The Right Tree

This Urban Tree Manual provides advice on selecting and procuring

the right tree1 for the right place in urban areas. For the purposes of
this manual urban areas are defined as places in and around where
people live and work. The manual also highlights long term issues

in the Right Place of the threats to existing trees from pests, disease and climate
change, and describes the benefits to the environment
and for well-being that urban trees can provide.

for a Resilient Future The Manual is not intended as an exhaustive compendium on tree
selection, aftercare and management. Instead, it presents current
thinking on these matters and provides valuable sign posting to
further relevant information.
Urban tree manual foreword
Sir William Worsley,
Tree Champion
My role as the country’s Tree Champion is to advocate for trees everywhere, from I would like to thank the authors who came together to write this manual.
the rural upland forests to those in and around our towns and cities. This is why Arboricultural expertise is invaluable in planning for and delivering green
we are committed to planting one million trees in our towns and cities and eleven infrastructure. I am grateful to the experts who have contributed their time and
million trees nationally. This commitment stands alongside our ambitious 25 Year experience over the past few months. I hope the hard work that went into creating
Environment Plan, which will see us strive to ensure we leave this environment in a this manual will result in improved practice in tree planting and establishment
better state for the next generation. across the country, and ensure that our invaluable trees are preserved now –
Urban trees bring about many benefits for people living in our cities and towns. and for future generations.
They improve health and wellbeing, they encourage outdoor activity, they absorb
noise and they reduce temperatures through shading. Underpinning these benefits
is a key requirement: that the right tree is planted in the right place.
This manual sets out best practice for this decision-making process. It is intended
for anyone looking to plant a tree in the urban environment, ranging from Local
Authorities to community groups. Many local authorities and other organisations
are taking on new projects for urban tree planting and management. For example
in the past year, the Mersey Forest has co-ordinated the planting of over 66,000
trees in Community Forests across England as part of Defra’s Trees for Learning
programme, ensuring the next generation values trees as key parts of our urban
environment
Successful establishment of urban trees requires a series of informed decisions,
from choosing the best site, to selecting the best species, to maintaining young
trees and protecting them from biosecurity threats. Our treasured trees are under
threat from an increasing number of pests and diseases, and as our climate changes
these threats will increase with pressures such as drought or extreme temperatures. Sir William Worsley, Tree Champion

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The Manual is useful for anyone
1
involved in planting trees in towns and cities.

Section 1 Location Section 6 Planting and Establishment

Choosing the site, and assessment of constraints Ground preparation, production system choice, mulching,
weeding, watering, formative pruning
Section 2 Tree Selection
Decision support and thinking long term
Section 7 Pests and Diseases
Threats, signs, symptoms and management solutions
Section 3 Ecosystem Services
The benefits of trees
Section 8 Tree Retention and Removal
Transparent decision making and effective and timely consultation
Section 4 Biodiversity
Tree selection to enhance and support biodiversity
Section 9 Appendix
Further reading and reference materials
Section 5 Procurement
Contract growing, and procurement policies and standards

1 This manual avoids using the term “species” to denote different types of tree. The many hundreds of types of trees available
3
(as described in Section 4: Biodiversity) mean “species” is too narrow a term to encompass all the various attributes and
characteristics of trees used today in urban tree planting.
Section 1 Location
Choosing the site and assessment of constraints

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 The Site
The first step when planning to plant a tree is identifying the planting However, many other human-made services, infrastructure and land uses
location. This will determine what attributes the selected tree compete with trees for the same space, both above and below ground,
must have and influences all subsequent decisions. This decision ultimately including underground and overhead utility services, highway sightlines,
determines whether the tree will thrive and fulfil its true potential and interaction with road and footway kerb edging, paving or nearby property
provide all its possible benefits. Tree planting locations should always be one and its foundations. This can determine how well the planted tree fits into
of the first and most important decisions when considering space allocation the chosen environment and what management actions will be required
in the built environment. to ensure a trouble free life for the tree and its neighbours. Obtaining
professional advice and the permission of the local tree officer (for planting
The urban context is a very cluttered environment. This means that choosing on public land) is essential. Obtaining the advice of an arboricultural
a planting site in an urban area can be fraught with problems. There is the consultant (for planting on private land) is also recommended when
general view that tree roots damage utility services, intact water pipes in considering these first steps.
particular, but there is no research to support this.

The Soil
Understanding what type of soil is present at your chosen planting site is the natural settings. They are called ‘made ground’ and are a mixture of material
second step in deciding what type of tree is best suited to the location. One that has accumulated in place as a result of human activity over many
way of doing this is to observe the local area and see what types of trees or years. They may be lacking in structure, nutrients and organic matter, have
plants are doing well locally and what trees are absent, especially if you can high levels of acidity or alkalinity or be contaminated from salt spreading
identify trees that are self-seeded rather than being planted. or previous industrial or other human activity. They may also be bacteria
dominant rather than fungal dominant which can present a problem for
Most soils in urban areas are not true soils in the scientific sense. They do newly planted trees. (see Section 6: Planting and Establishment).
not have the same structure and profile as natural soils found in rural or

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Soil Permeability and Compaction These constraints are generally relevant to pre-existing locations, where
choosing the right tree for the right place is the rule. New developments present
Permeable soils drain freely and permit air and water movement to and around the an opportunity to create the right place for the right tree. In this context the
root system. Some ecosystem service benefits depend strongly on the structure of engineering and landscape design should accommodate trees of stature that can
the ground in which the trees are growing. provide the most benefits to the urban environment and the people who live and
Trees grow most successfully in uncompacted soils. Compaction in certain types of work there.
soil, sometimes described as ‘panning’, will inhibit the movement of air and water The location of existing trees may already suggest the right trees in the right place.
in the immediate vicinity of a tree’s root plate. This can create conditions within the
soil that are disadvantageous for root growth. In extreme circumstances this can
lead to the death of the tree. Fine roots in particular are affected.

