Use and function of tools, equipment and testing instruments

Objective(s):

Upon completion of these information sheets, you will be able to: Know use and
functions of tools, equipment and testing instruments
TOOLS Screwdrivers
A screwdriver amplifies the hand's turning motion to the small, specially designed
tip that is inserted into the screw's head. There are numerous tip designs for
special applications (such as appliance assembly), but the two most common are
standard (also called flat, flared, or straight) and Phillips (X-shaped) tips. The
screwdriver handle can be of plastic or wood, sometimes with a rubberized cover
to improve grip. Other tips include clutch (hourglass shape), Robertson (square),
and Torx (six slots). Some fasteners can be turned either by standard or Phillips
tips.
Screwdrivers come in several de signs, but the standard model with
a flat head is still among the most common.

Common screwdriver tips

(a) Slotted, (b) Phillips, (c) Pozidriv, (d) Torx, (e) Hex, (f) Robertson,
(g) Tri-Wing, (h) Torq-Set, (i) Spanner

To ensure that the screwdriver is at good condition is to check if there is deformation

on the tip of the screwdriver and the shaft should be straight with good grip on the
handle.

Wrenches
The purpose of a wrench is to turn a bolt head or nut. Selecting the appropriate
wrench depends on the fastener's design and size. It can also depend on how
difficult the fastener is to reach. Wrench types include open end, combination,
adjustable, and Allen.
 An Adjustable End wrench

Here are some of the different types of wrenches from which you can choose:

Box end.
A box, or closed, end wrench is used where there is room to place the wrench
mouth around the fastener. Box end wrenches are available in 6- and 12-point
versions to match the number of sides on the fastener. Hexagon fasteners have 6
sides, or points, and are the most popular.

Open end.
This type of wrench is used for turning fasteners in locations where a box end
wrench cannot encompass the fastener.

Combination
A combination wrench has ends that perform specific tasks. One end may be open
and the other closed, one may be offset and the other straight, or the two ends
might be of fractionally different sizes.

Adjustable
An adjustable wrench can be used on a variety of fastener sizes. The disadvantage
is that it is less stable than a fixed-size wrench and can easily injure you or damage
the fastener. An adjustable wrench should be used only if the correct size wrench
is not available.
Socket
Socket wrenches fit over the fastener, making removal easier and safer than with
other wrenches. Sockets come in standard and extended depth; extensions are
available to make removing fasteners easier. They are often purchased in sets by
drive size.

Allen
Called by the Allen brand name, these are used on fasteners with a hexagonal hole
in the head. Allen wrenches are available with L- or T-shape handles.

A well- conditioned wrench has a perfect jaw to fit on the bolt head or nut. Provides
a good grip when use.

Pliers
The primary purpose of the tool known as pliers is to
grip objects firmly. The objects can then be turned, bent,
or otherwise manipulated. Pliers have parallel handles,
a pivot where the handles join, and parallel jaws that
grasp the object. Special-use pliers may have additional
components and purposes, such as cutting pliers. Types
of pliers include engineer's pliers for gripping metal, flat-nosed pliers for grasping
smaller objects, electrician's pliers for gripping electrical wires, and round-nosed
pliers for bending wire into loops. The most common are slip-joint and plumber's
pliers, both with slip-joint adjustments to change the width of the jaw grip. In
addition, locking pliers, sometimes known by the Vice-Grip brand name, are
popular for firmly holding objects.

Slip-joint pliers allow you to grip objects of varying sizes

Lineman's pliers

Needle-nose pliers
Diagonal pliers

A plier in good condition has no deformations on its jaw and can provide good grip
while handling objects

Soldering Iron/Soldering Gun

A soldering iron / soldering gun is a device for applying
heat to melt solder for soldering two metal parts together.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an
insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by
passing a current, supplied through an electrical cord or a
battery, through a heating element.

For electrical work, wires are usually soldered to printed

circuit boards, other wires, or small terminals.
De-soldering tools
In electronics, de-soldering is the removal of solder
and components from a circuit
for troubleshooting and repair purposes. Electronic
components are often mounted on a circuit board and
it is usually desirable to avoid damaging the circuit
board, surrounding components, and the component
being removed.

