Introduction to Programming

Summer Term

4 Functions

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 75
4 Functions ...

Contents
➥ Functions and their parameters
➥ Excursion: Debuggers
➥ Recursion
➥ Functions: More details
➥ Modules (separate compilation)

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 76
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters

Calling functions
func1(){
main(){ 1 ...
... ...
func1(); return; func3(){
3 ...
... } ...
func2(); func2(){ ...
2
... func3(); return;
func4(); 4
... }
return 0; return;
} func4(){ }
...
...
return;
}

➥ The program branches to a called function and returns to the

statement right after the call
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 77
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Designing functions
➥ A well-designed function performs a specific task
➥ A function does one thing, does it well, and returns
➥ Complicated tasks should be broken into multiple functions
➥ This helps giving your program structure

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 78
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Declaring functions
➥ Before you can use (call) a function, you have to declare it
➥ “before” means in the program code
➥ note: This is the same as with variables

➥ Either you write your program “backwards” (main() comes last),

or you declare your functions, and define (implement) them later
in your program.
➥ If you have a call cycle (a() calls b(), and b() calls a()), then you
must use declarations.
➥ Function declarations (function prototypes) typically go into
header files (→ #include "myfunc.h")

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 79
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Declaring and defining functions

➥ Declaration:
return-type name ( parameter-list );
➥ Example:
int maximum ( int a, int b );
➥ Definition (implementation):
return-type name ( parameter-list ) { statement-list }
➥ Example:
int maximum ( int a, int b ) {
if ( a > b ) { return a; }
else { return b; }
}

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 80
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Return types
➥ A function must have a return type
➥ Types are either int, float, bool, . . .
or void, meaning: no return value
➥ a function without a return value is also called a procedure

➥ A function may have multiple return statements

➥ when return is executed, the function immediately returns to
its caller
➥ in a return statement, any expression (matching the return
type) is allowed as return value
➥ beware: too many return statements can make a function
difficult to follow!

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 81
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Formal and actual parameters

➥ Formal parameters
➥ are the parameters listed in the declaration / definition

➥ Actual parameters
➥ are the parameters given to an actual call to the function

➥ Example:
int maximum(int a, int b); // a, b: formal parameters
...
x = maximum(42, 44); // 42, 44: actual parameters

➥ The words parameter and argument are used interchangably

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 82
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Local variables
➥ Variables declared inside a function’s body (i.e., inside { . . . })
only exist locally within that function
➥ when the function returns, the local variables do not exist any
more
➥ note: in C++, this rule applies to any compound statement

➥ Global variables are declared outside any function

➥ they are accessible from all functions in the program
➥ Some examples ...

➥ Avoid the use of global variables!

➥ they are very hard to track . . .
➥ however, global constants are rather common
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 83
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Formal parameters are local variables

➥ In C++, parameters are passed by value
➥ this means, a function always receives copies of the actual
parameters
➥ when the function is called, the values of the actual
parameters are assigned to the formal parameters
➥ With call-by-value, variables given as actual parameters are never
changed
➥ The same variable can be simultaneously passed to multiple
parameters:
y = maximum(x, x)

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 84
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}
Activation record
...
x a
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}

...
x 10 a
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}

...
x 10 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example
Activation record of f
int f(int b, int a)
{ b a
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 10 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 10 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 11
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 11
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 11
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 145
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 145
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result 146
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146

...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b a
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 15
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 15
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 15
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 249
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{ b 12 a 249
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1; Result 250
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}

...
x 11 a 12
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3); 146 250

...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

An example

int f(int b, int a)

{
a = 2 * b + a * a;
return a + 1;
}

...
x 11 a −104
int x = 10;
int a = 12;
a = f(a, ++x) − f(a, a+3);
...

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 85
4.1 Functions and Their Parameters ...

