O

Another Form of Simple Harmonic Motion: In some problems where the initial
displacement and velocity are known, it may be best to use the following form:
SA C

x = A cos nt + B sin nt .
It is easy to show by differentiation that this is an equation for SHM.
N

ẋ = −nA sin nt + nB cos nt

and ẍ = −n2 A cos nt − n2 B sin nt
= −n2 (A cos nt + B sin nt)
U

thus ẍ = −n2 x .
By the test in Box 6, this differential equation confirms that the motion is simple
harmonic with centre x = 0 and period 2π n
.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9: Once again, an object is in simple harmonic motion with

a period of π3 seconds. At a certain moment its position is 3 cm above the centre
of motion, and it is moving towards the centre of motion with speed 24 cm/s. Let
the equation of motion be x = A cos nt + B sin nt .
(a) Determine the values of n, A and B.
(b) Use the t-formulae to find when the object is next at its original position.

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 232 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6B

SOLUTION:
(a) As in the previous worked example, n = 6, and
x = A cos 6t + B sin 6t
so ẋ = −6A sin 6t + 6B cos 6t .
At t = 0 the displacement is x = 3 so
A=3
and the velocity is ẋ = −24 so

G D
6B = −24
thus B = −4 .
Hence x = 3 cos 6t − 4 sin 6t .

E
(b) The object will return at the first positive solution of
3 cos 6t − 4 sin 6t = 3 .

ES
Put τ = tan 3t, then this becomes

PA T
1 − τ2 2τ
3× 2
−4× =3
1+τ 1 + τ2
E EC thus
or
3 − 3τ 2 − 8τ = 3 + 3τ 2
6τ 2 + 8τ = 0 .
Hence for the first positive solution
τ = − 34 ,
.
viz t = 13 (π − tan−1 43 ) =
. 0·74 s (as before.)
PL R
ANOTHER FORM OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: In some problems for which the initial
displacement and velocity are known, it may be best to use
M R

7
x = A cos nt + B sin nt .
2π
This corresponds to simple harmonic motion with centre x = 0 and period n
.
O

Exercise 6B
SA C

1. A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion about the origin. Its displacement x cm
after t seconds is given by x = 12 cos π2 t.
(a) What are the amplitude and period of the motion?
N

2
(b) Differentiate to find v and ẍ as functions of t, and then show that ẍ = − π4 x.
(c) What are the initial displacement and velocity of the particle?
(d) When is the particle first at the origin?
U

(e) How long is it between visits to the origin?

2. A particle moves so that its displacement x metres after t seconds is given by x = 2 sin 4πt.
(a) Write down the amplitude and period of the motion.
(b) Sketch the displacement function for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
(c) Find the velocity and acceleration as functions of time.
(d) Find the acceleration as a function of displacement and hence show that the particle
is moving in simple harmonic motion.
(e) Find the first two times at which the particle is at rest, and find the acceleration at
each of these times.
(f) What is the greatest speed of the particle?

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 6B Simple Harmonic Motion and Time 233

3. A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion with displacement x = π4 sin πt, in units
of metres and seconds.
(a) Show that the particle is initially at the origin.
(b) Differentiate to find v and ẍ as functions of time, and show that ẍ = −π 2 x.
(c) What are the amplitude and period of the motion?
(d) What are the maximum distance of the particle from the origin and the maximum
speed?
(e) Sketch one period of the graphs of x, v and ẍ against time.

G D
(f) Find the next two times the particle is at the origin, and the velocities then.
(g) Find the first two times the particle is stationary, and the accelerations then.

E
4. In each of the following parts find a and n, and hence write the displacement function in
the form x = a sin nt.

ES
(a) A particle moving in SHM with centre the origin and period π seconds starts from

PA T
the origin with velocity 4 m/s.
(b) A particle moving in SHM with centre the origin and amplitude 6 metres starts from
the origin with velocity 4 m/s.
E EC
5. (a) A particle’s displacement is given by x = b sin nt + c cos nt, where n > 0. Find v and
ẍ as functions of t. Then show that ẍ = −n2 x, and hence that the motion is simple
harmonic.
(b) By substituting into the functions for x and v:
(i) find b and c if initially the particle is at rest at x = 3,
PL R
(ii) find b, c and n, and the first time the particle reaches the origin, if the particle is
initially at rest at x = 5, and the period is 1 second.
6. A particle moving in a straight line started from the origin with velocity 4π cm/s. Its
M R

displacement after t seconds is given by x = a sin πt.

(a) Prove that the motion is SHM.
O

(b) Find the value of a.

(c) Find the first two times that the speed of the particle is 2π cm/s.
7. A particle’s displacement is x = 12 − 2 cos 3t, in units of centimetres and seconds.
SA C

(a) Differentiate to find v and ẍ as functions of t, show that the particle is initially
stationary at x = 10, and sketch the displacement–time graph.
(b) What are the amplitude, period and centre of the motion?
N

(c) In what interval is the particle moving, and how long does it take to go from one end
to the other?
(d) Find the first two times after time zero when the particle is closest to the origin, and
U

the speed and acceleration then.

(e) Find the first two times when the particle is at the centre, and the speed and acceler-
ation then.
8. A particle is moving in SHM according to the equation x = 6 sin(2t + π2 ).
(a) What are the amplitude, period and initial phase?
(b) Find ẋ and ẍ, and show that ẍ = −n2 x, for some n > 0.
(c) Find the first two times when the particle is at the origin, and the velocity then.
(d) Find the first two times when the velocity is maximum, and the position then.
(e) Find the first two times the particle returns to its initial position, and its velocity and
acceleration then.

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 234 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6B

DEVELOPMENT

9. A particle is oscillating in simple harmonic motion about the origin with period 24 seconds
and amplitude 120 metres. Initially it is at the origin with positive velocity.
(a) Write down functions for x and v, and state the maximum speed.
(b) What is the first time when it is 30 metres: (Answer correct to four significant figures.)
(i) to the right of the origin, (ii) to the left of the origin?
(c) Find the first two times its speed is half its maximum speed.

G D
10. A particle moves in simple harmonic motion about the origin with period π2 seconds.
Initially the particle is at rest 4 cm to the right of O.
(a) Write down displacement–time and velocity–time functions.

E
(b) Find how long the particle takes to move from its initial position to: (i) a point 2 cm
to the right of O, (ii) a point 2 cm on the left of O.

ES
(c) Find the first two times when the speed is half the maximum speed.

PA T
11. The equation of motion of a particle is x = sin2 t. Use a double-angle identity to put the
equation in the form x = x0 − a cos nt, and state the centre, amplitude, range and period
E EC
of the motion.
12. A particle moves according to x = 3 − 2 cos2 2t, in units of centimetres and seconds.
(a) Use a double-angle identity to put the equation in the form x = x0 − a cos nt.
(b) Find the centre of motion, the amplitude, the range of the motion and the period.
(c) What is the maximum speed of the particle, and when does it first occur?
PL R
√
13. The displacement x cm of a particle after t seconds is given by x = 2 + 3 cos t + 3 3 sin t.
(a) Find ẍ and hence prove that the motion is simple harmonic.
M R

(b) Where is the centre of motion?

(c) What is the period?
√
(d) Express 3 cos t + 3 3 sin t in the form A cos(x − θ), where A > 0 and 0 < θ < π2 .
O

(e) Hence state the amplitude and the initial phase.

(f) Within what interval does the particle oscillate?
SA C

14. A particle’s displacement is given by x = b sin nt + c cos nt, where n > 0. Find v as a
function of t. Then find n, c and b, and the first two times the particle is at the origin, if:
(a) the period is 4π, the initial displacement is 6 and the initial velocity is 3,
N

(b) the period is 6 and when t = 0, x = −2 and ẋ = 3. (In this part write the times
correct to 3 decimal places.)
15. Given that x = a sin(nt + α) (in units of metres and seconds), write v as a function of
U

time. Find a, n and α if a > 0, n > 0, 0 ≤ α < 2π and:

(a) the period is 6 seconds, and initially x = 0 and v = 5,
(b) the period is 3π seconds, and initially x = −5 and v = 0,
(c) the period is 2π seconds and initially x = 1 and v = −1.
16. Given that x = a cos(2t + α), find a and α if a > 0, −π < α ≤ π and:
√
(a) initially x = 0 and v = 6, (b) initially x = 1 and v = −2 3 .
17. A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion according to x = a cos( π8 t + α), where
a > 0 and 0 ≤ α < 2π. When t = 2 it passes through the origin, and when t = 4 its
velocity is 4 cm/s in the negative direction. Find the amplitude a and the initial phase α.

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 6C Simple Harmonic Motion and Displacement 235

18. A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion with period 8π seconds according to
x = a sin(nt + α), where x is the displacement in metres, and a > 0 and 0 ≤ α < 2π.
When t = 1, x = 3 and v = −1. Find a and α correct to four significant figures.
19. A particle moving in simple harmonic motion has period π2 seconds. Initially the particle
is at x = 3 with velocity v = 16 m/s.
(a) Find x as a function of t in the form x = b sin nt + c cos nt.
(b) Find x as a function of t in the form x = a cos(nt − ε), where a > 0 and 0 ≤ ε < 2π.

G D
(c) Find the amplitude and the maximum speed of the particle.
(d) Find the first time the particle is at the origin, using each of the above displacement
functions in turn. Prove that the two answers obtained are the same.

E
20. The temperature at each instant of a day can be modelled by a simple harmonic function
oscillating between 9◦ at 4:00 am and 19◦ at 4:00 pm. Find, correct to the nearest minute,

ES
PA T
the times between 4:00 am and 4:00 pm when the temperature is:
(a) 14◦ (b) 11◦ (c) 17◦

E EC
21. The rise and fall in sea level due to tides can be modelled by simple harmonic motion. On
a certain day, a channel is 10 metres deep at 9:00 am when it is low tide, and 16 metres
deep at 4:00 pm when it is high tide. If a ship needs 12 metres of water to sail down a
channel safely, at what times (correct to the nearest minute) between 9:00 am and 9:00 pm
can the ship pass through?
PL R
22. Show that for any particle moving in simple harmonic motion, the ratio of the average
speed over one oscillation to the maximum speed is 2 : π.
ENRICHMENT
M R

23. The motion of a particle in a straight line is governed by the displacement function
x = 4 sin(3t + π6 ) + 2 sin 3t.
O

(a) Prove that the motion is simple harmonic.

(b) Find the amplitude.
SA C

24. A particle moving in SHM about the origin starts at x = 1. At the end of each of the first
2π
two seconds the particle is at x = 5. Prove that the period of the motion is .
cos−1 53
N

(Let the displacement function be x = a cos(nt + α).)

U

6C Simple Harmonic Motion and Displacement

The focus of the previous section was on the displacement-time function for simple
harmonic motion. In this section it is the differential equation
ẍ = −n2 (x − c)
that takes centre stage. Firstly it will be used as a test for simple harmonic
d2 x d 1 2

motion. Then the identity 2 = v will be used with integration to find
dt dx 2
the velocity as a function of displacement.

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 236 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6C

Simple Harmonic Motion and the Differential Equation: In the last section it
was shown that if a particle is in simple harmonic motion with centre x = 0 and
period 2π
n
then
ẍ = −n2 x .
There is a clever way to prove the corresponding result when the centre is not
zero. Let y = x + c, then the particle is in simple harmonic motion with centre
y = c. Now

G D
x=y−c
so ẋ = ẏ
and ẍ = ÿ .

E
Hence by substitution, the above differential equation becomes
ÿ = −n2 (y − c) .

ES
PA T
Finally, since the choice of pronumeral was arbitrary, if a particle is in simple
harmonic motion with centre x = c and period 2πn
then
ẍ = −n2 (x − c) .
E EC
This equation may be taken as a test for simple harmonic motion. That is, if
the displacement of a particle satisfies this equation then the particle is in simple
harmonic motion. The proof that the motion is simple harmonic is given later.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10: The displacement x cm of a particle at time t seconds

PL R
satisfies ẍ = −4(x − 3). The particle is initially at x = 3 with velocity 6 cm/s.
Determine the displacement-time function and find when the particle is first at
the origin.
M R

SOLUTION: Since ẍ = −22 (x − 3), the particle is in simple harmonic motion with
centre x = 3 and period π. The particle starts at its centre with positive velocity,
so put
O

x = 3 + a sin 2t .
Thus ẋ = 2a cos 2t
SA C

so at t = 0 6 = 2a
and hence x = 3 + 3 sin 2t .
The particle will be at the origin when
N

sin 2t = −1
or 2t = . . . , − π2 , 3π 7π
2 , 2 ,...
so the first positive solution is
U

t = 3π
4
.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION: If the displacement of a

particle satisfies the equation
8
ẍ = −n2 (x − c)
2π
then it is in simple harmonic motion with centre x = c and period n
.

The proof that the motion must be simple harmonic is relatively straightforward
when the centre is x = 0. The substitution y = x + c can then be used to extend
the proof to motion with other centres.

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 6C Simple Harmonic Motion and Displacement 237

Proof: Suppose that ẍ = −n2 x. Regardless of the values of x(0) and ẋ(0), it
is always possible to find a and α such that x(0) = a sin α and ẋ(0) = na cos α.
(The proof of this is left as an exercise.) Now consider the function
u = x − a sin(nt + α)
Firstly, u(0) = x(0) − a sin α
= 0.
Next, u̇ = ẋ − na cos(nt + α)
so u̇(0) = ẋ(0) − na cos α

G D
= 0.
Further, ü = ẍ − n2 a sin(nt + α)

E
= −n2 x − n2 a sin(nt + α)
so ü = −n2 u .