If soil compaction is suspected at a planting location some form of de-compaction References

process such as high pressure air injection should be used. This is particularly
• British Standard (2014)
relevant on development sites where vehicles or materials have been used or
BS 8545:2014 Trees :
stored on site prior to planting. There are many organisations that provide From nursery to independence in the landscape - recommendations
accredited soil testing.
• Craul,. P.J. (1992)
Urban Soil in Landscape Design, Wiley.

• Trees and Design Action Group (2014)

Constraints and Opportunities Trees in Hard Landscapes: A Guide for Delivery

• Trees and Design Action Group (2018)

The constraints of the planting location will also inform the choice of tree. Trees, Planning and Development
Constraints may be so extensive as to dictate that the site is not suitable for • Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (2006)
tree planting, for example where there are other nature or heritage conservation Tree Roots in the Built Environment,
considerations and specialist archaeologist, ecologist or nature conservation advice TSO. National Joint Utilities Group (2004)
is required. Other considerations may include drainage and other environmental NJUG Guidelines for the planning, installation
factors such as shading from nearby buildings, or urban micro-climates creating and maintenance of utility
apparatus in proximity to trees.
frost hollows and sun or heat traps.
• NJUG Volume 4 (2007)

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Case study –
Good Practice Tree Planting
The regeneration of the East London landscape for the London 2012 Games
involved the planting of many thousands of standard, semi-mature and mature
trees. They were planted within the park itself and around the hard landscaping of
the games’ venues and access infrastructure.

Planting trees in the hard landscaping was especially challenging due to the poor
nature of the soils and the need to ensure the survival and longevity of the trees.
They were predominantly chosen to be climate change resilient in line with the
advice available on The Right Trees for Changing Climate website. Around the
venues some of the larger trees planted had specially constructed voids created
to provide sufficient soil rooting volumes for the trees’ future growth. These
voids provided aerated, moist good quality soil without compromising the load-
bearing integrity of the supported surface above, allowing the passing of vehicles
and pedestrians above the tree’s roots without any of the negative effects usually
associated with high levels of pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

Photo credit: Jim Smith, Forestry Commission

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 Tree Selection
Many factors must be considered if a tree is to establish, be healthy,
Section 2 grow to its full potential and offer optimal benefits for the location.
These ‘selection criteria’ define the tolerances and qualities that the
tree must meet. Carefully defining these criteria will help ensure an
Decision support and thinking long term optimal tree selection for the location.

The Selection Criteria can be grouped under four headings:

• Tree suitability: for example site category and substrate
availability (see Section 1: Location), tree characteristics,
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growth requirements and constraints
• Ecosystem services delivery: such as amenity values,
shading and supporting wildlife
(see Section 3: Ecosystem Services)
• Disservices: the unintended problems of some species
including high pollen production, proliferation of fruit,
raised roots or a degradation in air quality
(see Section 3: Ecosystem Services)
• Climate change resilience: for example tolerance to
drought, frost hardiness, temporary water logging,
response to elevated air temperatures and shortened
winter dormancy, and pests and diseases
(see Section 7: Pests and Diseases).

Tree selection will be driven by identifying which selection criteria

are pertinent to the planting location and collating all relevant
information. Once the selection criteria have been identified there
are a number of databases, decision support systems and guides
available that are useful in searching for the right tree. Some of
these are presented in Table 1.
Table 1

Searchable databases

Reference and Source Notes

Right Trees for a Changing Climate (UK) Focuses on tree species suitable for the UK and on the effect of a changing climate.
Does not have options to select by pest/disease risk or ecosystem service delivery.

RHS (UK) Detailed information and advice on species suitable for the UK, including pest and diseases risks, maintenance required and a list of
https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/trees potential suppliers. Focuses on private gardens rather than public land (e.g. stating when good for smaller areas) though will return
https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/advice-search
results for taller trees where height is specified in search criteria.

Citree (Germany) European database: multiple criteria to guide species selection including natural distribution, site characteristics, appearance,
management requirements, ecosystem services and disservices. Species list not restricted to UK suitability.

SelecTree (USA) Approximately 40 selection criteria divided into tree characteristics, site conditions, pest & disease information,
health, safety & environmental concerns, special uses. Species list is not restricted to UK suitability.

i-Tree species (USA) Tool to select species according to a particular ecosystem service rating, hardiness zone or height. Also features pest risk.
Based on American context2, though allows UK regions to be selected.

Woody Plants database (USA) Provides information on species, cultivars, ornamental and environmental characteristics, moisture tolerance, and pest and
disease risk. Species list is not restricted to UK suitability.

PLANTS Database (USA) Provides information on the US distribution for different forms of plants, including many species of trees. Some species have
Natural Resources Conservation Service associated plant guide sheets with information on ecology, physiology, management and suitability for use.
Species list is not restricted to UK suitability.