Another example: swapping two variables?

void swap(int x, int y) {
int temp;
cout << "swap: before, x=" << x << " y=" << y << endl;
temp = x; x = y; y = temp;
cout << "swap: after, x=" << x << " y=" << y << endl;
}
int main() {
int x = 5, y = 10;
cout << "main: before, x=" << x << " y=" << y << endl;
swap(x, y);
cout << "main: after, x=" << x << " y=" << y << endl;
return 0;
}

➥ Try it! (“References” will later fix this problem; ☞ 7.7)

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 86
4.2 Excursion: Debuggers

What can a debugger do?

➥ It allows to watch the state of a running program, e.g.,
➥ stop the execution at a given code line (breakpoint)
➥ examine the procedure call stack
➥ print (or modify) the contents of variables
➥ print type definitions
➥ execute the program line-by-line

➥ It helps you to find out what the program actually does (the bugs
you have to find / remove yourself ;-)
➥ In the lab:
➥ g++ -g myprog.cpp -o myprog
➥ ddd myprog
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 87
4.3 Recursive Functions

The factorial function

➥ Problem: given n (distinguishable) items, in how many different
linear sequences can we arrange them?

➥ For n = 1, it’s simple: only one way

➥ For n > 1, we solve the problem like this:
➥ we have n choices for the first item in the sequence
➥ once we have chosen the first item, we just need to know how
many different sequences exist for the remaining ones
➥ the result is n times this number
!
1, if n = 1
➥ fac(n) =
n ∗ fac(n − 1) if n > 1
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 88
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Recursive functions
➥ A function is recursive, if the function is used (called) in its own
definition (implementation)

!
1, if n = 1
fac(n) =
n ∗ fac(n − 1) if n > 1

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 89
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

The C++ function fac()

➥ Mathematicians allow zero items in a row and thus define
!
1, if n = 0
fac(n) =
n ∗ fac(n − 1) if n > 0

➥ C++ implementation of this function:

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n) {
if (n == 0) {
return 1;
}
else {
return n * fac(n-1);
}
}
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 90
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Local variables (dynamically)

➥ Each invocation of a function gets its own set of local variables!
➥ Otherwise, variables would no longer be local in recursive
functions . . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 91
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}

. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
n 1 Result
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
n 1 Result
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n) n 0 Result

{
if (n == 0)
n 1 Result
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n) n 0 Result 1

{
if (n == 0)
n 1 Result
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
n 1 Result 1 1
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1); n 2 Result 2 1
}
n 3 Result

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}
n 3 Result 6 2

n 4 Result
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}

n 4 Result 24 6
. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.3 Recursive Functions ...

Execution of fac

unsigned int fac(unsigned int n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * fac(n−1);
}

. . .
unsigned int result = fac(4); result 24
. . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 92
4.4 Functions: More Details

Default parameters
➥ When a function is called, for each formal parameter, an actual
parameter must be given ...
➥ ... unless the function prototype provides a default value
➥ Example: void myFunction ( int x = 50 );
➥ Calls: myFunction(); myFunction(10);

➥ If one parameter has a default value, then all the following

parameters must have a default value, too
➥ otherwise it is unclear what is left out in the call

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 93
4.4 Functions: More Details ...

Overloading functions
➥ Sometimes, the same functionality is needed on different types:
➥ int maximum (int a, int b);
➥ double maximum (double a, double b);

➥ In C++, multiple functions with the same name are allowed, if

➥ the number of parameters are different
➥ or at least one parameter has a different type

➥ This is called overloading the function name

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 94
4.4 Functions: More Details ...

Overloading functions ...

Caution:
➥ Only use this feature for multiple functions of the same
functionality!
➥ the “intellectual distance” between two functions with the same
name is zero
➥ You may have a hard time finding out what will be called, if
differences are subtle like signed/unsigned, float/double, . . .

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 95
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules)

What is a module?
➥ A module is a part of a program that can be compiled separately
➥ In C++, a module always should consist of two files:
➥ a header file (*.h), which contains declarations, e.g. function
prototypes, constants, ...
➥ an implementation file (*.cpp).