ES
d 1 2


u̇ = −n2 u

PA T
Thus 2
du
d

or u̇2 = −2n2 u
E EC
hence
du
u̇2 = C − n2 u2 for some constant C.
Now apply the initial conditions u(0) = u̇(0) = 0 to get C = 0.
Thus u̇2 = −n2 u2 .
But u is a real function and squares of reals are either positive or zero. Thus the
only solution to this equation is that u = 0 for all t. Hence
PL R
x = a sin(nt + α)
and the motion is simple harmonic.
M R

It is now possible to revisit Worked Example 3, concerning the motion of a spring.

In that problem,
O

ẍ = −x
and thus the motion is simple harmonic with centre x = 0. The initial conditions
are x(0) = −a and ẋ(0) = 0, so it follows that the displacement-time function is
SA C

x = −a cos t .
It is now clear that x takes all values in the range −a ≤ x ≤ a as t varies.
N

Velocity as a Function of Displacement: Starting with the differential equation

for acceleration
U

d 1 2

v = −n2 (x − c)
dx 2
d

or v 2 = −2n2 (x − c)
dx
thus v 2 = D − n2 (x − c)2 .
Now at each extreme of motion, the velocity is zero, thus
0 = D − n2 a2 .
That is D = n2 a2
and v 2 = n2 a2 − n2 (x − c)2


or v 2 = −n2 (x − c)2 − a2 .

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 238 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6C

Notice that the term inside the outer brackets is a monic quadratic with its
square completed. This formula can be used to determine the centre, period
and amplitude of the motion, however it must be derived each time, and not
quoted. In practice it is better to first check that the motion is simple harmonic
by differentiation, thus finding the centre and n. Then set v = 0 to find the range
and amplitude.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11: The motion of a particle satisfies v 2 = −2x2 + 8x + 10.

G D
Show that the motion is simple harmonic then determine the period, centre of
motion, range and amplitude.
SOLUTION: Firstly, differentiate to find the acceleration.

E
d

ẍ = −x2 + 4x − 5
dx

ES
PA T
= −2x + 4
= −2(x − 2) .
√ √

E EC
Hence the motion is simple harmonic with n = 2. The period is π 2 and centre
is x = 2. Now put v = 0 to find the range.

or
x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
(x + 1)(x − 5) = 0 ,
so the extremes of the motion are x = −1 and x = 5. Taking the average confirms
the centre is x = 2. Taking the difference and halving gives amplitude a = 3.
PL R
VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF DISPLACEMENT: First check that the motion is simple
9 harmonic by differentiation, and so find the centre and n. Then set v = 0 to
M R

find the range and amplitude.

O

Finding the Equation of Motion from the Graph: It is easy to determine the
equation of simple harmonic motion from its graph. It is simply a matter of
determining the shifts and stretches applied to sine or cosine. A quick example
is included here as a reminder of the process.
SA C

WORKED EXAMPLE 12: The motion of a body is plotted x

in the graph on the right. Assuming the motion to be 5
N

simple harmonic, find the displacement-time function.

SOLUTION: The period is 4 = 2π π
n hence n = 2 .
U

The extremes of motion are x = −1 and x = 5. 1

3
5+−1
The centre is the mean c = 2 = 2. 4 t
5+1 -1
The amplitude is half the range = 2 = 3.
Hence x = 2 + 3 sin( π2 t + α) with α acute so that the initial velocity is positive.
Now ẋ = 3π π
2 cos( 2 t + α)
and the velocity is zero at the extreme when t = 31 . Thus
0 = cos( π6 + α)
π
whereby 6 + α = π2
so α = π3 .


Hence x = 2 + 3 sin π6 (3t + 2) .

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 6C Simple Harmonic Motion and Displacement 239

Exercise 6C
1. The displacement x metres of a particle after t seconds is given by x = 3 cos 2t.
(a) Find expressions for v and ẍ as functions of t, and for ẍ and v 2 in terms of x.
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at x = 2.
2. The motion of a particle is governed by the equation ẍ = −9x (in units of metres and
seconds). The particle is stationary when x = 5.
(a) Integrate to find an equation for v 2 .

G D
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration when x = 3.
(c) What is the speed at the origin?

E
3. A particle is oscillating according to the equation ẍ = −16x (in units of centimetres and
seconds), and its speed at the origin is 24 cm/s.

ES
(a) Integrate to find an equation for v 2 .

PA T
(b) What are the amplitude and the period?
(c) Find the speed and acceleration when x = 2.

E EC
4. A particle moves in SHM according to the equation ẍ = −4x (in units of metres and
seconds). The amplitude is 6 metres.
(a) Find the velocity–displacement equation, the period and the maximum speed.
(b) Find the simplest form of the displacement–time equation if initially the particle is:
(i) stationary at x = 6, (iii) at the origin with positive velocity,
PL R
(ii) stationary at x = −6, (iv) at the origin with negative velocity.
5. (a) The motion of a ball on the end of a spring is modelled by the equation ẍ = −256x
M R

(in units of centimetres and seconds). The ball is pulled down 2 cm from the origin
and released. Find the speed at the centre of motion.
(b) The motion of another ball on the end of a spring is modelled by ẍ + 41 x = 0 (in units
O

of centimetres and seconds), and its speed at the equilibrium position is 4 cm/s. How
far was it pulled down from the origin before it was released?
6. [In these questions use the formula v 2 = n2 (a2 − x2 ).]
SA C

(a) A particle moving in simple harmonic motion has period π2 minutes, and it starts from
the mean position with velocity 4 m/min. Find the amplitude.
(b) The motion of a buoy floating on top of the waves can be modelled as simple harmonic
N

motion with period 3 seconds. If the waves rise and fall 2 metres about their mean
position, find the buoy’s greatest speed.
U

DEVELOPMENT

7. A particle oscillates in SHM between two points A and B that are 20 cm apart. The period
is 8 seconds. Let O be the midpoint of AB.
(a) Find the maximum speed and maximum acceleration.
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration when the particle is 6 cm from O.
8. The amplitude of a particle moving in simple harmonic motion is 5 metres, and its accel-
eration when it is 2 metres from its mean position is 4 m/s2 . Find the speed of the particle
when it is at its mean position, and also when it is 4 metres from its mean position.
9. A particle is moving in SHM with period π seconds and maximum speed 8 m/s. Find the
amplitude, and find the speed when the particle is 3 metres from its mean position.

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 240 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6C

10. A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration is proportional to its displace-
ment x from the origin O. When 4 cm on the positive side of O, its velocity is 20 cm/s
and its acceleration is −6 32 cm/s2 . Find the amplitude of the motion.
11. A particle
√ moves in simple harmonic motion with centre O, and passes through O with
speed 10 3 cm/s. Determine the speed of the particle when it is halfway between its mean
position and an endpoint.

12. A particle moving in simple harmonic motion about the origin starts at the origin with

G D
velocity V . Prove that the particle first comes to rest after travelling a distance of V /n.

13. [The general case] Suppose that a particle is moving in simple harmonic motion with
amplitude a and equation of motion ẍ = −n2 x, where n > 0.

E
(a) Use integration to prove that v 2 = n2 (a2 − x2 ).

ES
(b) Find expressions for: (i) the speed at the origin, (ii) the speed and acceleration

PA T
halfway between the origin and the maximum displacement.
14. (a) A particle moves in a straight line according to the equation v 2 = −9x2 + 18x + 27.

E EC Prove that the motion is simple harmonic, and find the centre of motion, the period
and the amplitude.
(b) Repeat part (a) for:
(i) v 2 = 80 + 64x − 16x2 (iii) v 2 = −2x2 − 8x − 6
(ii) v 2 = −9x2 + 108x − 180 (iv) v 2 = 8 − 10x − 3x2
PL R
15. (a) Show that the motion defined by x = sin2 5t (in units of metres and minutes)
satisfies ẍ = −n2 (x − c), for some c and some n > 0, by:
(i) first writing the displacement function as x = 21 − 21 cos 10t,
M R

(ii) differentiating x directly without any use of double-angle identities.

(b) Find the centre, range and period of the motion, and the next time it visits the origin.
O

16. A particle moves in simple harmonic motion according to the equation ẍ = −9(x − 7), in
units of centimetres and seconds. Its amplitude is 7 cm.
(a) Find the centre of motion, and hence explain why the velocity at the origin is zero.
SA C

(b) Integrate to find v 2 as a function of x, complete the square in this expression, and
hence find the maximum speed.
N

(c) Explain how, although the particle is stationary at the origin, it nevertheless moves
away from the origin.

17. A particle is moving according to the equation x = 4 cos 3t − 6 sin 3t.

U

(a) Prove that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed,
and hence that the motion is simple harmonic.
(b) Find the period, amplitude and maximum speed of the particle, and find the magni-
tude of the acceleration when the particle is halfway between its mean position and
one of its extreme positions.
√
18. The motion of a particle is governed by the equation by x = 3 + sin 4t + 3 cos 4t.
(a) Prove that ẍ = −16(x − 3), and write down the centre and period of the motion.
(b) Express the motion in the form x = x0 + a sin(4t + α), where a > 0 and 0 ≤ α < 2π.
(c) Find the first three times that the particle is at the centre, and its speed there.

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 6C Simple Harmonic Motion and Displacement 241

19. A particle moves according to the equation x = 10 + 8 sin 2t + 6 cos 2t.

(a) Prove that the motion is simple harmonic, and find the centre of motion, the period
and the amplitude.
(b) Find, correct to four significant figures, when the particle first reaches the origin.
ENRICHMENT

20. [Simple harmonic motion is the projection of circular motion onto

8
a diameter.] A Ferris wheel of radius 8 metres mounted in the y Zorba

G D
north–south plane is turning anticlockwise at 1 revolution per
minute. At time zero, Zorba is level with the centre of the wheel
and north of it. x 8

E
(a) Let x and y be Zorba’s horizontal distance north of the centre
and height above the centre respectively.

ES
Show that x = 8 cos 2πt and y = 8 sin 2πt.

PA T
(b) Find expressions for ẋ, ẏ, ẍ and ÿ, and show that ẍ = −4π 2 x and ÿ = −4π 2y.
(c) Find how far (in radians) the wheel has turned during the first revolution when:

E EC √
(i) x : y = 3 : 1
√
(ii) ẋ : ẏ = − 3 : 1
21. A particle moves in simple harmonic motion according to ẍ = −n2 x.
(iii) ẋ = ẏ

(a) Prove that v 2 = n2 (a2 − x2 ), where a is the amplitude of the motion.

(b) The particle has speeds v1 and v2 when the displacements are x1 and x2 respectively.
Show that the period T is given by
PL R
s
x1 2 − x2 2
T = 2π ,
v2 2 − v1 2
M R

and find a similar expression for the amplitude.

(c) The particle has speeds of 8 cm/s and 6 cm/s when it is 3 cm and 4 cm respectively
O

from O. Find the amplitude, the period and the maximum speed of the particle.
22. A particle moving in simple harmonic motion has amplitude a and maximum speed V .
Find its velocity when x = 21 a, and its displacement when v = 21 V . Prove also the more
SA C

general results
p p
|v| = V 1 − x2 /a2 and |x| = a 1 − v 2 /V 2 .
N

23. Two balls on elastic strings are moving vertically in simple harmonic motion with the same
period 2π and with centres level with each other. The second ball was set in motion α
seconds later, where 0 ≤ α < 2π, with twice the amplitude, so their equations are
U

x1 = sin t and x2 = 2 sin(t − α).

Let x = sin t − 2 sin(t − α) be the height of the first ball above the second.
(a) Show that ẍ = −x, and hence that x is also simple harmonic with period 2π.
√
(b) Show that the greatest vertical difference A between the balls is A = 5 − 4 cos α.
What are the maximum and minimum values of A, and what form does x then have?
4T
(c) Show that the balls are level when tan t = , where T = tan 12 α. How many
1 − 3T 2
times are they level in the time interval 0 ≤ t < 2π?
(d) If the distance between the balls is known to be greatest when t = 0, what values
could α have, and what forms does x have?

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 242 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6D

6D Horizontal Resisted Motion

If an object moves horizontally then gravity may be effectively ignored. Typically
the object is not entirely free to move as there is usually a resistive force, due to
friction for example, which acts in the opposite direction to the velocity. In the
problems of this section, the equations of motion will either be specified in the
question or will need to be determined by balancing forces.

Two Common Integrals: A large number of problems encountered in this section

G D
and the next result in integrals of the form
Z Z
v0 v v0
dx or dx .

E
a + bv a + bv 2
Notice that in both cases the numerator is a multiple of the derivative of the

ES
denominator. Hence the results are logarithmic functions. Thus

PA T
Z Z
v0 1 bv 0
dx = × dx
a + bv b a + bv

E EC v v0
dx =
1
=

×
Z
1
b
log(a + bv) + C .
for some constant C. And in the second instance
Z
2bv v 0
dx
a + bv 2 2b a + bv 2
= 1
log(a + bv 2) + D .
PL R
2b

Notice that in both cases no absolute values are used. In the practical problems
that require these integrals, the quantities will generally be positive, and so no
M R

absolute value is needed. Every question should be routinely checked, however,

and the absolute values re-inserted if they are required. These formulae will be
used in the examples without further explanation.
O

WORKED EXAMPLE 13: A rowing eight crosses the finish line with speed 5·5m/s,
and stops rowing. In a greatly simplified mathematical model, the boat is slowed
by two drag forces. The skin drag is due to the surface area in contact with the
SA C

water and is equal to 101

mv 2. The form drag is due to the shape of the boat
1
pushing the water aside and is equal to 100 mv. Thus the force equation is
m(v + 10v 2)
N

mẍ = −
100
where x is the distance past the finish line, and v is the speed of the boat.
U

(a) Find v as a function of x.