Hirons, A. and Sjöman, H. (2018). UK centric database presenting information on tree characteristics, natural habitat, environmental tolerances, ornamental qualities,
Tree Species Selection for Green Infrastructure: A Guide for Specifiers, TDAG. issues to be aware of and use potential.

International Dendrology Society (UK) Information on trees and shrubs based on descriptions supplied in two books:
- Grimshaw J., Bayton, R. (2009) New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation. Kew Publishing.
- Bean, W. J. (1976) Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. 8th Edition.

Decision Support Systems

Reference (and Source) Notes
Trees4Future (EU) Climate matching tool: identifies parts of Europe that currently experience the climate that a ‘location’ is forecast to experience in the 2050s or 2080s under different Special
Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) scenarios.

9 2 Some species planted in the UK may not appear in the generated short-lists; likewise some shortlisted
species may not be available in the UK.
 Section 3 Ecosystem Services
The benefits of trees

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Ecosystem services are the benefits provided to society by the

natural environment that can be priced into economic calculations.
Ecosystem service calculations clarify how nature fits into our
market economy and so can help to justify spending decisions, but
they are not intended to capture the full depth of our spiritual and
cultural connections to nature.

In urban areas, trees provide a range of different ecosystem

services that improve human health and wellbeing. For example
they can reduce surface temperatures by shading and through
evapotranspiration, improve water quality (when
planted in catchments supplying urban areas), contribute to
sustainable urban drainage, provide habitats for wildlife, create
wind breaks, reduce traffic noise, and enhance air quality under
certain circumstances.

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Air Quality
Air quality refers to the amount of harmful air pollutants which people are exposed How trees affect air quality
to from outside air. Poor air quality is the biggest environmental public health risk
Urban air quality in the UK is most affected by road traffic emissions producing NO2
globally, and brings forward an estimated 50,000 deaths in the UK each year.
and PM. Commercial food cooking and wood-fuel stoves are also significant sources
In UK urban areas, the pollutants currently associated most often with deterioration of PM in some areas.
of air quality are nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and microscopic airborne particles (PM)3.
A simple and effective way to think strategically about air quality management is
In extended periods of very warm weather, air quality can deteriorate due to the
Reduce, Extend, Protect. The simplest and best way to improve air quality is to plan
production of ground level ozone (O3).
urban places to reduce sources of pollution. Green infrastructure4 can help reduce
A related problem associated with plants (including trees) and not usually pollution by providing welcoming spaces through which people will prefer to walk
considered with the more conventional pollutants is the production and or cycle rather than drive. Where reduce is not possible, some improvements can be
atmospheric transport of allergenic pollen. made from modifications to the urban environment, including the number, size, and
Because it is not harmful to humans at the concentrations in the atmosphere, position of urban trees and hedges. These improvements are aimed at extending
carbon dioxide (CO2) is not usually considered in air quality discussions. Trees, like the distance between the pollution source and people or providing protective green
all plants, absorb CO2 during photosynthesis. Globally, plants absorb 25-30% of oases that absorb pollution.
the CO2 emitted by burning fossil fuels and by deforestation. However, the carbon Guidelines from the National Institute of Clinical Excellence provide evidenced
stored in an urban forest is typically only 2-3 weeks of the fossil fuel emissions of options for air quality improvement, including a role for green infrastructure.
that city, and so makes a negligible contribution to carbon offsetting at a city scale.
Trees absorb some gases, including NO2, as a by-product of photosynthesis.
Trees remove PM from air by acting as a kind of filter. By absorbing gases and PM,
trees always reduce the overall burden of pollution in the air, but air quality in any
particular place depends on the balance of emissions, ventilation or dispersion
by air flow, and absorption or deposition on surfaces like leaves. When emissions
dominate over dispersion and absorption, pollution concentrations can exceed
government-defined thresholds.

3 When their abundance is measured as a mass concentration of particles below a specified diameter (in micrometers),
the concentrations of microscopic particles are referred to as PM10, PM2.5, etc. For the very smallest particles, down
to a few nanometres in diameter, the number concentration is more meaningful, and this measure is often referred to
as the ultrafine particle concentration (UFP). 4 Green infrastructure is the totality of urban vegetation, blue and green space in an area, and incorporates the urban forest.

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Guidelines and tools exist to calculate the improvement trees can make to the Absorption of gaseous pollutants usually requires leaf-gas exchange (‘leaf stomatal
overall pollution burden. conductance’) so trees must be healthily photosynthesising rather than stressed.
The resilience of planted trees therefore needs to be considered, for example
Complicated, and therefore expensive, modelling studies are so far the only way
tolerance to pollution, drought and urban heat.
to estimate the impact of trees on air quality in a particular neighbourhood or the
impact of large-scale planting on ozone episodes. However three general rules of The allergenicity and season for common trees and crops varies. Maintaining
thumb can provide guidance: diversity of species and tree gender are the simplest strategies for controlling
pollen from urban trees. Guidelines have been produced for the
reduction of urban pollen counts.