Why use modules?

➥ Structure the program code
➥ Make modules re-usable by others
➥ Save compilation time

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 96
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules) ...

An example: a calculator module

calculator.h:
#ifndef CALCULATOR_H
#define CALCULATOR_H

namespace calculator {
// The following functions live in their own name space
double calculate(double operand1, char op,
double operand2);
double readOperand(int no);
char readOperator();
void printResult(double val);
}
#endif
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 97
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules) ...

calculator.cpp:
#include <iostream> // search in system directories
#include "calculator.h" // search in user and system dirs

namespace calculator {
using std::cout;
using std::cin;
using std::endl;
double calculate(double operand1, char op,
double operand2) {
if (op == ’*’)
return operand1 * operand2;
if (op == ’/’)
return operand1 / operand2;
return 0; // Invalid operator
}
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 98
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules) ...
double readOperand(int no) {
double val;
cout << "Please enter the "
<< ((no == 1) ? "first" : "second") << " operand: ";
cin >> val;
return val;
}
char readOperator() {
char val;
cout << "Please enter the operator: ";
cin >> val;
return val;
}
void printResult(double val) {
cout << "The result is " << val << endl;
}
}
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 99
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules) ...

Using calculator.cpp in calcMain.cpp:

#include "calculator.h" // search in user and system dirs

using calculator::readOperand;
using calculator::readOperator;
using calculator::printResult;
using calculator::calculate;
int main() {
char op; double a, b;
a = readOperand(1);
op = readOperator();
b = readOperand(2);
printResult(calculate(a, op, b));
return 0;
}
Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 100
4.5 Separate Compilation (Modules) ...

Compiling the program:

bslab01:~> g++ -c calcMain.cpp

bslab01:~> g++ -c calculator.cpp
bslab01:~> g++ -o calcMain calcMain.o calculator.o

➥ The option -c tells the compiler to skip the linker step and to
produce an object file
➥ The final invocation of g++ links the two object files together
➥ If you later change, e.g., the main program, you have to repeat
only the compilation of the changed code and the linker step:
bslab01:~> g++ -c calcMain.cpp
bslab01:~> g++ -o calcMain calcMain.o calculator.o

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 101
4.6 Excursion: The make utility

➥ Compilation of our calculator program:

➥ compile calcMain.cpp: g++ -c calcMain.cpp
➥ compile calculator.cpp: g++ -c calculator.cpp
➥ link the object files into an executable program:
g++ -o calcMain calcMain.o calculator.o
➥ After a change, we want to recompile only the affected files
➥ Dependencies: calcMain.cpp calculator.h calculator.cpp

calcMain.o calculator.o

calcMain

➥ The make program automates this process

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 102
4.6 Excursion: The make utility ...

The makefile
➥ make is controlled by a file called makefile:
# How to make the executable ’calcMain’ when
# ’calcMain.o’ and ’calculator.o’ already exist.
calcMain: calcMain.o calculator.o
g++ -o calcMain calcMain.o calculator.o
# dependency
calculator.o: calculator.cpp calculator.h
# dependency
calcMain.o: calcMain.cpp calculator.h
calcMain.cpp calculator.h calculator.cpp
➥ make has a default rule to
compile *.cpp to *.o calcMain.o calculator.o

calcMain

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 103
Summary

Functions

int maximum(int a, int b);

int main() {
int x = 5, y = 10;
cout << "Maximum of " << x << " and " << y << " is ";
cout << maximum(x, y) << endl;
return 0;
}
int maximum(int a, int b) {
if ( a > b ) { return a; }
else { return b; }
}

Ubiquitous
Computing
Prof. Dr. Kristof Van Laerhoven
Ubiquitous Computing Laboratory Introduction to Programming (chapter 5/13) 104