Chapter 2 Soil-Water-Plant

Chapter –soil-water-plant relation ship 2014
Chapter – Two
Soil-Water-Plant Relationships
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Soil –water relationship ; Kinds of soil water
2.3 Basic concepts of soil water dynamics
2.4 Infiltration
2.5 Flow of water in soil
2.6 Water extraction by plants
2.7 Hydraulic conductivity
2.1 Introduction
Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air which are necessary for plant
growth. Therefore, plants grow on soils that provide them water and nutrients.
The plants need water, the soil stores the water needed by the plants, and the
atmosphere provides the energy needed by the plant to withdraw water from the
soil.
Considering many ways by which water may be removed from the soil, it must be
considered as efficient storage medium. Irrigation water and rainwater after
infiltration into the soil get stored in different classes of soil pores (fine-, medium
and large pores). The water stored in the soil pores constitutes the soil water.
Fortunately, water can be held by the soil for long periods of time and still
available for plants use. Plants absorb water mainly through their roots and use
only 1.0 to 1.5% of the volume of water absorbed for building their vegetative
structures and performing various physiological and biochemical activities. The
rest of water is lost through transpiration of plants. Knowledge of the process of
water transport in soil, into plants and from soil and plants to the atmosphere are
the basics of irrigation practice. Often important question in irrigation practices is
the “when to irrigate and how much to irrigate” questions which answers depend
on soil-water-plant-atmosphere relationships. Both excess and deficit of soil
water affects the plant growth and results in yield reduction. An insight into these
relationships requires the study of physical characteristics of soils relevant to the
rate of entry of water into the soil, moisture retention, storage, and transport,
Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 1

availability to plants as well as mechanisms of water absorption, conduction and
transpiration by plants.
2.2. Soil-water relationships
2.2.1. Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the earth. Soils have
profiles, constituting of specific kinds and combinations of horizons, as well as
specific surfaces and relief or landscape features. They are formed by a
combination of natural processes under the interrelated influences of climate,
vegetation, relief (including hydrology), parent material, and time. Soil is a three-
phase system constituting solid, liquid and gases. The minerals and organic
matters in soil together constitute the solid phase. The main component of solid
phase is the soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise to pore spaces
of different shape and geometry. These pore spaces are filled with water and air
in varying proportions, depending on the amount of moisture available. In
completely dry soils, all pores would be filled with water, and in completely
saturated soils, water (soil solutions) would occupy all of the pore spaces.
Agricultural soils seldom, if ever, exist in either of these extreme conditions
Water film
Air space
Soil particles
Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section

of soil
The physical properties of the soil, including its ability to store water, are highly
related to the fraction or percentage of the total soil volume that is occupied by
solid and the fraction or percentage that is pore space. For plant growth

and development, the fraction or percentage of the pore space that is occupied
by water and that contains air is of extreme interest. . The volumes composition
of the three main constituents in the soil system varies widely.
A typical silt loam soil contains about 50% soil solids, 30% water and 20% air.
Besides, living organisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, protozoa, insects and
small burrowing animals are present in the soil which directly or indirectly affects
soil structure and plant growth. Soil components when exist in proper proportion
offer a favorable condition for plant growth.
Important physical properties of soil influencing the soil-water relationship are soil
characteristics governing the entry of water into the soil during irrigation or rain,
water movement through the soil medium, retention of water by soil and
availability of water to plants.
i. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a given soil. According to
their size soils particles are grouped into sand, silt and clay. The relative sizes of
sand silt and clay as proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) and the International Soil Science Society (ISSS) are given in Tab. 2.1.
Table 2.1: Size limits of soil separates
Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)
USAD ISSS
Very course sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Course sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002
The percentage content of soil separates in a soil is determined by mechanical

analysis. Based on the percentage content of sand, silt and clay present, the
textural class of a soil is determined by using the triangular diagram (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.2: The relative sizes of

three soil samples
Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Texture is designated by using the names of the predominant size fractions.