(b) How far, correct to the nearest metre, does the boat eventually travel as it
comes to a stop?
SOLUTION:
(a) Divide through by the mass m and use ẍ = v 0 v to get
v + 10v 2
v0v = − ,
100
then re-arrange and integrate with respect to x:
Z Z
10v 0 1
dx = − dx .
1 + 10v 10

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.
 6D Horizontal Resisted Motion 243

x
So log(1 + 10v) = − +C (for some constant C.)
10
At x = 0 the boat speed is v = 5·5 so
C = log(56)
 
1 + 10v x
hence log =− .
56 10
1 + 10v x
Thus = e− 10
56

G D
x
1
or v = 10 56e− 10 − 1 .
(b) Let v → 0+ in the third last line above to get
 
x 1

E
− = log
10 56

ES
thus x = 10 log(56)

PA T
.
=. 40 m

In fact, according to this mathematical model, the boat never stops moving and

E EC
only approaches this distance in the limit as t → ∞. As an exercise, find v then x
as functions of t and hence explain why this is the case.

Generalised Solutions: It is often efficient to solve a certain problem once, using

suitable pronumerals in place of the various constants. Once this generalised
solution is found, it is simply a matter of substituting the values of the constants
PL R
to get the final solution. In the next worked example it is a particularly useful
technique as a ratio of speeds is specified.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14: An object of mass m moves horizontally, starting at the

M R

origin with velocity V0 > 0. It experiences a resistance due to friction which is

proportional to the square of its speed and in the opposite direction.
(a) Find an expression for the velocity v in terms of the displacement x.
O

1 2
(b) For a certain 5 kg object the resistance is equal to 10 v . Find how far the
1
object has travelled when it has slowed to 4 of its initial speed.
SA C

SOLUTION:
(a) Let k be the constant of proportionality for the frictional force. Since it is
opposite in direction to the velocity, and there are no other forces:
v
N

mẍ = −kv 2
dv k kv2
or v = − v2
dx m
U

v0 k
so =− .
v m
Integrating with respect to x:
Z 0 Z
v k
dx = − dx .
v m
k
Thus log v = − m x+C (for some constant C)
k
−m x+C
or v =e
so v = Ae−kx/m (where A = eC .)
At x = 0 V0 =A
thus v = V0e−kx/m .

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.
 244 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6D

1
(b) Here k = 10
, m = 5 and v = 41 V0 . Thus
1
4
= e−x/50
x/50
or e = 4.
Thus x = 50 log(4)
.
=
. 69 m.

Other Methods: Numerous methods can be used to solve the equations encountered.
The above worked example is now extended to demonstrate two of those methods

G D
appropriate to the course. In the first case, the derivative is treated like a fraction,
and in the second case, definite integrals are used. Teachers and students are
encouraged to investigate other techniques, such as separation of variables, using

E
an integrating factor, and treating (v 2) like a variable.

ES
WORKED EXAMPLE 15: Starting with v = V0 e−kx/m , find the displacement as a

PA T
function of time.
dx
SOLUTION: First replace v with the derivative .
E EC dx
dt
= V0 e−kx/m .
Now treat the derivative like a fraction to get
dt

dt ekx/m
= .
dx V0
PL R
mekx/m
Thus t= +C.
kV0
Recall that at t = 0, x = 0, so
M R

m
0= +C
kV0
m
O

or C=−
kV0
m  kx/m 
hence t= e −1 .
kV0
SA C

Finally, re-arrange this equation to get,

kV0 t + m
ekx/m =
m
N


m kV0 t + m
or x= log .
k m
U

WORKED EXAMPLE 16: Starting with mv̇ = −kv 2 , find the time taken for the
object to reduce in speed from V0 to 21 V0 .
SOLUTION: Once again, treat the derivative like a fraction and re-arrange.
dt m
=− 2.
dv kv
Thus the time can be written as a primitive function of v as follows:
Z  
m
T (v) = − 2 dv .
kv
In this question, the time required is the value of t = T ( 21 V0 ) − T (V0 ) .
But, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, this is just a definite integral.

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.
 6D Horizontal Resisted Motion 245

Z 1  
2 V0 m
Thus t= − 2 dv
V0 kv
1V
m 2 0
=
kv V0
2m m
= −
kV0 kV0
m
= .
kV0

G D
Notice that no constant of integration needed to be found because a definite
integral was used. Now that the method of definite integrals has been established,
the technique can be used in future problems without the need for the detailed

E
explanation given above.

ES
Exercise 6D

PA T
1. A certain drag-racing car of mass M kg is capable of a top speed of 288 km/h. After it
reaches this top speed, two different retarding forces combine to bring it to rest. First
E EC
there is a constant braking force of magnitude 32 M newtons. Secondly there is a resistive
force of magnitude 1801
M v 2 newtons, where v m/s is the speed of the car, acting against
a parachute released from the rear-end of the vehicle. Let x metres be the distance of the
car from the point at which the two retarding forces are activated.
 
120 + 802
(a) Show that x = 90 ln .
PL R
120 + v 2
(b) Hence calculate, to the nearest metre, the distance that the drag-racing car travels as
it is brought from its top speed to rest.
M R

2. A monorail of mass 10 000 kg is pulling out of a station S. Its motor provides a propelling
force of magnitude 10 000 Newtons, and as it moves it experiences a resistive force of
magnitude 100v 2 Newtons, where v metres per second is its velocity.
O

(a) Show that the maximum speed the monorail can attain is 36 km/h.
 
100
(b) Show that x = 50 ln , where x metres is the distance the monorail has
100 − v 2
SA C

travelled from S.
(c) What percentage (to the nearest per cent) of its maximum speed has the monorail
reached when it has travelled 50 metres?
N

3. A particle of mass m kg experiences a resistance of kv 2 newtons when moving along the

x-axis, where k is a positive constant and v is the speed of the particle in metres per
second. The maximum speed attainable by the particle is u metres per second under a
U

P
variable propelling force of newtons, where P is a positive constant.
v  
P dv P 1 v
(a) Show that k = 3 . (b) Show that = − .
u dx m v 2 u3
(c) Prove that the distance travelled as the speed changes from 31 u m/s to 32 u m/s is
26
mu3 ln 19
metres.
3P
(d) When the brakes are applied, the propelling force is no longer in operation. If the
maximum force exerted by the brakes is B Newtons, prove that the minimum
 distance
mu3 P
travelled in coming to rest from a speed of u m/s is ln 1 + metres.
2P Bu

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.
 246 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6D

DEVELOPMENT

4. A simple model of a door closing mechanism is a spring and

dashpot. The spring pulls the door closed and the dashpot, a
gas or oil filled piston, resists the motion, which ensures that
the door does not close too fast and slam shut. A schematic
diagram is shown on the right.

For a particular door with mass m, the force exerted by the

G D
spring is −2my and the resistance from the dashpot is −3mẏ, y
doorjamb door
where y is the displacement of the door from the doorjamb.
(a) What is the significance of the minus sign in each force?

E
(b) Write down the equation of motion for the door.

ES
(c) Show that, if y = f (t) and y = g(t) are both solutions to the equation of motion, and

PA T
if A and B are constants, then y = A f (t) + B g(t) is also a solution.
(d) It is known that the function y = ekt is a solution of the differential equation.

E EC Show that the only possible values of the constant k are k = −1 and k = −2.
(e) From parts (c) and (d), a solution of the differential equation is

y = Ae−2t + Be−t .
dy
PL R
When t = 0, it is known that y = 0 and = 1 . Find the values of A and B.
dt
5. The engines on a submarine of mass m deliver a maximum driving force of F newtons.
M R

The water resists the motion with a force proportional to the square of the speed v.
dv 1

(a) Explain why = F − kv 2 where k is a positive constant.
dt m
O

(b) The submarine increases its speed from v1 to v2 . Show that the distance travelled
during this period is
 
m F − kv1 2
SA C

× loge .
2k F − kv2 2
6. As a particle of unit mass moves in a straight line, the only force acting on it is a resistance,
N

which is in the opposite direction to its velocity, v. The size of this force is v + v 3 . Initially
the particle is at the origin and has velocity Q, where Q > 0.
 2 
1 Q (1 + v 2 )
U

(a) Use partial fractions to show that the time t is given by t = 2 loge .
v 2 (1 + Q2 )
(b) Hence find v 2 as a function of t.
(c) Determine the limit of v as t → ∞, and hence explain why v is always positive.
(d) Show that the velocity is related to the displacement x by the formula

x = tan−1 Q − tan−1 v ,

and hence find lim x.

t→∞
 
Q−v
(e) Does it follow that x = tan−1 ? Justify your answer.
1 + Qv

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.
 6D Horizontal Resisted Motion 247

1 A B
7. (a) Find the values of A and B such that = + .
(2 − v)(3 + v) (2 − v) (3 + v)
(b) A body with mass m = 4·5 × 106 kg is acted upon by a force of 104(6 − v) N where v
is its speed in metres per second. It also experiences a resistance proportional to the
square of its speed. That is:
dv 104

= 6 − v − kv 2 .
dt m

G D
(i) Its maximum speed is 2 m/s. Find k.
(ii) Show that the body attains a speed of 1·5 m/s, starting from rest, in a little over
2 minutes and 41 seconds.

E
8. When a jet aircraft touches down two different retarding forces combine to slow it down.

ES
If the aircraft has mass M kg and speed v m/s then there is a constant frictional force of

PA T
2M newtons due to the brakes and a force of 10 1000 M v 2 newtons due to the reverse thrust
of the engines. The reverse thrust does not take effect until 3 seconds after touchdown.

E EC
Let x be the distance in metres of the jet from its point of touchdown and let t be the
time in seconds after touchdown.
(a) The jet’s landing speed is 72 m/s. Show that v = 66 and x = 207 at the instant the
reverse thrust of the engines takes effect.
 
20000 + 662
(b) Show that when t > 3, x = 207 + 5000 ln .
PL R
20000 + v 2
(c) Reverse thrust is shut down when the aircraft reaches a speed of 36 m/s. How far
from the point of touchdown, correct to the nearest metre, does this happen?
M R

(d) The brakes alone are then used to reach the taxi speed of 7 m/s. How far from the
point of touchdown, correct to the nearest metre, does the plane reach its taxi speed?
O

9. A box of mass m is pushed across a floor with a constant force mP . As the box moves it
is also retarded by a force due to friction of mkv, where v is its velocity and k is a positive
constant. The box is initially travelling with velocity Vi .
SA C

(a) Write down a force balance equation and hence show that the speed which results in
zero nett force is V0 = Pk .
   
(b) Integrate once to show that v = V0 1 − 1 − VV0i e−kt . Hence find lim v.
N

t→∞
(c) Draw a graph of v versus t in the case when: (i) Vi > V0 (ii) Vi < V0
(d) Find the time taken for the box to accelerate from v = 31 V0 to v = 23 V0 .
U

10. A particle is moving along the x-axis. Its acceleration is given by

d2 x 5 − 2x
=
dt2 x3
and it starts from rest at x = 1 .
(a) Explain why the particle starts moving in the positive x direction.
√
x2 + 4x − 5
(b) Let v be the velocity of the particle. Show that v = for x ≥ 1 .
x
5
(c) Describe the behaviour of the velocity of the particle after the particle passes x = 2 .

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 248 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6E

11. An object is moving across a flat surface for which the friction is proportional to v 3/2 and
in the opposite direction. That is, the acceleration is given by the equation
dv
v = −kv 3/2 ,
dx
where v is the velocity when the object is at x, and k is a positive constant. Initially the
particle is at the origin with speed V0 > 0 .
s
v kx
(a) (i) Integrate with respect to x and hence show that = 1− √ .

G D
V0 2 V0
(ii) What values can x take, and where is the particle when it stops moving?
(b) (i) Find x as a function of the time t.

E
(ii) Review your answer to part (a)(ii) in light of this result.

ES
ENRICHMENT

PA T
12. When a certain object is pushed across a polished floor, the resistance due to friction is
proportional to v 3/2, where v is its velocity. The resulting equation for acceleration is

E EC dv
dt
= 1 − v 3/2 .

Initially the object is at rest.

√ dt 2u
(a) Use the substitution u = v to show that = .
du 1 − u3
PL R
(b) Use partial fractions to show that
!
dt 2 1 1 1 + 2u 3 1
= + × − × √ .
du 1 − u 2 1 + u + u2 2 (u + 1 )2 + ( 3 )2
3
M R

2 2
 √  √ !!
2 1 1+ v+v √ −1 3v
(c) Hence show that t = × log √ − 3 tan √ .
3 2 (1 − v)2 v+2
O

6E Vertical Resisted Motion

SA C

In this section it is assumed that when a particle of mass m travels vertically

through a fluid such as air, water or oil, only two forces act on the particle,
N

namely a force due to gravity and a resistance R to the motion. Typically it is

found that the resistance is proportional to a power of the speed |v|. Thus
U

|R| = mk|v|n for some constant k .

Although n can take various values, only the cases n = 1 and n = 2 will be
studied in any detail in this course.
It is also observed that the resistance is opposite in direction to the velocity v.
Thus a more convenient form of the resistance is:
R = −mk|v|n−1 v .
Normally this is further simplified by selecting a coordinate system in which the
velocity is positive, so that |v| = v and
R = −mkv n .