De-soldering Braid

EQUIPMENT AND TESTING INSTRUMENTS Multi-meter or Multi-tester (VOM)

There are many types of and varieties of test and measuring

equipment that are now used in audio and video systems repair and
diagnosis.
Most instruments and equipment are used to measure DC voltage,
resistance, AC
voltage and DC current values. The most basic instrument that is still
commonly used is the VOM or multi-meter.

However there are types of instruments under the category of multi-

meters that are being used today because of their special functions
and high accuracy such as the DVOM (digital VOM).
 Signal Generator
This instrument provides sine waves, square waves
and triangular waves used
purposely to substitute signals as input for the
system.

Oscilloscopes
An oscilloscope, is fundamentally a voltmeter,
although it is a comparatively sophisticated type of
instrument that displays the variation of an AC
voltage in
time, it also shows instantaneous waveform values.
An oscilloscope indicates frequency values and can also be used for phase
measurements.

Modern oscilloscopes are designed to measure time intervals between chosen

points along the waveform.

TV PATTERN GENERATOR
A pattern generator produces audio / video signals, direct and with the RF
modulation, on the allocated T.V. Channel frequencies for alignment, testing and
servicing of T.V. receivers. The output signals is designed to simple patterns.
1. Chess board pattern
2. Horizontal bars
3. Vertical bars
4. Chess board patter at one corner
5. Cross hatched
6. Dot pattern
7. Pure white pattern
Block Diagram:

Switch mH Switch nV Output pattern

OFF OFF Pure white raster
OFF ON Horizontal bars
ON OFF Vertical bars
ON ON Cross hatch
Controls and specifications of pattern generator: Controls:
1. Line frequency
2. Video (amplitude) output
3. Power ON/OFF switch
4. FM socket
5. RF socket
6. Controls to change vertical and horizontal bars.
7. Pattern selector switch

Applications:

A. Checking line and frame time bar linearity

B. Checking picture height and width
C. Video IF checking
D. Adjustments of sound IF stage and checking
E. AGC section checking
F. Trouble shooting video amplifier and using variable video output. Procedure:
1. Connect the pattern generator to the T.V. receiver. Switch on the pattern
generator. Set the
2. T.V. receiver to the desired channel using band selector switch and channel
selector switch\
3. Band I - 2 to 4 channels
4. Band III - 5 to 12 channels
5. Observe the seven patterns on T.V. receiver and make necessary adjustments
in T.V. receiver

How to use a digital multi-meter

A part from amps, volts, and ohms, many DMMs can measure
parameters including frequency, capacitance, continuity, and
temperature...

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:

1. Turn the meter on

2. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because
there may be a number of different connections that can be used.
3. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement
to be made. When selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is above
that anticipated. The range on the DMM can then be reduced as necessary.
However by selecting a range that is too high, it prevents the meter being
overloaded.
4. Optimize the range for the best reading. If possible enable all the leading
digits to not read zero, and in this way the greatest number of significant digits
can be read.
5. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into
the voltage measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this
way if the meter is accidentally connected without thought for the range used,
there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it left set for
a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across
a high voltage point!
How to use an analogue multi-meter
 ... analogue multi-meters have been available for many years and they
are very flexible in their
operation....

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:

1. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because
there may be a number of different connections that can be used. Be sure to get
the right connections, and not put them into the ones for a low current
measurement if a high voltage measurement is to be made - this could damage the
multi-meter.
2. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to
be made. When selecting the range, ensure that the maximum for the particular
range chosen is above that anticipated. The range on the multi-meter can be
reduced later if necessary. However by selecting a range that is too high, it prevents
the meter being overloaded and any possible damage to the movement of the meter
itself.
3. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible adjust it so that the
maximum deflection of the meter can be gained. In this way the most accurate
reading will be gained.
4. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into
the voltage measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage position.
In this way if the meter is accidentally connected without thought for the range to
be used, there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it
left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across a high
voltage point!
Measuring voltage with a multi-meter

One the important measurements that it is possible to make with a multi-meter

(either and analog / analogue multi-meter) or a digital multi-meter is that of
voltage.