1. 2. 3.
Planting a dense A dense canopy Enhancing the
canopy to extend the enclosing people ‘crinkliness’ of the
separation between and sources of pollution grey and green urban
people and the sources of (e.g. traffic) will tend to surfaces (i.e. aerodynamic
pollution will always result increase air pollution roughness and land-use
in improved air quality concentrations heterogeneity) stirs the
below the canopy air and so disperses
pollution

Favourable plant traits for improving air quality

The plant traits which can be linked with better particulate capture include:
• Being in leaf year round
• Large canopy leaf area
• A high canopy density that is still porous enough to allow air
movement through it
• Wrinkled leaf surface, the presence of micro-roughness, veins or hairs

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Case study –
Valuing Ecosystem Services of Trees
To fully appreciate the benefit of the ecosystem services provided by trees, it
helps to understand their value. This value can be calculated through assessing
the whole tree population in a town, which can also help uncover and address
other strategic issues such as resilience of the urban trees. A number of tools are
available, including ‘i-Tree Eco’. Application of the ‘i-Tree Eco’ tool in Petersfield town
revealed that their trees provide environmental services valued at £75,000 each
year. However, it also revealed that the population is dominated by several tree
species which are very vulnerable to devastating pests and diseases. Decisions are
now being made on which species to plant for a more diverse population, safe in the
knowledge that the financial investment will yield an economic as well as a social
return associated with high levels of pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

Photo credit: Andy Moffat

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 • (2016) Landscape Institute
Shading and Cooling Case study: Eastern Curve

• (2014) TDAG
Trees can actively reduce temperatures in urban areas through a combination of Trees in Hard Landscapes: A Guide for Delivery
shading and evapotranspiration (i.e. use of sunshine to evaporate water). The larger • European Commission (2011)
the tree canopy and the denser the shade, the greater the effect. Tree canopy Measures to reduce the urban pollen count
cover is also more effective than other green infrastructure for reducing overall
• UK National Ecosystem Assessment (2011)
temperatures in towns and cities. This shading and cooling constitutes an important The UK National Ecosystem Assessment
direct climate adaptation mechanism.
• Davies, H et al (2017)
Practical guidance for the UK on how to select trees for cooling potential is available Delivery of ecosystem services by urban forests , Forest Research

The Disservices of Trees See also academic research papers at:

Urban trees can also cause disservices such as excessive fruit fall on pavements or • Effectiveness of green infrastructure for improvement of air
vehicles, honeydew sap on parked vehicles or ornamental plants and shrubs, direct quality in urban street canyons
or indirect damage to property, or excessive shading caused by dense high hedges. • Computational Fluid Dynamics Air Pollution Dispersion Modeller
These disservices can be completely avoided by careful and considered species • Development and application of an urban tree air quality score for photochemical
selection or regular maintenance. pollution episodes using the Birmingham, United Kingdom, area as a case study

(see Section 1: Location and Section 2: Tree Selection). • First steps in air quality for built environment practitioners

• Green infrastructure and ecosystem services - is the devil in the detail?

• Air pollution abatement performances of green infrastructure in open road

and built-up street canyon environments - a review
References
• Urban green zones and related pollen allergy: a review.
• Woodland Trust (2012) Some guidelines for designing spaces with low allergy impact
Urban Air Quality – how trees can improve air quality
• Air temperature regulation by trees and green infrastructure
• iTree: tools for assessing and managing forests and community trees

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 Section 4 Biodiversity
Tree selection to enhance and support biodiversity

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Trees support biodiversity across a wide range of functional

groups, including epiphytes, herbivores, predators and omnivores.
They provide structure (cover, shelter, roosting and nesting sites)
and food resources for vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi, lichens
and other organisms. The number of insect species associated
with trees in Britain generally increases with host tree abundance,
and depends on the number of years a tree type has been present
in Britain and whether or not it is evergreen or coniferous. Other
contributing factors to the species-richness of insects on trees
include time of year, leaf size, tree height, tree age, size and
structure and the environment they are planted in.
Biodiversity Benefits of Trees
All trees support biodiversity and urban trees have considerable potential to In urban gardens the best way to enhance invertebrate abundance in the
sustain and enhance urban biodiversity and to help reduce biodiversity loss. widest possible range of invertebrate taxa is to plant a tree (regardless of
If trees are being planted to maximise biodiversity, then the longer a tree tree species). This may be due to the amount of foliage that a tree provides:
species has been present in the British Isles the wider the range of other the more plant matter the more invertebrates are supported.
species it can support. For example trees such as native oaks and willows
support the greatest number of species at over 400 species each, whereas
introduced species such as Persian Walnut and Holm oak support far fewer
species. This is supported by a study of urban trees in Bracknell which
found that the number of native trees correlated with higher abundance of
true bugs (Hemiptera) and birds.

Biodiversity loss and invasive trees

Invasive plant species are recognised as a major direct and indirect driver However in urban centres cultivars have and will continue to play an
of biodiversity loss across the globe. The disruption of an ecosystem from important role in contributing to diverse and resilient tree populations.
invasive trees may cause economic or environmental harm, adversely The key is to select the right tree for the right place whilst not adversely
affect human health or impact adversely upon biodiversity, including the impacting on biodiversity.
decline or elimination of native species (through competition, predation,
or transmission of pathogens) and the disruption of local ecosystems and
ecosystem functions.