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 6E Vertical Resisted Motion 249

For simplicity, the case of a projectile fired vertically is considered here. The
trajectory is naturally divided into two parts, the journey up and the journey
down. These parts will be considered separately.

y
The Upward Journey: Suppose that a particle of mass m is
fired upwards with initial velocity V0 through a resisting
medium under the influence of gravity g. Let y be the height
of the particle above the point of projection at time t. That

G D
is, upwards is the positive direction as shown in the diagram
on the right. Also note that y = 0 when t = 0. 0

E
COORDINATES FOR THE UPWARDS JOURNEY: In most circumstances it is best to put the
10

ES
origin at the initial position with upwards as the positive direction.

PA T
The only forces acting on the particle are the resistive force and the weight. Thus
E EC
the net force F is

or
F = −mg − mkv n
mÿ = −mg − mkv n
R
v
so ÿ = −(g + kv n ) . mg
PL R
Thus the differential equation and set of initial conditions for the motion are:
ÿ = −(g + kv n ) ,
M R

whilst at t = 0,
ẏ = V0
and y = 0.
O

In any given problem, at each step, the differential equation is integrated and then
the initial conditions are used to determine any unknown constant of integration.
SA C

THE UPWARD JOURNEY: For a given value of n, integrate the differential equation
ÿ = −(g + kv n ) .
N

11 Determine any constant of integration by applying the initial conditions.

At t = 0 , ẏ = V0
U

y=0

WORKED EXAMPLE 17: A particle is projected upwards in a medium for which

the resistance to the motion is one fifth of the mass times the velocity and opposite
in direction. The initial velocity is 30 m/s. Let y be its height in metres above
. 2
the point of projection after t seconds. Use g = . 10 m/s , so that

ÿ = −(10 + 51 v) .

Find y as a function of the velocity v and hence find its maximum height.

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 250 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6E

dv
SOLUTION: Noting that ÿ = v , it follows that
dy
dv 50 + v
v =−
dy 5
v dv 1
so =−
50 + v dy 5
 
50 dv 1
or 1− =− .
50 + v dy 5

G D
Integrate with respect to y to get:
Z   Z
0 50v 0 1

E
v − dy = − dy .
50 + v 5
v − 50 log(50 + v) = − 51 y + C .

ES
Thus

PA T
At t = 0, the particle is at the origin and v = 30, so
C = 30 − 50 log 80

E EC
Hence v − 50 log(50 + v) = − 51 y + 30 − 50 log 80 .
Rearrange this equation to get, after a few lines of algebra,

y = 5 30 − v + 50 log

50 + v

.
80
PL R
At the maximum height v = 0, thus


ymax = 5 30 + 50 log 85 (about 32·5 metres.)
M R

The Downward Journey: Suppose that a particle of mass m 0

is allowed to fall from rest through a resisting medium under
the influence of gravity g. Let y be the distance below its
O

initial position at time t. That is, downwards is the positive

direction as shown in the diagram on the right. Also note
that y = 0 and ẏ = 0 when t = 0. y
SA C

COORDINATES FOR THE DOWNWARDS JOURNEY: In most circumstances it is best to put

12
the origin at the initial position with downwards as the positive direction.
N

The only forces acting on the particle are the resistive

force and the weight. Thus the net force F is R
U

n v
F = mg − mkv
or mÿ = mg − mkv n mg
so ÿ = g − kv n .

Thus the differential equation of motion is:

ÿ = g − kv n
whilst at t = 0, the initial conditions are
ẏ = 0
and y = 0.

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 6E Vertical Resisted Motion 251

In any given problem, at each step, the differential equation is integrated and then
the intial conditions are used to determine any unknown constant of integration.

THE DOWNWARDS JOURNEY: For a given value of n, integrate the differential equation
ÿ = g − kv n .
Determine any constant of integration by applying the initial conditions. In
13 the case where the object is dropped from rest these are:

G D
at t = 0 , ẏ = 0
y=0

E
WORKED EXAMPLE 18: A particle falls from rest through a medium for which

ES
the resistance is proportional to the velocity and opposite in direction. Let y be

PA T
the distance in metres below its initial position after t seconds. Assume that
ÿ = g − kv .

E EC
(a) Find v as a function of t.
(b) Hence show that the terminal velocity is lim v = kg .
(c) Find y as a function of t.
t→∞

(d) Show that if h is large enough then the approximate time to reach the ground
. kh 1
at y = h is given by t = . g + k.
PL R
SOLUTION:
(a) Since ÿ = v̇ it follows that
M R

v̇ = g − kv
kv̇
so = k.
g − kv
O

Integrate with respect to time to get:

Z Z
−kv̇
dt = −k dt
SA C

g − kv
thus log(g − kv) = −kt + C1 .
At t = 0, the velocity is zero, thus
N

C1 = log g .
Hence log(g − kv) = −kt + log g .
U

Rearrange this equation to get

 
g − kv
log = −kt
g
g − kv
so = e−kt
g

or v = kg 1 − e−kt .


(b) lim v = lim kg 1 − e−kt
t→∞ t→∞
= kg (1 − 0)
g
= k
.

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 252 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6E

g


(c) From part (a), ẏ = k
1 − e−kt . Integrate with respect to time to get:
g 1 −kt


y= k t + ke + C2 .
g
At t = 0 0= k
(0 + k1 ) + C2
so C2 = − kg2 .
g



Hence y= k
t + k1 e−kt − 1 .
.
(d) If h is large enough then t is also large, so that e−kt =
. 0. Thus
. g 1

G D
h=. k t− k
. kh 1
and t=
. g
+ k
.

E
Terminal Velocity: The terminal velocity of an object is most often associated with
falling bodies, but is sometimes referred to in other problems. As demonstrated

ES
in the above worked example, one method of finding the terminal velocity is to

PA T
find v as a function of t and then determine the limit
VT = lim v(t) .

E EC t→∞

A simpler approach is to recognise that the terminal velocity corresponds to zero

acceleration. Thus in the above worked example
0 = g − kVT
g
so VT =
k
PL R
14 TERMINAL VELOCITY: This is easily found by putting ÿ = 0.
M R

An Object Thrown Down: In this case, the equation of motion is the same as for
the downward journey above. Let the initial speed be U . There are three cases
of note: 0 ≤ U < VT , U = VT and U > VT . It can be shown that when U = VT
O

the velocity never changes, so that the displacement function is simply

y = VT t .
SA C

Students should ensure they are able to prove this result for themselves. The
other two cases are dealt with in the exercise and the following example.
N

WORKED EXAMPLE 19: An object is thrown downward with initial speed twice
its terminal velocity. Its motion is affected by gravity and air resistance, which is
proportional to the square of its speed. Put the origin at the point of projection
with downward as positive. The velocity v satisfies the equation
U

v̇ = g − kv 2
q
g
with the initial condition that v(0) = 2VT , where VT = k
.
v
(a) Let w = . Show that w satisfies the equation
VT
p
ẇ = −(w 2 − 1) gk
and state the initial condition for w.
(b) Use partial fractions to help find t as a function of w.
11
(c) Hence find the time taken for the object to reduce in speed from 2VT to 10 VT .

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 6E Vertical Resisted Motion 253

SOLUTION:
(a) It should be clear that v = VT w and v̇ = VT ẇ, thus
VT ẇ = g − kVT 2 w 2
= g − gw 2
g
so ẇ = (1 − w 2 )
VTp
2
= −(w − 1) gk .

G D
The initial condition is v(0) = 2VT , so from the substitution it follows that
VT w(0) = 2VT ,
hence w(0) = 2 .

E
(b) Treating the derivative like a fraction

ES
dt −1

PA T
= 2
√
dw (w − 1) gk
p dt −1
or gk =
E EC Let
−1
dw

(w + 1)(w − 1)
=
(w + 1)(w − 1)
A
+
w+1 w−1
B

then by the cover-up rule A = 21 and B = − 12 .

p dt 1 1
And so 2 gk = − .
dw w+1 w−1
PL R
Now integrate to get
p
2t gk = log(w + 1) − log(w − 1) + C ,
and from the initial condition
M R

0 = log 3 + C
p
hence 2t gk = log(w + 1) − log(w − 1) − log 3 ,
 
O

1 w+1
or t = √ log .
2 gk 3(w − 1)
11 11
(c) When v = it follows that w =
V
10 T 10
so
SA C

 
1 11 + 10
t = √ log
2 gk 3(11 − 10)
log 7
N

= √ .
2 gk

Notice that the equation in part (b) can be solved for w to get
U

√
3e2t gk + 1
w= √
3e2t gk −√1
3e2t gk + 1
so that v = VT × √ .
3e2t gk − 1
It should be clear that the numerator of the fraction is always greater than the
denominator. Hence the velocity is always greater than the terminal velocity.
More specifically, the velocity is always decreasing, quickly at first and then at a
decreasing rate as it approaches the limiting value VT from above. That is, the
graph of v(t) is concave up with a horizontal asymptote.

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 254 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6E

Exercise 6E
1. An object of mass 5 kg is projected vertically upwards with velocity 40 m/s and experiences
a resistive force in Newtons of magnitude 0·2v 2 , where v is the velocity of the object at
time t seconds. Assume that g = 10 m/s2.
dv −250 − v 2
(a) Show that = .
dt 25
(b) Find, correct to the nearest tenth of a second, the time to reach its maximum height.
dv dv

G D
(c) Use =v to help find the maximum height, correct to the nearest metre.
dt dy
2. An object of mass 0·5 kg is projected upwards with velocity 40 m/s and experiences a
resistive force in Newtons of magnitude 0·2v, where v is the velocity of the object at

E
time t seconds. Assume that g = 10 m/s2.
−50 − 2v

ES
(a) Show that ẍ = .

PA T
5
(b) Show that the object takes 25 ln 13
5
seconds to reach its maximum height.
(c) Show that the maximum height reached is (100 + 125 5
ln 13 ) metres.
E EC 2
3. An object of mass 100 kg is found to experience a resistive force, in newtons, of one-tenth
the square of its velocity, in metres per second, when it moves through the air. Suppose
that the object falls from rest under gravity, and take g = 9·8 m/s2 .
(a) Show that its terminal velocity is about 99 m/s.
(b) If the object reaches 80% of its terminal velocity before striking the ground, show that
PL R
the point from which it was dropped was about 511 metres above the ground.
DEVELOPMENT
M R

4. (a) An object of mass 1 kg is projected vertically upwards from the ground at 20 m/s.
The body is under the effect of both gravity and air resistance which, at any time,
1 2
has a magnitude of 40 v , where v is the velocity at time t. Put g = 10 m/s2, and take
O

upwards as the positive direction.

(i) Show that the greatest height reached by the object is 20 ln 2 metres.
(ii) Show that the time taken to reach this greatest height is π2 seconds.
SA C

(b) Having reached its greatest height the particle falls back to its starting point. The
particle is still under the effect of both gravity and air resistance. Take downwards as
the positive direction.
N

(i) Write down the equation of motion of the object as it falls.

(ii) Find the speed of the object when it returns to its starting point.
5. An object is projected downwards with initial velocity V0 . The air resistance at speed v
U

has magnitude mkv, where k is a positive constant. Take downwards as the positive
direction.  
(a) Show that t = k1 loge g−kV
g−kv
0
.
(b) Hence show that v = kg (1 − e−kt ) + V0 e−kt , and that the terminal velocity is kg .


(c) Integrate again to show that x = kg t + kVk02−g 1 − e−kt .
(d) Suppose that the terminal velocity of this object is 20 m/s, and that g = 10 m/s2. The
object is thrown vertically downwards from a lookout at the top of a cliff at precisely
the terminal velocity. At the same instant, a similar object is dropped from the same
height. Show that the distance between the two falling objects after t seconds is
1
40(1 − e− 2 t ) metres, and hence state the limiting distance between them.

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 6E Vertical Resisted Motion 255

6. A particle of mass 10 kg is found to experience a resistive force, in newtons, of one-tenth of

the square of its velocity in metres per second when it moves through the air. The particle
is projected vertically upwards from a point O with a velocity of u metres per second. The
point A, vertically above O, is the highest point reached by the particle before it starts to
fall to the ground again. Assume that g = 10 m/s2.
√ u
(a) Show that the particle takes 10 tan−1 10√ 10
seconds to reach A from O.
2
(b) Show that the height OA is 50 loge ( 1000+u
1000 ) metres.
1000u2

G D
(c) Let w be the velocity of the particle when it returns to O. Show that w 2 = .
1000 + u2
7. (a) A particle of mass m falls from rest, from a point O, in a medium whose resistance

E
is mkv, where k is a positive constant and v is the velocity at time t.
g
(i) Prove that the terminal velocity V is V = .

ES
k

PA T


(ii) Prove that the speed at time t is given by V 1 − e−kt .
(b) An identical particle is projected upwards from O with initial velocity U in the same

E EC medium. Suppose that both particles begin their motion simultaneously.

(i) Prove that the second particle reaches its maximum height at t = k1 ln g+kU

maximum height is
UV
.
g
.
(ii) Prove that the speed of the first particle when the second particle reaches its

U +V
PL R
8. A particle P1 of mass m kg is dropped from point A and falls towards point B, which
is directly underneath A. At the instant when P1 is dropped, a second particle P2 , also
of mass m kg, is projected upwards from B towards A with an initial velocity equal in
magnitude to twice the terminal velocity of P1 . Each particle experiences a resistance of
M R

magnitude mkv as it moves, where v ms−1 is the velocity and k is a constant.

g
(a) Show that the terminal velocity of P1 is , where g is acceleration due to gravity.
k
O

 
1 3g
(b) Show that the time taken for particle P2 to reach velocity v is t = ln .
k g + kv
(c) Suppose that the particles collide at the instant when P1 has reached 30% of its
SA C

11g
terminal velocity. Show that the velocity of P2 when they collide is ms−1 .
10k
 
N

g2 x
9. (a) Consider the function f (x) = x − − 2g ln , for x ≥ g .
x g
(i) Evaluate f (g).
 2
U

g
(ii) Show that f 0 (x) = 1 − .
x
(iii) Explain why f (x) > 0 for x > g.
(b) A body is moving vertically through a resisting medium, with resistance proportional
to its speed. The body is initially fired upwards from the origin with speed V0 . Let y
metres be the height of the object above the origin at time t seconds, and let g be the
constant acceleration due to gravity. Thus
d2 y
= −(g + kv) , where k > 0 .
dt2
You may assume that this equation is valid for all t ≥ 0.