Sandy soils have greater proportion of large sized particles and hence commonly
termed as coarse or light soils. They form a relatively simple capillary system and
have a large volume of non-capillary macro-pores that encourage good drainage
and aeration. They have usually a low water holding capacity and low cation
exchange capacity
Clay soil has a high percentage of fine particles and is referred to as fine or
heavy soils. Clay soils are aggregated into complex granules and present large
surface area. The large specific surface area per unit volume enable clay soils to
hold more water and cations than sandy soil. Clay soils allow slow movement of
water and cause poor drainage and aeration.
Loamy soil having almost equal amount of sand and clay is called medium
textured soil. Such soils tend to exhibit good balance between large and small
pores; thus, movement of water, air and roots is easy and water retention is
adequate. Hence they offer the most favorable conditions for plant growth by
providing good soil drainage and aeration as well as more available water and
nutrients.
How to use textural triangle:
A soil sample has an analysis of 72% sand, 3% silt, and 25% clay. Look at the USDA
textural triangle (Fig. 2.3) and notice the percent sand arrow pointing from right to left on
the bottom of the triangle. Find the 72% sand point and mentally sketch a line from that
point parallel to the side opposite the 100% sand corner of the triangle. Such a line will
pass through all points on the triangle that corresponds to a soil having 72% sand. Now
locate the 3% silt point on the upper right side of the triangle, and visualize a line from
this point parallel to the side opposite the 100% silt corner of the triangle. This line
intersects the sand line at a single point inside the area labeled as sandy clay loam.
Soil texture can be determined both in the filed and in the laboratory.
ii. Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the
soil and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates.
The arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure. Grouping of particles
into structural units occur in all soils. However, the strength of the bonds, the size
and the shape of the structural units and the proportion of the soil particles
involved in the units differ considerably among soils.
Structure development is influenced by:

 Amount and type of clay, as well as the exchangeable ions on the clay
(also water acts as bridge between clay particles)
 Amount and type of organic matter, since it provides food for soil fungi and
bacteria and their secretion of cementing agents (polysaccharides)
 Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents)
 Binding between organic and inorganic compounds (aluminum oxides,
cations, clays)
 Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil together, and protects
soil surface
The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of porosity,
aggregation, cohesiveness and permeability for water and air.
Soil aggregates may be temporary or stable depending on the amount and
nature the cementing agents such as clay, organic matter, microbial glue and
mineral cementing materials like aluminium and iron oxides present.
On the basis of their shape soil structures can be typed as:
 Granular  Massive (non-structure
 Columnar and prismatic  Single grain (non-structure)
 Platy  Blocky (angular and sub-angular)
Fig. 2.4: Soil structure and its effect on permeability

A soil structure is important in plant growth as it influences the amount and
nature of porosity and regulates water, air and heat regimes in the soil besides
affecting mechanical properties. Hence, it has a pronounced effect on soil
properties such as
• Erodibility, • Infiltration, and
• Porosity, • Water holding capacity
• Hydraulic conductivity,
The management of soils aims at obtaining soil structures favourable for plant
growth and yield, besides ensuring soil conservation, and good infiltration and
movement of water in the soils. Common methods of soil structure management
include addition of organic matter and adoption of suitable tillage, soil
conservation and cropping practices.
iii. Volume and mass relationships
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three constituents
of soil (solids, liquid and air), and define some basic parameters which have
useful practical importance in characterizing the physical condition of a soil.
Volume Mass
Relations Relations
Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as three-phase system
Symbols given in Fig. 2.4 are defined as:

Vt =total soil volume Vw =volume of water
Vs = volume of soil solids Va =volume of soil air

Vf =total void volume Mw =mass of soil water
Mt = total soil mass Ma =mass of soil air which is
Ms =mass of soil solids negligible
Density, porosity and soil water terms are defined with reference to Fig. 2.4.
Vt  Vs Vw Va (2.1)
Mt  M s  M w  M a (2.2)
Most often bulk and particle densities are used to characterize densities of soil.
They are described as follows:
Bulk density (  b )
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in
exclusion of the liquid phase is called bulk density. That means it describes the
soil as it is in the natural state including pore spaces. In other words, bulk density
is the weight of oven dry soil per unit total volume. It is sometimes referred to as
apparent specific gravity. The difference between the two terms is that the bulk
density is given in gm/cm3 while apparent specific gravity is expressed as
dimensionless quantity. Bulk density is normally expressed on a dry weight basis,
which vale ranging from 1.0 – 1.8 gm/cm3 for mineral soils. Its values indicate
whether a soil layer is too compacted to allow root penetration or if it is effective
for adequate aeration of the root zone.
To determine bulk density soil core method is widely used. In this method soil
sample is taken from the filed using core sampler of known volume and oven
dried at 105 0C to obtain a constant weight. The mass of the soil is then obtained
by weighing the dried soil. The bulk density is then calculated from the weight of
the soil per unit volume of known core sampler which is expressed as
Ms Ms
b   (2.3)
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Bulk density of a soil is affected by soil texture, organic matter content and tillage
practices and ranges from 1.1 to 1.3 gm/cm3 in fine textured surface soils and
from 1.4 to 1.8 gm/cm3 in coarse textured surface soils. It decreases with an