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Cultivated Plant Genetic Diversity Cultivated Plant Genetic Diversity
The UK has a rich cultivated plant diversity (circa 400,000 species, varieties and Growing and conserving a wide range of native and cultivated plant genetic diversity
forms) all originating from, or derived from, wild collected material, and there in urban landscapes helps to build resilience to climate change, and maintains
are hundreds of types of trees cultivated in the UK. This diversity is of significant diversity to select and breed from for resistance against pests and diseases, for
human, conservation and scientific value. example resistant elms. It may also serve to provide conservation refuges for
vulnerable plant species in the wild (e.g. Monkey Puzzle tree). Furthermore, as new
Planting trees of all the same type can limit biodiversity and present biosecurity
knowledge arises it provides new uses for tree diversity that improve well-being and
issues for resilience. Some trees may be genetically identical, with large populations
the urban environment.
of the same clone potentially more vulnerable to pests and diseases.
Planting a wide diversity within urban landscapes further supports the delivery of
the Convention on Biological Diversity Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020,
including Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

In seeking to avoid monocultures or over reliance on a few particular types of tree

urban foresters frequently apply the 10, 20, 30 Rule. This Rule states that the target
for an urban tree population should be to have no more than 10% of a particular
Species, no more than 20% of a particular Genus and no more than 30% of a
particular Family. This rule helps to build resilience into the urban forest.

(See reference to The Tree Health Resilience Strategy in Section 5: Procurement)

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References See also academic research papers at:
• IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Invasive Species Specialist Group • Alexander, A., Butler, J. and Green, T. (2006) British Wildlife 18(1): 18 - 28
(ISSG), namely the IUCN Global Invasive Species Database • Alvey A.A (2006) Promoting and preserving biodiversity in the
• The Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species urban forest Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 5:195–201.

• European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) • Alvin J. Helden, Gemma C. Stamp and Simon R. Leather (2012)
list of invasive plants species Urban biodiversity: comparison of insect assemblages on native and
non-native trees. Urban Ecosyst 15:611–624
• European Network on Invasive Alien Species NOBANIS
• Kennedy C.E.J., Southwood T.R.E. (1984) The number of insects associated
• Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe DAISIE
with British trees: a re-analysis. J Anim Ecol 53:455–478
• The GB non-native species secretariat NNSS
• Helden A.J., Stamp G.C., Leather SR (2012)
• Non-native Species Information Portal Urban biodiversity: comparison of insect assemblages on native and
• Trees and Shrubs On-line non-native trees. Urban Ecosyst 15:611–624
incorporates Bean’s Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles and • Linda Chalker-Scott (2015)
New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation Non-native, non-invasive woody species can enhance urban landscape
• The Hillier Manual of Trees and Shrubs (2014) 8th Revised edition biodiversity. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 41:4

• The Royal Horticultural Society Plant Finder (2017) • Salisbury A., Al-Beidh S., Armitage J., Bird S., Bostock H., Platoni A., Tatchell M,
Thompson K. and Perry J. (2017)
• Santamour, F.S. (1990) Trees for urban planting: Diversity, uniformity
Enhancing gardens as habitats for plant-associated invertebrates: should we
and common sense, in: Proceedings of the Conference Metropolitan Tree
plant native or exotic species? Biodiversity and Conservation. 26: 2657-2673
Improvement Alliance (METRIA). pp. 57–65.
• Smith R.M., Gaston K.J., Warren P.H., Thompson K. (2006)
Urban domestic gardens (VIII): environmental correlates of
invertebrate abundance. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:2515–2545

• Southwood, T.R.E. (1961)

The numbers of species of insect associated with various trees.
J. Animal Ecology 30: 1-8.

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Section 5 Procurement
Contract growing, procurement policies and standards

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Trees should not be considered an off-the-shelf item. Several of the

long term challenges to urban trees continuing to survive and thrive
for the benefit of future generations demand a response from the
tree consumer and supply chain.
Contract Growing Procurement Policies
The largest purchasers of standard trees for urban tree planting in England All large organisations have procurement policies that are based on financial
are local authorities, government agencies and the development sector. probity, support headline policies and strategies (such as tree policies and tree
and woodland strategies), and fulfil Corporate Social Responsibility objectives. The
Traditionally they have been passive consumers of what tree nurseries are able
following considerations should also built-in as conditions of procurement, either
to supply both from home and abroad. Decisions on tree selection, tree size
singly or in combination.
and production system used (principally bare root, rootballed, containerized or
container-grown systems) are usually taken by the purchasing authority and Biosecurity
are to a certain extent driven by what is available at the time. The primary driver for including biosecurity in procurement policy is to prevent the
Production lead time is a significant barrier for suppliers providing transmission of pests and diseases due to transportation of tree stock, specifically
‘future proofed’ trees. transportation without adequate oversight or an effective audit trail attributing
ownership and a chain of custody from seed to planted tree at its final destination.
As significant players in a market-driven economy, the major purchasing
(see Section 7: Pests and Diseases).
organisations could use their combined purchasing power to instigate change.
Procurement policy should favour:
Considerations such as the delivery of ecosystem services (see Section 3:
• Trees grown from seed in the UK, or those subject to a period of isolation for
Ecosystem Services), genetic diversity (see Section 4: Biodiversity) and biosecurity
one full growing season following importation from abroad. Trees should not
(see Section 7: Pests and Diseases) can be allied to specified contract growing and
be imported and planted directly into an environmental setting.
taken into account when either purchasing trees or specifying supply contracts.
• Contract growing of stock wherever possible
Similarly strategic (national and regional) policy can inform and direct local policy. • Suppliers that are able to demonstrate a supply chain audit trail
Local authority policies and tree and woodland strategies should be integrated (for example, are part of a recognised Plant Health Assurance scheme) that
into Strategic, Local and Neighbourhood Plans and detail can be provided through ensures plant material sourced within the UK is under a regime of
Supplementary Planning Documents. Implementation of policy through contract biosecurity-aware production and following nationally agreed good
preparation and specification together with contract growing should be a priority, practice guidelines
referencing good practice guidelines and relevant British Standards. • Suppliers that demonstrate a combination of all of the above.