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 256 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6E

(i) Find v as a function of t, and hence show that

k2 y = (g + kV0 )(1 − e−kt ) − gkt .
(ii) Find T , the time taken to reach the maximum height.
(iii) Show that when t = 2T ,
 
2 g2 g + kV0
k y = (g + kV0 ) − − 2g ln .
g + kV0 g

G D
(iv) Use this result and part (a) to show that the downwards journey takes longer.
10. An object of mass 1 kg is dropped from a lookout on top of a high cliff. Let the acceleration
due to gravity be 10 m/s2.

E
1
(a) At first, air resistance causes a deceleration of magnitude 10 v , where v m/s is the
speed of the object t seconds after it is dropped.

ES
(i) Taking downwards as positive, explain why its equation of motion is

PA T
1
ẍ = 10 − 10
v,

E EC where x is the distance that the object has fallen in the first t seconds.
(ii) Show that
dv
dx
=
100 − v
10v
, and hence show that the speed V of the object when
it is 40 metres below the lookout satisfies the equation


V
V + 100 loge 1 − 100 + 4 = 0.
PL R
(b) After the object has fallen 40 metres and reached this speed V , a very small parachute
1 2
opens, and air resistance now causes a deceleration to its motion of magnitude 10 v .
(i) Taking downwards as positive, write an expression for the new acceleration ẍ of
M R

the object, where x now is the distance that the object has fallen in the first
t seconds after the parachute opens.
1
(ii) Show that v 2 = 100 − (100 − V 2 )e− 5 x , and hence find the terminal velocity of
O

the object.
(iii) Show that t seconds after the parachute opens,
1 (v + 10)(V − 10)
SA C

t= 2 loge .
(v − 10)(V + 10)
.
(iv) The solution to the equation in part (ii) of part (a) is V =
. 25·7 m/s. How long
after the parachute opens does the object reach 105% of its terminal velocity?
N

11. A projectile is fired with velocity V = 30 m/s at an angle of 45◦ to the horizontal. Air
resistance is proportional to the velocity. Thus the equations of motion are
U

d2 x dx d2 y dy
2
= −k and 2
= −g − k ,
dt dt dt dt
where it is known that k = 31 . Take g = 10 m/s2.
√
(a) Show that, at time t, the horizontal displacement is x = 45(1 − e−t/3 ) 2.
(b) Find a similar expression for the vertical displacement y as a function of t.
√ !
√ 45 2
(c) Hence show that y = (1 + 2)x − 90 log √ .
45 2 − x
(d) Accurately plot the function in (c) and use it to estimate the range.
(e) By way of comparison, show the trajectory for no air resistance on the same graph.

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.
 6F Projectile Motion 257

ENRICHMENT

12. The case of vertical resisted motion where n = 1 can be solved without the need to divide
the journey into two parts, and was assumed in Question 9(b). Use the equation
ÿ = −(g + kv)
with initial conditions v(0) = V0 and y(0) = 0 to show that the correct terminal velocity
VT = − kg is obtained. Also show that the height at any time after the particle reaches its
maximum height is consistent with the result given in the text for the downward journey.

G D
13. The equations of motion for a projectile with air resistance proportional to the square of
the speed are
1 1
u̇ = −k(u2 + v 2 ) 2 u v̇ = −g − k(u2 + v 2 ) 2 v ,

E
and
where u = ẋ is the horizontal component of velocity and v = ẏ is the vertical component of

ES
velocity. There is no known solution to this pair of equations. Nevertheless the trajectory

PA T
can be approximated and plotted by following the steps below.
In this case, the initial speed of the projectile is 30 m/s, the angle of projection is 45◦ , and

E EC 1
k = 90 . Take g = 10 m/s2 . Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.

(a) (i) Recall that, from first principles,

enough,
du . u(t + δt) − u(t)
=.
du
dt
= lim

. Show that
δt→0
u(t + δt) − u(t)
δt
. Hence, for δt small

dt δt

1 
PL R
. 2 2 2
u(t + δt) =
. u(t) 1 − k δt u(t) + v(t) .

(ii) Find similar expressions for x(t + δt), y(t + δt) and v(t + δt).
√
M R

(b) It should be clear that u(0) = v(0) = 15 2 , and that x(0) = y(0) = 0.
(i) Use part (a)(i) with t = 0 and δt = 0·1 to find the approximate value of u(0·1).
(ii) Similarly find the approximate values of v(0·1), x(0·1) and y(0·1).
O

(c) What are the approximate values of u(0·2), v(0·2), x(0·2) and y(0·2)?
(d) Use a spreadsheet or appropriate mathematical software to continue to find x, y, u
and v in time steps of 0·1. Hence plot the trajectory of the projectile. What is the
SA C

approximate range, correct to the nearest metre?

6F Projectile Motion
N

In this section, harder questions on projectile motion are considered. There are
U

also some questions involving projectile motion with air resistance, however, these
are very limited as solutions can only be found in one case, when the resistance
is proportional to the velocity. There is no new theory, but the following two
examples indicate the difficulty of the questions that may be asked.

WORKED EXAMPLE 20: A fielder in a women’s cricket team finds she can catch
a ball with greatest ease when the height of the ball is between y1 and y2 , where
y2 < y1 . A ball is hit which has range R and reaches height h > y1 . The fielder
will catch the ball on its downwards trajectory at height y, y2 ≤ y ≤ y1 . If the
fielder positions herself to catch the ball at distance x from the point of projection,
what is the length of the interval that x can lie within? Give the answer in terms
of y1 , y2 , R and h. Assume air resistance is negligible.

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 258 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6F

SOLUTION: This is a trick question, which is about roots of quadratic equations,

not projectile motion. Since the range is R the equation of the trajectory may
be written as
y = ax(R − x)
The vertex of the parabola is ( 21 R, h) so
h = 41 aR2
4h
thus a= 2.
R

G D
From the diagram, the closest the fielder can be is at x1 , where x1 and x∗1 are
roots of the quadratic equation
ax(R − x) = y1 y

E
2
h
viz ax − aRx + y1 = 0 .

ES
Now (x1 − x∗1 )2 = (x1 + x∗1 )2 − 4x1 x∗1 y1

PA T
and using the sums and products of quadratic roots y2
y1
(x1 − x∗1 )2 = R2 − 4 R
E EC = R2 −
a
y1 R2
h
Hence, taking the positive square root
s
.
x2* x1* x1 x2 x

y1
(x1 − x∗1 ) = R 1 − .
h
PL R
s
y2
Likewise (x2 − x∗2 ) = R 1 − .
h
M R

From the symmetry of the parabola, the required distance is

 
(x2 − x1 ) = 21 (x2 − x∗2 ) − (x1 − x∗1 )
s s !
O

R y2 y1
= 1− − 1− .
2 h h
SA C

WORKED EXAMPLE 21: A projectile is fired with velocity vector V = 15i + 30j.
e e
Air resistance is proportional to the velocity. Thus the equations of motion aree
d2 x dx d2 y dy
N

2
= −k and 2
= −g − k ,
dt dt dt dt
1 .
where k = 5 and g =
. 10.
U

Find x(t) and y(t). Hence determine the Cartesian equation of motion.
SOLUTION: This time the question is a genuine projectile motion problem. The
differential equation for the horizontal component is:
d(ẋ)
= − 51 ẋ
dt
which is the equation for exponential decay, thus
ẋ = Ae−t/5 .
At t = 0 15 = A
dx
hence = 15e−t/5.
dt

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.
 6F Projectile Motion 259

Integrating a second time

x = B − 75e−t/5
and at t = 0 the projectile is at the origin so
B = 75
thus x = 75(1 − e−t/5 ).
Now solve the differential equation for the vertical component of motion.
d(ẏ)
= − 15 (50 + ẏ)

G D
dt
which is shifted exponential decay, thus,
ẏ = Ce−t/5 − 50

E
At t = 0, 30 = C − 50, so C = 80 and hence
dy
= 80e−t/5 − 50

ES
dt

PA T
Integrating a second time
y = −400e−t/5 − 50t + D

E EC
and at t = 0 the projectile is at the origin so

and
Now from above
D = 400
y = 400(1 − e−t/5 ) − 50t . (1)

x = 75(1 − e−t/5 ) (2)

PL R
so 75e−t/5 = 75 − x
75
or et/5 =
75 − x 
M R

75
and t = 5 log . (3)
75 − x
 
400x 75
O

Thus combining (1), (2) and (3) gives: y = − 250 log .

75 75 − x

Exercise 6F
SA C

1. A projectile is fired with velocity V = 40 m/s on a horizontal plane at an angle of elevation

α = 60◦ . Take g = 10 m/s2, and let the origin be the point of projection.
√
N

(a) Show that ẋ = 20 and ẏ = −10t + 20 3, and find x and y.

(b) Find the flight time, and the horizontal range of the projectile.
(c) Find the maximum height reached, and the time taken to reach it.
U

(d) An observer claims that the projectile would have had a greater horizontal range if its
angle of projection had been halved. Investigate this claim by reworking the question
with α = 30◦ .
2. A projectile is fired at a speed of 39 m/s and at an angle of elevation of tan−1 125
. It just
clears a tower at a horizontal distance of 30 m from the point of projection.
(a) Obtain, by integration, expressions for ẋ, ẏ, x and y, taking g = 10 m/s2.
(b) Find the height of the tower.
(c) Find, in m/s correct to one decimal place, the speed of the projectile as it clears the
tower.
(d) Does the projectile reach its greatest height before or after it clears the tower?

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 260 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6F

3. A pebble is thrown from the top of a vertical cliff with velocity 20 m/s at an angle of
elevation of 30◦ . The cliff is 75 metres high and overlooks a river.
(a) Derive expressions for the horizontal and vertical components of the displacement of
the pebble from the top of the cliff after t seconds. (Take g = 10 m/s2.)
(b) Find the time it takes for the pebble to hit the water and the distance from the base
of the cliff to the point of impact.
(c) Find the greatest height that the pebble reaches above the river.
(d) Find the values of ẋ and ẏ at the instant when the pebble hits the water. Hence

G D
find the speed (to the nearest m/s) and the acute angle below the horizontal (to the
nearest degree) at which the pebble hits the water.
(e) The path of the pebble is a parabolic arc. By eliminating t from the equations for x

E
and y, find its equation in Cartesian form.

ES
4. A plane is flying horizontally at 363·6 km/h and its altitude is 600 metres. It is to drop a

PA T
food parcel onto a large cross marked on the ground in a remote area.
(a) Convert the speed of the plane into metres per second.

E EC
(b) Derive expressions for the horizontal and vertical components of the food parcel’s
displacement from the point where it was dropped. (Take g = 10 m/s2.)
√
(c) Show that the food parcel will be in the air for 2 30 seconds.
(d) Find the speed and angle at which the food parcel will hit the ground.
(e) At what horizontal distance from the cross, correct to the nearest metre, should the
plane drop the food parcel?
PL R
5. Ming hit a golf ball from level ground with initial speed 50 m/s at an angle of 45◦ above
the horizontal. The ball hit the clubhouse 75 metres away. Take g = 10 m/s2 .
√
M R

(a) Show that the ball hit the clubhouse after 23 2 seconds at a point 52·5 metres above
the ground.
√
(b) Show that the velocity of the ball when it struck the clubhouse was 5 58 m/s at an
O

angle of tan−1 52 above the horizontal.

6. Jeffrey hit a golf ball that was lying on level ground.
√ Two seconds into its flight, the
ball just cleared a 28-metre-tall tree which was 24 5 metres from where the ball was hit.
SA C

Let V m/s be the initial speed of the ball, and let θ be the angle above the horizontal at
which the ball was hit. Take g = 10 m/s2.
(a) Show that the horizontal and vertical components of the displacement of the ball from
N

its initial position are x = V t cos θ and y = −5t2 + V t sin θ.

√
(b) Show that V cos θ = 12 5 and V sin θ = 24.
U

(c) By squaring and adding, find V . Then find θ, correct to the nearest minute.
(d) Find, correct to the nearest metre, how far Jeffrey hit the ball.
DEVELOPMENT

7. A ball is thrown from level ground at an initial speed of V m/s and at an angle of projection
of α above the horizontal. Assume that, t seconds after release, the horizontal and vertical
displacements are given by x = V t cos α and y = V t sin α − 21 gt2 .
 
x gx
(a) Show that the trajectory has Cartesian equation y = sin α cos α − .
cos2 α 2V 2
V 2 sin 2α
(b) Hence show that the horizontal range is .
g

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 6F Projectile Motion 261

(c) When V = 30 m/s, the ball lands 45 metres away. Take g = 10 m/s2.
(i) Find the two possible values of α.
(ii) A 2-metre-high fence is placed 40 metres from the thrower. Examine each trajec-
tory to see whether the ball will still travel 45 metres.