Voltage measurements look at the potential difference between two points. In other
words they look at the difference in electric the ground or zero volt line on a circuit.
However this does not mean that the voltage cannot be measured between any two
points.

When making a voltage measurement with a multi-meter, the first step is to switch
the multi-meter to the voltage ranges. It is best to select a range higher than the
expected voltage so that there is no chance of the meter being overloaded and
damaged. In addition to this check that the test leads are plugged into the correct
sockets. Many multi-meters have different sockets for different types of
measurement so it is worth checking the correct ones have been chosen before
making the measurement. Usually a meter will be provided with two leads, one
black, and the other red. The black one is normally taken as the negative one. It
is connected to the negative or "common" socket on the meter. The red one is
connected to the positive socket.

When making the measurement, the positive lead should be connected to terminal
which is expected to have the more positive voltage. If the leads are connected the
wrong way round a negative voltage will be displayed. This is acceptable for a
digital multi-meter (DMM) because it will just display a negative sign. However for
an analogue multi-meter, the meter needle will move backwards and hit a stop. If
at all possible it is best not to allow this to happen.

With the multi-meter connected, power can be applied to the circuit. The multi-
meter switches can then be changed to reduce the value of the range. This is done
until the largest deflection is seen on the meter without it going over the top of the
range. In this way the most accurate reading is obtained.

How to measure current

It is often necessary to know how to measure current using a multi-meter. Current
measurements are easy to make, but they are done in a slightly different way to
the way in which voltage and other measurements are made. However current
measurements often need to be made to find out whether a circuit is operating
correctly, or to discover other facts associated with its current consumption.

Current measurements can be made with a variety of test instruments, but the
most widely used pieces of test equipment for making current measurements is a
digital multi-meter. These items of test equipment are widely available and at very
reasonable prices.

Basics of current measurement

Current measurements are made in a different way to voltage and other
measurements. Current consists of a flow of electrons around a circuit, and it is
necessary to be able to monitor the overall flow of electrons. In very simple circuit
is shown below. In this there is a battery, a bulb which can be used as an
indicator
and a resistor. To change the level of current flowing in the circuit it is possible
to change the resistance, and the amount of current flowing can be gauged by
the brightness of the bulb.

A simple circuit in which to measure current

When using a multi-meter to measure current,
the only way that can be used to detect the level
of current flowing is to break into the circuit so
that the current passes through the meter.
Although this can be difficult at times, it is the
best option. A typical current measurement
can be made as shown below.

How to measure current using a multi-meter

From this it can be seen that the circuit in which the

current is flowing has to be broken and the multi-meter
inserted into the circuit. In some circuits where current
may often need to be measured, terminals with a
shorting link may be added to facilitate the current measurement.
In order that the multi-meter does not alter the operation of the circuit when it is
used to measure current, the resistance of the meter must be as low as possible.
For measurements of around an amp, the resistance of a meter should be much
less than an ohm. For example if a meter had a resistance of one ohm, and a
current of one amp was flowing, then it would develop a voltage of one volt across
it. For most measurements this would be unacceptably high. Therefore resistances
of meters used to measure current are normally very low.

How to measure current with an analogue multi-meter

It is quite easy to use an analogue meter to measure electrical current. There are
a few minor differences in way that current measurements are made, but the same
basic principles are used.

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:

1. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there
may be a number of different connections that can be used. Be sure to get the
right connections as there may be separate connections for very low or very high
current ranges.
2. Set switch to the correct measurement type (i.e. to measure current) and range
for the measurement to be made. When selecting the range, ensure that the
maximum for the particular range chosen is above that anticipated. The range on
the multi-meter can be reduced later if necessary. However by selecting a range
that is too high, it prevents the meter being overloaded and any possible damage
to the movement of the meter itself.
3. When taking the reading, optimize the range for the best reading. If possible
adjust it so that the maximum deflection of the meter can be gained. In this way
the most accurate reading will be gained.
4. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into
the voltage measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage position.
In this way if the meter is accidentally connected without thought for the range to
be used, there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it
left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across a high
voltage point!
How to measure current with a digital multi-meter
To measure current with a digital multi-meter it is possible to follow a few simple
steps:

1. Turn the meter on

2. Insert the probes into the correct connections - in many meters there are a
number of different connections for the probes. Often one labeled common into
which the black probe is normally placed. The other probe should be entered into
the correct socket for the current measurement to be made. Sometimes there is a
special connection for current measurements, and sometimes a separate one for
either low or high current measurements. Select the correct one for the current
measurement to be made.
3. Set main selector switch on the meter switch to the correct measurement type,
(i.e. current) and range for the measurement to be made. When selecting the range,
ensure that the maximum range is above the expected reading anticipated. The
range on the DMM can then be reduced as necessary. However by selecting a range
that is too high, it prevents the meter being overloaded.
4. When the measuring the current, optimize the range for the best reading. If
possible enable all the leading digits to not read zero, and in this way the greatest
number of significant digits can be read.
5. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into
the voltage measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this
way if the meter is accidentally connected without thought for the range used,
there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it left set for
a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across
a high voltage point!

Following these steps it is very easy to measure current using any digital multi-
meter.

How to measure resistance with a multi-meter

One important measurement that can be made with a multi-meter is a resistance
measurement. Not only can these be made to check the accuracy of a resistor, or
check it is functioning correctly, but resistance measurements can be required in
many other scenarios as well. It may be to measure the resistance of an unknown
conductor, or it may be to check for short circuits and open circuits. In fact there
are many instances where measuring resistance is of great interest and
importance. In all these cases a multi-meter is an ideal piece of test equipment for
measuring resistance

Basics of measuring resistance

When measuring resistance, all multi-meters use exactly the same principle
whether they are analogue multi-meters or digital multi-meters. In fact other forms
of test equipment that measure resistance also use the same basic principle.
The basic idea is that the multi-meter places a voltage at the two probes and this
will cause a current to flow in the item for which the resistance is being measured.
By measuring the resistance it is possible to determine the resistance between the
two probes of the multi-meter, or other item of test equipment.

How to measure resistance with an analogue multi-meter

Analogue multi-meters are good at measuring resistance, although they are a few
points to note about the way in which it is done. The first point to note is that as
the meter itself responds to current flowing through the component under test, a
high resistance which corresponds to a low current appears on the left hand side
of the dial, and a low resistance which corresponds to a higher current appears on
the right hand side of the dial as shown below. It will also be noticed that the
calibrations become much closer together as the resistance becomes higher, i.e.
on the left hand side of the dial.
Another aspect of using an analogue multi-meter for measuring resistance is that
the meter needs to be "zero'ed" before making a measurement. This is done by
connecting the two probes together so that there is a short circuit, and then using
the "zero" control to give full scale deflection on the meter, i.e. zero ohms. Each
time the range is changed, the meter needs to be zero'ed as the position may
change from one range to the next. The meter needs to be zero'ed because the full
scale deflection will change according to aspects such as the state of the battery.

There are a few simple steps required to make a resistance measurement with an
analogue multi-meter:

1. Select the item to be measured: This may be anything where the resistance
needs to be measured and estimate what the resistance may be. 2. Insert the
probes into the required sockets Often a multi-meter will have several sockets for
the test probes. Insert these or check they are already in the correct sockets.
Typically these might be labeled COM for common and the other where the ohms
sign is visible. This is normally combined with the voltage measurement socket.
2. Select the required range The analogue multi-meter needs on and the required
range selected. The range selected should be such that the best reading can be
obtained. Normally the multi-meter function switch will be labeled with the
maximum resistance reading. Choose the one where the estimated value of
resistance will be under but close to the maximum of the range. In this way the
most accurate resistance measurement can be made.
3. Zero the meter: The meter needs to be zero'ed. This is done by firmly placing the
two probes together to give a short circuit and then adjusting the zero control to
give a zero ohms (full scale deflection) reading. This process needs to be repeated
if the range is changed.
4. Make the measurement with the multi-meter ready to make the measurement
the probes can be applied to the item that needs to be measured. The range can
be adjusted if necessary.
5. Turn off the multi-meter once the resistance measurement has been made, it is
wise to turn the function switch to a high voltage range. In this way if the multi-
meter is used to again for another type of reading then no damage will be caused
if it is inadvertently used without selecting the correct range and function.