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Procurement Policies
Ecosystem Services Procurement policy should favour:
Procurement policy should: • Trees identified as being resilient and adaptable to the range of circumstances
• Favour planting trees that have low pollen loads near highly vulnerable sites expected in urban areas as a consequence of climate change
such as schools, hospitals care homes etc. • Planting a wide range of trees and plant material sources that increase
• Avoid planting trees with high allergenic potential near highly vulnerable genetic diversity. Avoid weighting tree planting towards more than 20% of
sites such as schools, hospitals, care homes etc. Diversity of population the same species in a single scheme whilst relating this decision to the
(tree type and gender) is the simplest approach to limiting the impacts of population species mix as a whole.
trees with high pollen loads or allergenic potential See also Section 4: Biodiversity.
• Favour trees with attributes known for filtering PM10 and PM2.5
The above notwithstanding, procurement policy should also acknowledge that:
• Favour trees with attributes known for extracting gaseous pollutants.
• Limiting choice based on ecosystem service or disservice provision alone is
See also Section 3: Ecosystem Services.
not compatible with creating tree population diversity for resilience
• Tree selection should be tailored to local site conditions.
Sourcing a Healthy Tree
Procurement policy should follow the recommendations in
Section 8 of BS 8545 Trees:
From nursery to independence in the landscape (2014) to ensure the purchase References
of a healthy tree. An Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) Notification is
required on all imports of restricted and prohibited species either pre-import or • (2012) TDAG Trees in the Townscape: A Guide for Decision Makers
within 5 days of landing. See APHA notification information at the .gov website
• (2014) TDAG Trees in Hard Landscapes: A Guide for Delivery
for more details.
• British Standards Institute (2014), BS 8545:2014 Trees: from nursery
to independence in the landscape
Resilience including climate adaptation
Our trees are facing a range of threats, from changing climatic conditions to • (2013) The Big Tree Plant Working Group
The Barriers and Drivers to Planting and Retaining Urban trees
novel pests and diseases. When planting or managing trees, it is important that
procurement policy should consider both tree diversity and genetic variation as this • Defra (2018)
Tree Health Resilience Strategy
can help the treescape to survive and adapt to future threats.

21
Section 6 Planting and Establishment
Ground preparation, production system choice,
mulching, weeding, watering, formative pruning
Back to contents

The level of intervention required when planting and then

maintaining a tree is a matter of professional judgement,
and many larger schemes fail because of insufficient follow
up care and maintenance.

This can happen through a lack of dedicated resources, a conflict

of priorities or not appreciating the importance of aftercare in
the establishment of young newly planted trees. The advice of an
expert should be obtained to ensure the investment is not
wasted due to lack of adequate maintenance.
 Ground preparation
When planting a tree, it is usually necessary to undertake some establishment. In certain clay soil types it may be more complicated and
ground preparation when digging the planting pit to assist in the tree’s involve scarifying the top edges (but not the base) of the pit to avoid the
establishment. Often the simplest approach is the most effective if the tree’s roots girdling the pit. Most often it involves adapting the make-up
tree’s basic physiological needs (water, an aerated root system, of the backfilled soil with a top-soil/organic matter mix, and the fitting of
sunlight and access to nutrients) are met. a watering pipe or above ground slow release water bag. On larger sites a
subterranean void filled with soil mix using a cellular block system may need
The type of preparation required will be informed by the type of production
to be constructed to ensure sufficient rooting volume for the mature size of
system chosen. It may simply be ensuring that the volume of the tree pit
the chosen species of tree. Air vents and irrigation pipes will further ensure
can accommodate the roots of the tree, with some space for backfilled
that the tree’s roots have access to adequate water and oxygen.
soil to encourage initial growth of the small fibrous roots important for

Tree production systems and planting

The type of tree production system chosen determines how the containerized. Deciduous trees by contrast, when dormant, are readily lifted
tree will be planted. The four main production systems are: and can be transplanted and supplied easily as bare root and rootballed, as
well as containerized or container grown. Choosing which system to use is
• Rootballed
also heavily dependent on site and aftercare considerations for the tree’s
• Bare root
long term survival. The chosen system will determine which staking or
• Container grown
underground guying method needs to be used to secure the tree in place
• Containerized.
prior to the establishment of a stable and independently supportive root
Each system has advantages and disadvantages, and due to physiological system. Expert advice should therefore be sought prior to opting for one
factors some species of tree are more readily provided by one system than system or another. Avoiding ground settlement after planting will ensure
another. For example, conifers are not tolerant of being lifted as bare root that the tree is planted at the correct depth, thereby avoiding burying
stock and so are usually supplied as either root balled, container grown or the root flare.