8. A ball is thrown with initial velocity 20 m/s at an angle of y

elevation of tan−1 34 .
20 ms−1

G D
(a) Show that the parabolic path of the ball has parametric
equations x = 12t and y = 16t − 5t2 .
(b) Hence find the horizontal range of the ball, and its great- tan−1 15

E
est height. x
tan−1 43
(c) Suppose that, as shown opposite, the ball is thrown up

ES
a road inclined at tan−1 51 to the horizontal. Show that:

PA T
(i) the ball is about 9 metres above the road when it reaches its greatest height,

E EC (ii) the time of flight is 2·72 seconds, and find, correct to the nearest tenth of a metre,
the distance the ball has been thrown up the road.

9. Sofia threw a ball with velocity 20 m/s from a point exactly one metre above the level
ground she was standing on. The ball travelled towards a wall of a tall building 16 metres
away. The plane in which the ball travelled was perpendicular to the wall. The ball struck
the wall 16 metres above the ground. Take g = 10 m/s2.
PL R
(a) Let the origin be the point on the ground directly below
the point from which the ball was released. Show that, y
M R

t seconds after the ball was thrown, x = 20t cos θ and

y = −5t2 + 20t sin θ + 1, where θ is the angle above the
16 m
horizontal at which the ball was originally thrown.
1m
O

(b) The ball hit the wall after T seconds. Show that
4 = 5T cos θ and 3 = 4T sin θ − T 2 . O x
16 m
(c) Hence show that 16 tan2 θ − 80 tan θ + 91 = 0.
SA C

(d) Hence find the two possible values of θ, correct to the nearest minute.

10. Glenn the fast bowler runs in to bowl and releases the ball y
N

7º
2·4 metres above the ground with speed 144 km/h at an 2·4
angle of 7◦ below the horizontal. Take the origin to be the 144 km/h
point where the ball is released, and take g = 10 m/s2.
U

(a) Show that the coordinates of the ball t seconds after its
release are given by
O x
x = 40t cos 7◦ , y = 2·4 − 40t sin 7◦ − 5t2 .

(b) How long will it be (to the nearest 0·01 seconds) before the ball hits the pitch?
(c) Calculate the angle (to the nearest degree) at which the ball will hit the pitch.
(d) The batsman is standing 19 metres from the point of release. If the ball lands more
than 5 metres in front of him, it will be classified as a ‘short-pitched’ delivery. Is this
particular delivery short-pitched?

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 262 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6F

11. Two particles P1 and P2 are projected simultaneously from

the points A and B, where AB is horizontal. The motion V1 V2
takes place in the vertical plane through A and B. The
initial velocity of P1 is V1 at an angle θ1 to the horizontal,
θ1 θ2
and the initial velocity of P2 is V2 at an angle θ2 to the
horizontal. You may assume that the equations of motion A B
of a particle projected with velocity V at an angle θ to the
horizontal are x = V t cos θ and y = − 21 gt2 + V t sin θ.

G D
(a) Show that the condition for the particles to collide is V1 sin θ1 = V2 sin θ2 .
(b) Suppose that AB = 200 metres, V1 = 30 m/s, θ1 = sin−1 54 , θ2 = sin−1 53 , g = 10 m/s2
and that the particles collide.

E
(i) Show that V2 = 40 m/s, and that the particles collide after 4 seconds.
(ii) Find the height of the point of collision above AB.

ES
(iii) Find, correct to the nearest degree, the obtuse angle between the directions of

PA T
motion of the particles at the instant they collide.
12. A particle is projected from the origin with initial speed 30 m/s at an angle of 60◦ above

E EC
the horizontal. It is subject to gravity as well as air resistance proportional to 61 of its
velocity in both the horizontal and vertical directions, so that ẍ = − 61 ẋ and ÿ = −10 − 61 ẏ.


1

1

 √
1
(a) Show that ẋ = 15e− 6 t and ẏ = 15 4 + 3 e− 6 t − 4 .


(b) Show that x = 90 1 − e− 6 t .

√ !
4+ 3
PL R
(c) Show that the particle reaches its greatest height when t = 6 ln .
4
(d) Find, correct to the nearest metre, the horizontal distance travelled when the particle
M R

reaches its greatest height.

13. A cricketer hits the ball from ground level with a velocity of y
magnitude 20 m/s at an angle of elevation α. It flies towards
O

a high wall 20 metres away on level ground. Take the origin 20 m/s
at the point where the ball was hit, and take g = 10 m/s2. hm
2
(a) Show that the ball hits the wall when h = 20 tan α − 5 sec α.
SA C

d α
(b) Show that (sec α) = sec α tan α.
dα O x
(c) Show that the maximum value of h occurs when tan α = 2. 20 m
N

(d) Find the maximum height.

(e) Find the speed and angle (to the nearest minute) at which the ball hits the wall.
14. A stone is propelled at an angle of θ above the horizontal from the top of a vertical cliff
U

40 metres above a lake. The speed of propulsion is 20 m/s. Take g = 10 m/s2.

(a) Show that x(t) and y(t), the horizontal and vertical components of the stone’s dis-
placement from the top of the cliff, are given by
x(t) = 20t cos θ, y(t) = −5t2 + 20t sin θ.
(b) If the stone hits the lake at time T seconds, show that

2
x(T ) = 400T 2 − (5T 2 − 40)2.

2
(c) Hence find, by differentiation, the value of T that maximises x(T ) , and then find
the value of θ that maximises the distance between the foot of the cliff and the point
where the stone hits the lake.

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 6F Projectile Motion 263

15. A particle P1 is projected from the origin with speed V at an angle of elevation θ.
(a) Assuming the usual equations of motion, show that the particle reaches a maximum
V 2 sin2 θ
height of .
2g
(b) A second particle P2 is projected from the origin with velocity 23 V at an angle 21 θ to
the horizontal. The two particles reach the same maximum height.
(i) Show that θ = cos−1 18 . (ii) Do the two particles take the same time to reach
this maximum height? Justify your answer.

G D
V 2 sin 2α
16. (a) Prove that the horizontal range of a projectile is , where V is the initial
g

E
speed, α is the angle of projection and g m/s2 is the acceleration due to gravity.
(b) A garden sprinkler sprays water symmetrically about its vertical axis at a constant

ES
speed of V m/s. The initial direction of the spray varies continuously between 15◦ and

PA T
45◦ above the horizontal.
(i) Explain why, from a fixed point O on level ground, the sprinkler will wet an
E EC annulus with centre O, inner radius
V2
2g
metres and outer radius
V2
g
metres.

(ii) Deduce that by appropriately locating the sprinkler relative to a rectangular gar-
V2 √
den 6 m by 3 m, the entire garden can be watered provided that ≥ 1 + 7.
2g
PL R
17. A particle is projected from the origin with speed V at an angle of α above the horizontal.
It is subject to both gravity and an air resistance proportional to its velocity, so that its
horizontal and vertical components of acceleration while it is rising are given by ẍ = −kẋ
M R

and ÿ = −g − kẏ.
 
g g
(a) Show that ẋ = V cos α e−kt and ẏ = + V sin α e−kt − .
k k
O

 
V cos α −kt

g V sin α
g
(b) Hence show that x = 1−e and y = 2
+ 1 − e−kt − t.
k k k k
(c) When the particle reaches its greatest height, show that it has travelled a horizontal
SA C

V 2 sin 2α
distance of .
2 (g + V k sin α)
N

ENRICHMENT

18. A projectile is fired from the origin with velocity V and angle of elevation α, where α is
acute. Assume the usual equations of motion.
U

V2
(a) Let k = . Show that the Cartesian equation of the parabolic path of the projectile
2g
can be written as

x2 tan2 α − 4kx tan α + (4ky + x2 ) = 0.

(b) Show that the projectile can pass through the point (X, Y ) in the first quadrant by
firing at two different initial angles α1 and α2 only if X 2 < 4k2 − 4kY .
(c) Suppose that tan α1 and tan α2 are the two real roots of the quadratic equation in
tan α in part (a). Show that tan α1 tan α2 > 1, and hence explain why it is impossible
for α1 and α2 both to be less than 45◦ .

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 264 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6G

19. The diagram shows the parabolic path of a particle that is y

projected from the origin O with speed V at an angle of α
V
above the horizontal. It lands at P , which lies on a plane
inclined at an angle of β to the horizontal. When the particle
hits the plane, its direction of motion is perpendicular to the
plane. a P
O b x
Let OP = d, and assume that the horizontal and vertical dis-
placements of the particle from O are given by x = V t cos α

G D
and y = V t sin α − 21 gt2 .
(a) Write down the coordinates of P in terms of d and β.
(b) By substituting the coordinates of P into the displacement equations, show that

E
2V 2 cos2 α
d= (tan α cos β − sin β) .
g cos2 β

ES
PA T
(c) By resolving the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity at P , show that
gd cos β
cot β = − tan α.
E EC V 2 cos2 α
(d) Deduce that tan α = cot β + 2 tan β.
20. (a) Consider the function y = 2 sin(x − θ) cos x.
dy
(i) Show that = 2 cos(2x − θ). (ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that
dx
PL R
2 sin(x − θ) cos x = sin(2x − θ) − sin θ.
M R

(b) A projectile is fired from the origin with velocity V at an y

angle of α to the horizontal up a plane inclined at β to
the horizontal. Assume that the horizontal and vertical V
O

components of the projectile’s displacement are given P(X,Y)

R
by x = V t cos α and y = V t sin α − 21 gt2 .
(i) If the projectile strikes the plane at (X, Y ), show that β
x
SA C

2V 2 cos2 α(tan α − tan β) α

X= .
g
(ii) Hence show that the range R of the projectile up the plane is given by
N

2V 2 cos α sin(α − β)
R= .
g cos2 β
U

V2
(iii) Use part (a)(ii) to show that the maximum possible value of R is .
g(1 + sin β)
(iv) If the angle of inclination of the plane is 14◦ , at what angle to the horizontal
should the projectile be fired in order to attain the maximum possible range?
21. A tall building stands on level ground. The nozzle of a water sprinkler is positioned at a
point P on the ground at a distance d from a wall of the building. Water sprays from the
nozzle withp speed V and the nozzle can be pointed in any direction from P .
(a) If V > gd, prove that the water can reach the wall above ground level.
p
(b) Suppose that V = 2 gd. Show that the portion of the√ wall that can be sprayed with
5 15 2
water is a parabolic segment of height 15
8 d and area 2 d .

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 6G Miscellaneous Problems 265

6G Miscellaneous Problems
There is no new mathematical theory presented in this section. Instead it is a
collection of harder problems deemed to be within the scope of the syllabus. The
list of problems presented here is not intended to be exhaustive. Teachers and
students are encouraged to find other practical applications of the mathematics
they have encountered, and to solve those problems. When attempting questions,
students are encouraged to draw a diagram, where appropriate, as often a problem
is more simply solved from the diagram.

G D
WORKED EXAMPLE 22: A car of mass m is travelling at a constant speed V0 m/s.
The brakes are applied, resulting in a constant deceleration until the car comes

E
to a stop. Given that the car stops in ` m, find the force exerted by the brakes.
SOLUTION: Let v m/s be the speed of the car x m beyond where the brakes are

ES
first applied. Since deceleration is involved, let the acceleration of the car be −a,

PA T
with a > 0, so that
d 1 2
V0
v = −a .
E EC
Integrating,
dx 2
1 2
2
v = −ax + C .
At x = `, v = 0 so C = a`. Thus the velocity is given by
1 2
2
v = −ax + a` .
0 l x

1 2
At x = 0, 2 V0 = a`
PL R
V0 2
thus a= .
2`
Hence the force required to stop the car is:
M R

F = m(−a)
mV0 2
=− .
2`
O

Notice that for any given force, the distance is proportional to the square of the
speed. Thus a car going just 10% above the speed limit will require a distance 21%
greater to stop. This is obviously a significant issue for road safety.
SA C

Variable Gravity: One particular type of problem that can be solved in this course
is motion with variable gravity, as shown in previously Worked Example 5 and
N

here in the following example.

WORKED EXAMPLE 23: The acceleration experienced by an object due to gravity

is inversely proportional to the square of the radius r metres between the centre
U

of the earth and the centre of the object, and is directed towards the centre of
the earth. Thus, ignoring all other forces, the equation of motion is:
d2 r k
2
=− 2.
dt r
Assume that the earth is a sphere of radius R and that the acceleration due to
gravity at the surface of the earth is g. The object is projected vertically with
initial velocity V0.
(a) The smallest initial velocity for which the object never returns to the
p earth
is called the escape velocity. Show that the escape velocity is V0 = 2gR.
p
(b) Given that V0 = 2gR, find the time taken to reach an altitude of R.

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 266 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6G

SOLUTION:
(a) Begin by finding the value of k. At the surface of the earth r = R, so
k
−g = −
R2
hence k = gR2 .
Next, re-write the acceleration in terms of velocity v and radius r.
d
2gR2
v2 = − 2

G D
dr r
2gR2
so v2 = + C1 (for some constant C1 ) .
r r

E
When t = 0, r = R and v = V0 so 2R

ES
2
V0 = 2gR + C1 R V0

PA T
thus C1 = V0 2 − 2gR
0
2 2gR2 2
and v = + V0 − 2gR .
E EC r
Since the object never returns, r must always increase, otherwise r̈ < 0.
So take the limit as r → ∞ to get
lim v 2 = V0 2 − 2gR
r→∞

which must be positive or zero. (Squares cannot be negative.) Thus

PL R
V0 2 − 2gR ≥ 0
p
hence V0 ≥ 2gR .
M R

p
That is, the escape velocity is V0 = 2gR.