Analogue multi-meters are ideal pieces of test equipment for measuring resistance.
They are relatively cheap and they offer a reasonably good level of accuracy and
general performance. They normally provide a level of accuracy that is more than
sufficient for most jobs.

How to measure resistance with a digital multi-meter, DMM

Measuring resistance with a digital multi-meter is easier and faster than making
a resistance measurement with an analogue multi-meter as there is no need to
zero the meter. As the digital multi-meter gives a direct reading of the resistance
measurement, there is also no equivalent of the reverse reading found on the
analogue multi-meters.

There are a few simple steps required to make a resistance measurement with a
digital multi-meter:
1. Select the item to be measured: This may be anything where the resistance
needs to be measured and estimate what the resistance may be.
2. Insert the probes into the required sockets often a digital multi-meter will have
several sockets for the test probes. Insert these or check they are already in the
correct sockets. Typically these might be labeled COM for common and the other
where the ohms sign is visible. This is normally combined with the voltage
measurement socket.
3. Turn on the multi-meter 4. Select the required range the digital multi-meter
needs on and the required range selected. The range selected should be such that
the best reading can be obtained. Normally the multi-meter function switch will
be labeled with the maximum resistance reading. Choose the one where the
estimated value of resistance will be under but close to the maximum of the range.
In this way the most accurate resistance measurement can be made.
4. Make the measurement with the multi-meter ready to make the measurement
the probes can be applied to the item that needs to be measured. The range can
be adjusted if necessary.
5. Turn off the multi-meter once the resistance measurement has been made, the
multi-meter can be turned off to preserve the batteries. It is also wise to turn the
function switch to a high voltage range. In this way if the multi-meter is used to
again for another type of reading then no damage will be caused if it is
inadvertently used without selecting the correct range and function.
Digital multi-meters are ideal pieces of test equipment for measuring resistance.
They are relatively cheap and they offer a high level of accuracy and general
performance. General precautions when measuring resistance
As with any measurement, when measuring resistance, there are some
precautions to observe. In this way damage to the multi-meter can be prevented,
and more accurate measurements can be made.
* Measure resistance when components are not connected in a circuit: It is always
advisable not to measure the resistance of an item that is in a circuit. It is always
best to make the measurement of the component on its own out of the circuit. If a
measurement is made in-circuit, then all the other components around it will have
an effect. Any other paths that will allow current to pass will affect the readings,
making them inaccurate to some degree.
* Remember to ensure the circuit under test is not powered on under some
circumstances it is necessary to measure resistance values actually on a circuit.
When doing this it is very important to ensure the circuit is not powered on. Not
only will any current flowing in the circuit invalidate any readings, but should the
voltage be high enough, the current resulting could damage the multi-meter.
* Ensure capacitors in a circuit under test are discharged. Again when measuring
resistance values in a circuit, it is necessary to ensure that any capacitors in the
circuit are discharged. Any current that flows as a result of them will cause the
meter reading to be altered. Also any capacitors in the circuit that are discharged
may charge up as a result of the current from the multi-meter and as a result it
may take a short while for the reading to settle.
* Remember diodes in a circuit will cause different readings in either direction
When measuring resistance in a circuit that includes diodes the value measured
will be different if the connections are reversed. This is because the diodes only
conduct in one direction.
* Leakage path through fingers can alter readings in some cases. When making
some resistance measurements it is necessary to hold a resistor or component
onto
the multi-meter test probe. If high resistance measurements are being made
the leakage path through the fingers can become noticeable. Under some
circumstances the resistance path through fingers can be measured at just
a few megohms, and as a result this can become significant. Fortunately the
levels of voltage used in most multi-meters when measuring resistance is
low, but some specialized meters may use much higher voltages. It is wise to
check