23
Establishment and formative pruning
Once planted and secured in place in its new location, effective weed control Formative pruning - often undertaken in the nursery prior to dispatching the tree
and watering are essential during the first three to five years of the tree’s life. to site - should continue after planting to avoid future problems. This may involve
the selection of a dominant leader and removal of competing co-dominant ones, or
In nurseries young trees receive optimal care and attention; transplanting them into
the removal of lower branches to support the development of a crown architecture
a hostile urban environment can often ‘shock’ their physiological condition resulting
consistent with the requirements of the location the tree is planted in. Formative
in stress, a reduction in growth and difficulty establishing. Controlling the weeds in
pruning should continue until the desired final crown architecture is achieved. If
the planting pit around the tree, either by chemical control, plastic mulch mats or
correctly applied, formative pruning will extend a tree’s life span and reduce the
wood/bark chippings, together with a regular and adequate watering regime are the
need for intervention in later life.
best possible antidote. Research provides good evidence that using single species
woodchip is better at aiding establishment due to supporting fungal soil biology.

Applying fertilizer to newly planted trees is not recommended; this tends to

encourage competing weed growth as trees cannot utilise the fertilizer nutrients References
as effectively or as speedily as grasses or other weeds.
• British Standards Institute (2014)
BS 8545 Trees: From nursery to independence in the landscape

• Ferrini, F et al (2017)
Handbook of Urban Forestry Routledge

24
Section 7 Pests and Diseases
Threats, signs, symptoms and management solutions

Back to contents

Our trees are under threat from an increasing number of pests

and diseases. Being aware of symptoms to look out for and the
trees that may be affected can help in making informed choices,
maintaining healthy trees and developing resilience.
Pests and Diseases Prevention
Take time to familiarise yourself with pest and diseases Following good biosecurity practices is critical for preventing
that may be relevant to your planting scheme: the introduction of pests & diseases.

• planthealthportal.defra.gov.uk the UK Plant Health Information Portal • forestry.gov.uk/England-keepitclean Forestry Commission England guidance,
including the “Keep it Clean” resources
• forestry.gov.uk describes the UK’s top tree
pests and diseases, including both present and new threats • ltoa.org.uk Biosecurity & LTOA experience

• www.forestry.gov.uk describes signs and symptoms of

tree pests and diseases, e.g. Oak Processionary Moth, Asian Longhorn Beetle,
and advice on what to do if you suspect the pest or disease is present
Monitoring & Reporting
• www.rhs.org.uk provides information about
additional pests and diseases, their establishment, and other problems Establishing a tree monitoring programme will give an early warning of pests,
• www.rhs.org.uk describes pests and diseases of less frequently planted trees diseases and threats, which can then be managed. There may be monitoring
and the more unusual pests opportunities within local authority tree safety programmes, by encouraging
public reporting, or through engaging with local groups.
• secure.fera.defra.gov.uk provides comprehensive information and a tool for
government, industry & stakeholders to prioritise action on pests and diseases Everyone can play an important part in looking for pest and diseases which can
which threaten our trees, crops, gardens and countryside be a valuable supplement to formal surveillance for signs of trouble. So get
familiar with the pests and diseases of concern, keep alert for them, and report
• observatree.org.uk for training resources and field guides
suspicious symptoms.
• opalexplorenature.org provides training resources
• forestry.gov.uk for reporting tree pests & diseases and
and field guides
problems affecting the health of trees
Environmental factors, including salt, animal damage, maintenance activities,
• For concerns in nursery stock and recently planted trees, email APHA at
drought, waterlogging, weed competition, nutrient stress, root damage, soil
[email protected] or call 01904 405 138
compaction and tree size on transplanting can also cause symptoms and can affect
tree health and resilience longer term. The adoption of a Tree and Woodland Strategy that encourages local community
involvement may support and complement good tree health.

26
Further Information
• Tree Pests and Diseases - An Arborists’ Field Guide (2013)

Case Study
Monitoring & Reporting Pests and Diseases
Observatree is a collaborative citizen science project which aims to spot new pest
and disease threats to UK trees. Some 200 core volunteers have been trained to
recognize 22 priority pests and diseases. They carry out a range of survey activities
to help find new pest and disease outbreaks earlier and also track the spread and
impact of ones already established. The second finding of Oriental Chestnut Gall
Wasp was made by an Observatree volunteer, on street trees in St Albans. This
changed the understanding of the known distribution of this pest and led to actions
being taken by Forestry Commission England and the Animal and Plant Health
Agency. Working together gives a better chance of finding something sooner and to
be able to do something about it.

observatree.org.uk/tree-health/pests-and-diseases/

Observatree is a project between Forest Research, Forestry Commission England,

Forestry Commission Scotland, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Defra, Fera
Science Ltd, the National Trust, Natural Resources Wales and the Woodland Trust.

Photo credit: Observatree

27
Section 8 Tree Retention and Removal
Transparent decision making and effective timely consultation

Back to contents

Public organisations that are responsible for managing large

numbers of trees and urban woodland should use a variety of
mechanisms to promote transparent decision making when
trees need to be removed and replaced with new tree planting.
Trees are biological entities and if not managed in concert with the built Good consultation practice engages residents, the local community and other
environment problems can arise. The urban landscape already contains many trees interested parties on the details of felling and associated replanting activities
of great value, and retaining them wherever possible conserves the benefits they (where applicable). Clearly communicating the reasons behind felling decisions
provide. Incorporating existing trees into the design of new development is well can help to avoid significant negative responses. However, when these are
documented, and guidance is available on how trees may be retained when future- received it may be useful to consider pursuing expert arboricultural advice and
proofing developments so that new trees may be planted in proximity to structures. seek alternatives to felling.