For the earth, these quantities are approximately:

O

2
√ .
g = 10 m/s , R = 6400 km and V0 = 8 2 = . 11·3 km/s.
2
(b) In the case of the escape velocity, v 2 = 2gR
r
, which is continuous for r > 0,
and is never zero. Hence v can never change sign. Since it is initially positive,
SA C

it must remain positive. Thus take the positive square root to get
s
dr 2gR2
N

=
dt r
1 dr p
or r2 × = R 2g .
dt
U

2 32
p
Integrating, 3
r = Rt 2g + C2 (for some constant C2 .)
When t = 0, r = R so
3
C2 = 32 R 2 .
p  3 3

Thus Rt 2g = 23 r 2 − R 2
√  3 3

and t = 3R√2 g r 2 − R 2 .
Hence at r = 2R the time is
√ √ √
2
t= √
3R g
(2R 2R − R R)
√
R
√
= √ (4 −
3 g
2) (about 690 s for earth.)

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 6G Miscellaneous Problems 267

Projectile Motion: There is an enormous number of different questions that can be

asked on this topic. Some of those included in the subsequent exercise may also be
appropriate for Mathematics Extension 1 candidates. Equally, many worthwhile
questions have been omitted simply for the sake of space.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24: An object is projected from the origin O at an angle

α with initial speed V . At a particular point P (x, y) on the trajectory, the
gradient of OP is tan β and the gradient of the tangent to the trajectory at P is

G D
dy
= − tan β. You may assume that
dx

y = V t sin α − 21 gt2

E
and x = V t cos α .

ES
4V sin α

PA T
(a) Show that the time taken to reach P is .
3g
(b) Hence show that tan α = 3 tan β.
E EC
SOLUTION:
(a) At P tan β =
y dy
y
x
and
dy
dx
= − tan β

so =− . y
x dx P
V
PL R
dy ẏ
Also = a
dx ẋ b b
y ẏ O x
thus =−
M R

x ẋ
V t sin α − 21 gt2 V sin α − gt
so =−
V t cos α V cos α
O

or V sin α − 21 gt = gt − V sin α
thus 2V sin α = 23 gt
4V sin α
and t= .
SA C

3g
(b) Using the value of t found in part (a),
dy
N

tan β = −
dx 
g 4V 3gsin α
− V sin α
=
U

V cos α
4V sin α − 3V sin α
=
3V cos α
sin α
thus tan β =
3 cos α
or tan α = 3 tan β .

Simple Harmonic Motion: A harder application of simple harmonic motion is in

the small angle approximation of the motion of a pendulum. It is also an example
of how a force may be resolved into its components in different directions, rather
like the resolution of the initial velocity in projectile motion.

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.
 268 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6G

WORKED EXAMPLE 25: A mass m is suspended from a

fixed point on a light inextensible wire of length L. The
ball is set in motion, swinging back and forth along an q
arc in a vertical plane. At time t the angle that the wire L
makes with the vertical is θ. The only forces acting on T
the ball are the tension T acting along the wire normal
to the arc, and gravity acting vertically.
(a) Resolve the force due to gravity normally to find T . mg

G D
d2 θ g sin θ
(b) Next, resolve the force tangentially to show that 2 = − .
dt L
(c) Under what circumstances can the equation in part (b) be approximated with

E
d2 θ gθ
2
=− ?
dt L

ES
PA T
(d) At t = 0, the ball is released from rest at an angle θq
= θ0 ,where θ0 is positive.
g
Use the result of part (c) to show that θ = θ0 cos L t .

E EC
(e) What is the speed of the ball at the bottom of the swing?
SOLUTION:
(a) Since the length of the wire does not change it follows that
the sum of the normal forces is zero. Thus
T

T − mg cos θ = 0
or T = mg cos θ .
PL R
q
(b) The only force acting tangentially is the component of
weight, which is mg sin θ. From observation, the force acts
mg
in the opposite direction to the displacement, θL. Hence
M R

d2  
m 2 θL = −mg sin θ
dt
d2 θ
O

g sin θ
so =− .
dt2 L
.
(c) When θ is small, it follows that sin θ =
. θ so
SA C

d2 θ gθ
2
=− .
dt L
g
(d) The previous result is the equation of simple harmonic motion with n2 = .
N

L
Hence the general solution is
q 
g
θ = a cos L
t + φ where − π2 ≤ φ ≤ π2
q q 
U

so θ̇ = −a Lg sin g
L
t + φ .
At t = 0, the velocity is zero. That is θ̇L = 0 , so
q
0 = −a Lg sin (φ)
hence φ = 0 (for φ in the specified domain)
q 
g
and θ = a cos L
t .
At t = 0, the initial angle is θ0 = a cos 0
hence a = θ0
q 
g
and θ = θ0 cos Lt .

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.
 6G Miscellaneous Problems 269

Here is a simpler argument. The motion is SHM and starts from rest hence
a cosine solution is appropriate, since the cosine function has a stationary
point at t = 0. It follows that the initial displacement is the amplitude.
(e) At the bottom of the swing θ = 0, so
q 
g
cos L
t =0
q
g
that is L
t = π + kπ .
  2
 

G D
The speed is v = θ̇L, so
 q q 
 g g 
v = −θ0 L L sin Lt 
 q


E

= −θ0 L Lg sin π2 + kπ  (at the bottom of the swing)
p

ES
= θ0 gL .

PA T
Exercise 6G
E EC
1. An object falls from the top of a building. An office worker sees the object fall past a
window 2 m high in 51 s. Assume that air resistance is negligible and use g = 10 m/s2 .
Let y be the height of the object above the bottom of the window at time t.
(a) Show that y = H − 5t2 , where H is the distance from the bottom of the window to
the top of the building.
PL R
(b) Use part (a) and the information given in the question to form a pair of equations.
Solve these simultaneously to find the value of H.
2. A projectile is fired vertically under the influence of gravity alone. Let the acceleration
M R

. 2
due to gravity be g = . 10 m/s . Thus the height y1 at time t satisfies ÿ1 = −10. The
projectile is fired with initial speed of 16 m/s. One second later another projectile is fired
from the same point.
O

(a) Find the time for the first projectile to reach its maximum height. Hence find this
maximum height.
(b) Let the initial speed of the second projectile be v. Show that its height is given by
SA C

y2 = −5(t − 1)2 + v(t − 1).

(c) Find v given that the two collide when the first has reached its maximum height.
N

3. Ignoring air resistance, a hot-air balloon has two forces acting on it: a constant buoyancy
force B and the force due to gravity. Suppose that when the mass of the balloon is M it
descends with a downward acceleration d > 0. Ballast of mass m is thrown out and the
result is that the balloon ascends with upward acceleration a > 0.
U

(a) Write down two force balance equations for the information given.
a+d
(b) Hence show that m = M .
a+g
4. The acceleration due to gravity at distance r from the centre of the moon is given by
d2 r gR2 . . 2
= − , where R =
. 1 737 km is its radius and g =. 1·625 m/s is the acceleration due
dt2 r2
to gravity at the surface of the moon. A projectile is fired vertically from the surface with
initial velocity V0.
(a) Derive an expression for v 2 , the square of the velocity of the projectile, in terms of r.
(b) The maximum altitude of the projectile is R. Determine V0 .

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 270 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6G

5. The bob of a pendulum is released from rest. The initial angle

between the wire and the vertical is θ0 and the tension along the
wire is T0 . At time t after it is released, the angle between the wire q
and the vertical is θ and the tension is T . You may assume that L
the only forces acting on the bob are due to the tension acting T
along the wire and gravity acting vertically. Let the mass of the
bob be m and the length of the wire be L.
(a) Resolve the forces on the bob normally and tangentially to mg

G D
obtain the equations of motion.
dθ d2 θ d  1 2
(b) Let ω = . Show that 2 = ω .
dt dt dθ 2

E
(c) Hence show that ω 2 = mL2
(T − T0 ) .

ES
6. The deck of a ship is 1 m below a wharf at low tide and is 0·4 m above the wharf at high

PA T
tide. On a certain day the ship has a precious cargo that can only be safely offloaded when
the deck is above the level of the wharf. On that day, low tide is at 1:10 am and again
at 1:35 pm. Given that the tide can be modelled with simple harmonic motion, between
E EC
what times in the morning can the cargo be safely offloaded?

sin α + 1
DEVELOPMENT

7. (a) Show that tan( π4 + α2 ) = .

cos α
PL R
(b) The Cartesian equation of a projectile fired at angle β and velocity V is
gx2
y=− sec2 β + x tan β .
2V 2
M R

Write this equation as a quadratic in tan β.

(c) In a game of netball the Goal Attack is about to shoot for goal. The line joining the
O

net and the point of projection of the ball makes an angle α with the horizontal. Let h
be the height of the net above the point of projection. Let V be the minimum speed
required to score a goal. That is, there is only one angle of projection β at which the
shot may be taken with speed V .
SA C

(i) Let the coordinates of the net be (x, y). Show that V 4 − 2gyV 2 − g 2 x2 = 0 .
(ii) At the net, y = h and x = h cot α . Show that V 2 = gh(1 + cosec α) .
N

π
(iii) Write down an expression for tan β and hence use part (a) to show that β = 4
+ α2 .

8. The Cartesian equation of a projectile fired at angle θ and velocity V may be written as
U

 
gx2 2 gx2
tan θ − x tan θ + y + = 0. (∗)
2V 2 2V 2
(a) Let this quadratic equation for tan θ have two solutions, tan θ1 and tan θ2 .
x
Show that tan(θ1 + θ2 ) = − .
y
(b) Suppose that for a certain point P (a, b) there is only one solution for θ.
b
Prove that this angle is θ = π4 + α2 , where tan α = .
a
(c) Each point that can be hit by the projectile lies on or below a parabola. By considering
the discriminant of equation (∗), find and describe that parabola.

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 6G Miscellaneous Problems 271

9. A number of ball bearings are fired at the same moment, from the same point and with
the same speed V but at different angles of projection in the same vertical plane. Ignoring
air resistance, the time equations for the position of each ball bearing are
x = V t cos αj and y = V t sin αj − 21 gt2
where αj is the angle of projection of the j th ball bearing. Show that at any time, all the
ball bearings lie on a circle, and find the centre and radius of this circle.
[Hint: Eliminate αj from the above equations.]

G D
10. A thrill-seeker goes bungy-jumping from a point O on a bridge above a river. Let x be
the distance below O and let v be the velocity of the thrill-seeker towards the river.
d 1 2

(a) The person free falls for a distance `. Thus v = g for 0 ≤ x ≤ `.

E
dx 2
Show that v 2 = 2g` when x = ` .

ES
(b) For x > `, the bungy cord begins to slow the person down according to the equation

PA T
d 1 2

v = g − gk(x − `)
dx 2

E EC where k is a positive constant.

(i) Show that v 2 = 2gx − gk(x − `)2 for x > ` .
(ii) Show that the furthest the thrill seeker reaches is
 √ 
xmax = k1 1 + k` + 1 + 2k` .
(iii) Find xmax in terms of ` when k` = 4 .
PL R
11. An object is fired vertically upwards with initial speed V0 m/s from ground level. Ignoring
air resistance, the acceleration due to gravity varies with height x above ground level
M R

according to the equation

d 1 2
−10R2
v = ,
dx 2 (R + x)2
O

where R is the average radius of the earth, and v is the velocity of the object.
(a) What is the significance of the negative sign?
(b) Find an expression for h, the maximum height reached, in terms of R and V0 .
SA C

(c) Given that R = 6·4×106 m and V0 = 500 m/s, evaluate h correct to the nearest metre.
12. The temperature B of a beaker containing a hot chemical, and the temperature W of
N

a cooler water bath in which the beaker is placed, both satisfy Newton’s law of cooling.
Thus the temperatures are related by the equations
dB dW
= −k(B − W ) and = 34 k(B − W ) ,
U

dt dt
where k is a positive constant.
(a) By differentiating 43 B + W , show that 43 B + W = C, where C is a constant.
(b) Initially the beaker is 120◦ C and the water bath is 22◦ C. Find C and hence show that
dB
= −k( 47 B − 112) .
dt
(c) Solve the above equation to find B as a function of time.
(d) After ten minutes the temperature of the beaker is 92◦ C. Find the temperature of the
beaker after a further ten minutes.
(e) What is the eventual temperature of the water bath?

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 272 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6G

13. A model for the population, P , of elephants in Serengeti National Park is

21 000
P =
7 + 3e−t/3
where t is the time in years after the end of 2008.
(a) Show that P satisfies the differential equation
 
dP P P
= 1− .
dt 3 3000

G D
(b) What was the population at the end of 2008?
(c) What does the model predict that the eventual population will be?
(d) What was the annual percentage rate of growth at the end of 2008?

E
14. (a) Show that the focal length of the parabola y = bx − ax2 is 4a
1
.

ES
(b) The usual Cartesian equation of the trajectory of a projectile is

PA T
g sec2 α
y = x tan α − x2 × .
2V 2

E EC (i) Find the coordinates of the vertex of this trajectory.

(ii) Find the focal length of the trajectory.
(iii) Hence find the equation of its directrix, and the coordinates of the focus.
15. As water empties from a water cooler through a small hole at the bottom it is found that
the depth of the water satisfies the equation
PL R
dy √
= −k y ,
dt
where k is a positive constant and y is the depth of water. Initially the depth of the water
M R

is y0 and it takes T seconds to fully drain.

s
y t
(a) Show that = 1− for 0 ≤ t ≤ T .
y0 T
O

(b) Suppose that it takes 15 seconds for half the water to drain out. How long does it
take to empty the full cooler?
SA C

16. A bead of mass m slides along a wire in the shape of the curve y = 23 x2/3 , where 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
At time t, let the bead be at P (x, y), where x and y are functions of t. The coordinates
of P satisfy the equation
N

1
2
mẋ2 + 21 mẏ 2 + mgy = E ,
where E and g are constants.
(a) When t = 0 the bead is released from rest at the point (1, 23 ). Find E.
U

3g(3 − 2y)
(b) Show that ẋ = x1/3ẏ , and hence show that ẏ 2 = .
3 + 2y
(c) Find ẏ and ẋ when the bead is at the origin.
(d) It is known that
Z αs p
1+u
du = sin−1 α + 1 − 1 − α2 for 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 .
0 1−u
Use this result to find the time it takes for the bead to travel from (1, 23 ) to the origin.
(e) As an exercise, use the methods of integration in Chapter 4 to prove the above result.
What is peculiar about the case α = 1?