Management of a large population of urban trees, including those in urban For health and safety reasons consultation would not be expected in cases where
woodlands, implicitly means that some tree removal will be required to ensure a tree creates or poses immediate risk or danger or is a biosecurity threat.
a safe and reliable urban environment. Management is also required in order to
maintain a healthy and diverse population that is resilient and able to provide the
many benefits detailed in this guide. Since trees are often very highly valued by
local communities, it is important that decisions around tree removal be made Tree and Woodland Policies and Strategies
in consideration of the views of residents with a view to minimising
environmental loss. Published trees and woodland management policies establish a consistent
approach and explain the criteria that will be used for decisions on tree removals.
The reasons for a tree’s removal may be important factors in determining what type
of replacement tree should be planted, how and where. Tree and Woodland Strategies promote engagement and provide detail, context
A licence may be required for tree felling; the Forestry Commission’s website and a greater depth of understanding for tree works, and may be used to augment
provides details of when felling licence exemptions apply. Maintaining records a tree and woodland policy.
of felling decisions is recommended in order to show that no illegal felling has
taken place.

Consultation
Building community engagement into the decision making processes allows
decisions on tree removal to be clearly communicated and understood, and
potentially challenged and amended prior to felling taking place.

29
References
• Barnet Council (2017)
London Borough of Barnet Tree Policy

• Camden Council (2015)

Camden Council’s Policy for Council Owned Trees

• Research for Amenity Trees No.9 (2009)

Trees in Towns II
A new survey of urban trees in England and their condition and management

• Greater London Authority (2013)

Green Infrastructure and Open Environments:
Preparing Borough Tree and Woodland Strategies

• CIRIA (2012)
www.ciria.org

• TDAG (2014)
Trees in Hard Landscapes: A Guide for Delivery

30
Section 9 Appendix
Further Reading & Reference Materials

Back to contents
Information and further general advice on several of the aspects ltoa.org.uk trees.org.uk
mentioned in this manual can be found at: charteredforesters.org tdag.org.uk
nato.org.uk treecouncil.org.uk
mtoa.co.uk treesforcities.org

Books & Further Reading

Reference and Source Notes

Samson et al. (2017) Species-specific information for enhancing Book chapter on ecosystem services and disservices provided by 150 of the most common
ecosystem services. In The Urban Forest, Springer. urban tree species in Europe. Not restricted to the UK context3.

Goodwin, D. (2017) The Urban Tree. Routledge. Book on the benefits of urban trees with an overview of tree selection, planting and establishment.
Does not give detailed information on ecosystem services and disservices to aid tree selection.

Wood, P. (2017) London’s Street Trees: Contains information on many of the tree species that can be found in London, describing some of their
A Field Guide to the Urban Forest. Safe Haven. attributes and rating how rare they are in London streets.

Roloff, A. (ed.) (2016) Urban Tree Management. Wiley Blackwell. Book linked to the Citree database; describes the benefits of urban trees and gives an overview of
considerations to have in species selection.

Stokes, J., White, J., Miles, A. and Patch, D. (2005) Book on selection, establishment and management of trees. Easily accessible language;
Trees in Your Ground. The Tree Council. May not be sufficiently detailed for professionals.

Hibberd, B. G. (ed.) (1989) Urban Forestry Practice. Forestry Guidance for species selection, selection of planting stock, tree establishment and aftercare and management.
Commission, Handbook 5. HMSO.

Sacre, K. (2018) A view from the nursery, in EssentialARB. Article in ‘Essential Arb’ on key considerations to be made in tree species selection for urban planting.
February 2018, 8-9pp.

Bassuk, N. et al. (2009). Recommended Urban Trees: Site Assessment Compiles information on site assessment and descriptions of common urban trees contained in the
and Tree Selection for Stress Tolerance. Urban Horticulture Institute, Woody Plants database.
Cornell University.

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 Nursery Guides

Reference and Source Notes

Glover, M. (2016). Time for trees. Edition 3. Barcham Trees Plc Catalogue and website resource with references to the suitability of different tree species/cultivars
barcham.co.uk/accessories/time-for-trees for different urban site conditions. Website also gives information on stock availability and pricing.
barcham.co.uk/products Focuses on trees for the UK market.

Deepdale Trees - The Tree fact file Website describing trees for the UK market. Associated information sheets contain interesting facts
deepdale-trees.co.uk/trees/tree-information about the species.

The Hilliers Manual of Trees and Shrubs (1971) Catalogue providing detailed descriptions of a large number of trees species suitable for the
cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract northern hemisphere.

Majestic’s Tree-finder Online catalogue: describes ornamental attributes and recommended site conditions; as well as stock
www.majestictrees.co.uk/treefinder availability and pricing.

www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources The Ecological Site Classification Decision Support System (ESC-DSS) is a PC-based system to help guide
forest managers and planners to select ecologically suited species to sites, instead of selecting a species and
trying to modify the site to suit.

J. Frank Schmidt and son co. (2018) Catalogue with brief descriptions of species and cultivars, and recommended site conditions.
Tree reference guide Targeted for an American audience (tree species).

Acknowledgements
Jane Barbrook, Animal and Plant Health Agency
Professor Rob Mackenzie, University of Birmingham
Dr Kieron Doick, Forest Research
Professor Alistair Griffiths, Royal Horticultural Society
Andrew Salisbury, Royal Horticultural Society
Jim C. Smith, Forestry Commission

33