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 6G Miscellaneous Problems 273

ENRICHMENT

17. In this question you may assume that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola, and that
its directrix is independent of α, the angle of projection. Suppose it is found that there is
only one angle at which a projectile may be fired from point A to pass through point P .
(a) Use geometry to show that the focus of the trajectory is on the line AP .
(b) Now prove the result algebraically. You may need the results of Question 14.

G DE
ES
PA T
E EC
PL R
M R O
SA C
N
U

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 274 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6H

6H Chapter Review Exercise

Exercise 6H
1. In each part v is given as a function of x, and it is known that x = 1 when t = 0. Express:
(i) t in terms of x, (ii) x in terms of t.
(a) v = 2x − 1 (b) v = −6x2
2. In each motion of the previous question, find ẍ in terms of x.

G D
3. In each part the acceleration ẍ is given as a function of x. Express v 2 in terms of x given
that v = 0 when x = 0.
(a) ẍ = 6 (b) ẍ = sin 6x

E
4. Given that ẍ = 4v, and v = 2 when t = 0, find t as a function of v.

ES
1

PA T
5. Given that ẍ = , and v = 1 when x = 0, find x as a function of v.
3v
6. A particle of mass m moves in a straight line subject to a force F . At time t, the
E EC
displacement of the particle is x and the velocity is v. The particle was initially at rest at
the origin.
(a) If F = 18t and m = 3, find x when t = 2.
(b) If F = 4x − 3 and m = 2, find the positive value of v when x = 4.
1
(c) If F = and m = 0·5, find t when v = 6.
PL R
1+v
(d) If F = 2 + v 2 and m = 2, find x when v = 2.
7. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting on a particle P of mass 2 kg. F1 has magnitude 40 N and
M R

acts in the north-easterly direction, while F2 has components 40 N due north and 20 N due
east. Calculate the magnitude and direction (both to 3 significant figures) of the resultant
acceleration of P .
O

8. A plane lands on a runway at 100 m/s. It then brakes with a constant deceleration until
it stops 2 km down the runway.
(a) Explain why the equation of motion is ẍ = −k, for some positive constant k. By
SA C

integrating with respect to x, find k, and find v 2 as a function of x.

(b) Find: (i) the velocity after 1 km, (ii) where it is when the velocity is 50 m/s.
√ √
(c) Explain why, during the braking, v = 10 000 − 5x rather than v = − 10 000 − 5x .
N

(d) Integrate to find the displacement–time function, and find how long it takes to stop.
9. When fired under water, a torpedo moves with deceleration proportional to its velocity,
U

so that ẍ = −kv for some positive constant k. Its initial speed is 21 km/s, and its speed
after it has gone 50 metres is 250 m/s.
dv
(a) Use ẍ = v to find v as a function of x, then find x as a function of t.
dx
(b) Show that it takes 51 ln 2 seconds to go the first 50 metres, and describe the subsequent
motion of the torpedo.
10. A particle moves with acceleration ẍ = − 21 e−x m/s2 .
(a) Initially it is at the origin with velocity 1 m/s. Find an expression for v 2 .
(b) Explain why v is always positive, and hence find the displacement as a function of time.
(c) Describe what happens to the particle as t → ∞.

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 6H Chapter Review Exercise 275

11. The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by ẍ = a + bv 2 , where a

and b are positive constants. Initially the particle was √
at rest at the origin. Show that:
a
a √ 
(a) v 2 = e2bx − 1 (b) v = √ tan ab t
b b
12. A particle is oscillating in simple harmonic motion with acceleration ẍ = −16x. At time
t = 0, x = 1 and ẋ = 4.
(a) Show by integrating that v 2 = 16(2 − x2 ).
(b) What is the maximum displacement of the particle?

G D
(c) Find x as a function of t in the form x = a cos(nt + α).
13. The displacement x at time t of a particle moving on the x-axis is given by

E
√
x = 5 + 3 sin 3t − cos 3t.

ES
(a) Prove that the motion of the particle is simple harmonic.

PA T
√ π
(b) Express 3 sin 3t − cos 3t in the form R sin(3t − α), where R > 0 and 0 < α < 2.
(c) What are the amplitude and the centre of the motion?
E EC
(d) When does the particle first reach its maximum speed?
14. A particle is moving in simple harmonic motion. Its maximum speed and acceleration are
2 m/s and 6 m/s2 respectively. Find the amplitude and period of the motion.
15. A piston in a car engine is moving up and down in simple harmonic motion with an
PL R
amplitude of 5 cm. The mass of the piston is 0·5 kg and it is making 60 oscillations per
second. Find:
(a) the maximum speed of the piston, in m/s correct to one decimal place,
M R

(b) the maximum force acting on the piston, correct to the nearest newton.
16. A particle is oscillating on the x-axis about the origin. It passes through the point A,
where x = 0·01 metres, with speed 0·09 m/s and it passes through the point B, where
O

x = −0·02 metres, with speed 0·06 m/s.

√
10
(a) Show that the amplitude of the motion is 125 metres.
2π
SA C

(b) Show that the motion has period 15 seconds.

√

(c) Find, correct to the nearest hundredth of a second, the time that the particle takes
to move directly from A to B.
N

17. An aircraft of mass M kg moves along a horizontal runway, starting from rest. The air-
craft’s engines exert a constant thrust of T newtons and, when the speed of the aircraft
is v m/s, it experiences a resistance of magnitude kv 2 , where k > 0.
U

When the speed of the aircraft is V m/s, show that it has travelled
 
M T
ln metres.
2k T − kV 2
18. An object of mass 2 kg is projected vertically upwards with initial speed 20 m/s. It expe-
1 2
riences air resistance of magnitude 10 v newtons, where v m/s is the speed of the object
2
after t seconds. Take g = 10 m/s .
(a) Show that the object reaches a maximum height of 10 ln 3 metres.
(b) Find, correct to 3 significant figures, the speed of the object when it reaches half its
maximum height.

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 276 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6H

19. A child drops an air-filled balloon of mass 30 grams from a bridge 6 metres above a river.
The balloon experiences air resistance of magnitude 0·6v newtons, where v m/s is the
speed of the balloon after t seconds. Take g = 10 m/s2.
(a) Write down an equation of motion for the balloon’s descent.
(b) Show that the terminal speed of the balloon is 0·5 m/s.


(c) Show that v = 21 1 − e−20t .
(d) How long does it take, to 2 significant figures, for the balloon to reach half its terminal
speed?

G D
20. A particle of mass m falls from rest in a medium in which the resistance to its motion
is mkv, where k is a constant and v is the speed of the particle. As the particle falls,

E
v approaches a limiting value of V .
dv g
(a) Show that = (V − v).

ES
dt V

PA T
(b) Find the time it takes for the particle to reach a speed of 21 V .
 
1 V2 1
(c) Show that the distance fallen when a speed of 2 V is reached is ln 2 − .
E EC g 2
21. A particle P1 is projected vertically upwards from a point A with initial speed U . At the
same instant, a second particle P2 , also of mass m, is dropped from a point B directly
above A. The distance H between A and B is equal to the maximum height that P1
would reach were it not to collide with P2 . As the particles move, they each experience
air resistance of magnitude mkv 2 , where k > 0 and v is the speed. At the instant the
PL R
particles collide, P2 has reached exactly 50% of its terminal speed. Let y1 be the distance
of P1 above A, and y2 the distance of P2 below B.
s
g
M R

(a) Show that V = .

k
 
1 g + kU 2
(b) Show that y1 = ln , where v1 is the speed of P1 .
O

2k g + kv1 2
 
1 U2
(c) Hence show that H = ln 1 + 2 .
2k V
 
SA C

1  g 
(d) Given that y2 = ln  , show that, at the instant the particles collide, P2
2k  g − kv2 2 
1 4
has fallen a distance of ln .
N

2k 3
V
(e) Deduce that the speed of P1 at the instant the particles collide is √ .
3
U

22. A projectile has initial velocity vector 48i + 36j .

e e
(a) Obtain, by integration, expressions for ẋ, ẏ, x and y, taking g = 10 m/s2.
(b) Find the maximum height reached by the projectile.
(c) Find the horizontal range of the projectile.
(d) Find, as a component vector, the velocity of the particle after 1.6 seconds.
23. A particle is projected from the origin and follows a parabolic path with parametric
equations x = 12t and y = 9t − 5t2 (where x and y are in metres).
(a) Show that the Cartesian equation of the path is y = 43 x − 144
5
x2 .
(b) Find the horizontal range R and the greatest height H.

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 6H Chapter Review Exercise 277

(c) Find the gradient at x = 0, and hence find the angle of projection.
(d) Find ẋ and ẏ when t = 0. Hence, by resolving these components, find the initial
velocity, and confirm the angle of projection.
(e) Find when the particle is 4 metres high, and the horizontal displacement then.
24. Eve tossed an apple to Adam who was sitting near him. Adam caught it at the same height
that Eve released it from. Suppose that the initial velocity of the apple was V = 5 m/s,
at an angle of tan−1 2 above the horizontal.

G D
(a) Find the initial values of ẋ and ẏ.
(b) Find ẋ, x, ẏ and y by integrating ẍ = 0 and ÿ = −10, taking the origin to be the
point of release of the apple.

E
(c) Find the greatest height above the point of release reached by the apple.
√
(d) Show that the apple was in the air for 52 5 seconds, and hence find the horizontal

ES
PA T
distance travelled by the apple.
(e) Find ẋ and ẏ at the time Adam caught the apple. Then show that the final speed was
the same as the initial speed, and the final direction was the opposite of the initial
E EC direction.
(f) The path of the apple is a parabolic arc. By eliminating t from the equations for x
and y, find its equation in Cartesian form.
25. A bullet is fired horizontally at 200 m/s from a window 45 metres above the level ground
below. It doesn’t hit anything and falls harmlessly to the ground.
PL R
(a) Write down the initial values of ẋ and ẏ.
(b) Taking g = 10 m/s2 and the origin at the window, find ẋ, x, ẏ and y. Hence find the
Cartesian equation of the parabolic path.
M R

(c) Find the horizontal distance that the bullet travels.

(d) Find, correct to the nearest minute, the angle below the horizontal at which the bullet
O

hits the ground.

26. A ball is thrown up a hill which is inclined at 30◦ to the horizontal. The initial velocity of
the ball is 30 m/s at an angle of 45◦ above the horizontal. Suppose that the ball is thrown
SA C

from the origin O at the foot of the hill, and it lands at a point P on the side of the hill.
(a) Starting with ẍ = 0 and ÿ √= −10, show that √ the 2parabolic path of the ball has
parametric equations x = 15 2 t and y = 15 2 t − 5t .
N

(b) Find the Cartesian equation of the parabolic path.

√ 
(c) Hence show that OP = 60 3 − 1 metres.
U

27. A cannon can fire a shell with an initial speed V and a variable angle of elevation α.
Assume that t seconds after being fired, the horizontal and vertical displacements x and y
of the shell are given by x = V t cos α and y = V t sin α − 21 gt2 .
(a) Show that the Cartesian equation of the shell’s path may be written as
gx2 tan2 α − 2xV 2 tan α + (2yV 2 + gx2) = 0.
(b) Suppose that V = 200 m/s, g = 10 m/s2 and the shell hits a target positioned
√ 3 km
4± 3
horizontally and 0·5 km vertically from the cannon. Show that tan α = , and
3
hence find the two possible values of α, correct to the nearest minute.

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 278 CHAPTER 6: Mechanics 6H

28. A small paintball is fired from the origin with velocity 14 m/s towards an 8 m high wall.
The origin is at ground level and is 10 m from the base of the wall. Suppose that the
paintball was fired at an angle of θ above the horizontal.
(a) Starting with ẍ = 0 and ÿ = −9·8, show that x = 14t cos θ and y = 14t sin θ − 4·9t2 .
(b) Show that the trajectory of the paintball has Cartesian equation
 2 
m +1
y = mx − x2 , where m = tan θ.
40
√

G D
(c) If the paintball hits the wall at height h metres, show that m = 2 ± 3 − 0·4h and
hence determine the maximum possible value of h.
(d) Suppose that there is a large hole in the wall, the bottom of which is 3·9 metres above

E
the ground and the top of which is 5·9 metres above the ground. Determine the values
of m for which the paintball will pass through the hole.

ES
29. A particle of mass m is thrown from the top, O, of a tall building with initial velocity u at

PA T
an angle of α above the horizontal. The particle experiences the effect of gravity as well
as a resistance proportional to its velocity in both the horizontal and vertical directions.

E EC
The equations of motion are given by ẍ = −kẋ and ÿ = −kẏ − g, where k is a constant
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Show that ẋ = ue−kt cos α.
(b) Show, by differentiating, that ẏ =
1

(ku sin α + g) e−kt − g satisfies the vertical
k
equation of motion.
PL R
(c) Find the value of t at which the particle reaches its maximum height.
(d) What is the limiting value of the horizontal displacement?
M R O
SA C
N
U

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