increase in looseness of soils and increases with compaction of soil. Hence, the
value of bulk density indicates the extent of pore space in the soil. That means, a
low density indicates a high volume of pore space and a high density shows low
volume of pore space in soil.
Particle density (  s )
It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and is expressed in
gm/cm3. In determining the particle density of soil, consideration is given only to
solid particles. Thus the particle density of any soil is constant and does not vary
with the amount of space between the particles. It is defined as the mass
(weight) per unit volume of soil particles (soil solids).
Ms
s  (2.4)
Vs
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices.
In most mineral soils the s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3.
Total pore space and porosity
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) to the total volume
of soil and is expressed in %. It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core samplers and placed in a
pan of water until completely saturated. Then after saturation the cores are
weighed. Then after, the saturated samples are oven dried which again weighed.
The difference in weight between saturated and oven dry cores represents a
volume of the pore space.
Vf Va  Vw  Vt  Vs  Vs 
E    1   (2.5)
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 
The ratio is then multiplied by 100 to obtain the porosity in percent. Total porosity
can also be calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the
following relationships,
  
E  1  b  (2.6)
 s 

Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35
to 50 % in sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an
increase in fineness, looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.
Soil Water Content
Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis. It is measured
using gravimetric, neutron scattering, gamma ray, capacitance method, time
domain reflectrometer
i. Gravimetric method
A soil sample is weighed, then dried in an oven at 105 0C and weighed again.
The difference in weight is a measure of the initial water content. Samples can be
taken on a mass or on a volume basis. In the first case, we take a disturbed
quantity of soil, put it in a plastic bag, and transport it to the laboratory, where it is
weighed, dried, and re-weighed after drying. We calculate the mass fraction of
water with equation 2.7.
Mw
w (2.7)
Ms
The sample is transferred to a previously weighed aluminium box. Then after it is
to be weighed and oven dried until a constant weight is achieved. Loss of the
weight of soil sample on drying is accounted for the moisture content of the soil.
The weight of oven dried soil is then determined and then the soil water content
is calculated as,
W2  W3
w 100 (2.8)
W3  W1
W1 =weight of empty aluminium box, gm

W2 =weight of box + moist soil sample, gm
W3 =weight of box + dried soil\ sample, gm
To get the soil-water content on a volume basis, we need samples of known

volume. We normally use stainless steel cylinders (usually 100 cm2), which are
pushed horizontally or vertically into profile horizons. We subsequently retrieve
and trim the filled cylinder, and put end caps on. Soil horizons are exposed in a
Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

10
soil pit. If no pit can be dug, we can use a special type of auger in which the
same .type of cylinder is fixed. The volume fraction of water can be calculated as
Vw Vw
 
Vt Vs  V f  (2.9)
The relationship between the mass wetness and volume wetness is given by
b
v  w (2.10)
w
The gravimetric method is still the most widely used technique to determine the
soil water content and is often taken as a standard for the calibration of other
methods. A disadvantage is that it is laborious, because samples in duplicate or
in triplicate are required to compensate for errors and variability. Moreover,
volumetric samples need to be taken carefully. The samples cannot usually be
weighed in the field, and special care must be taken to prevent them from drying
out before they are weighed in the laboratory.
ii. Neutron-Scattering
The neutron-scattering method is based on fast-moving neutrons emitted by a
241
radioactive source, usually Am, which collide with nuclei in the soil and lose
energy. A detector counts part of the slowed-down reflected (thermal) neutrons.
Because hydrogen slows down neutrons much more than other soil constituents,
and since hydrogen is mainly present in water, the neutron count is strongly
related to the water content. We use an empirical linear relationship between the
ratio of the count to a standard count of the instrument, which is called the count
ratio, and the soil-water content. The standard count is taken under standard
conditions, preferably in a pure water body. The empirical relationship reads
  a b R (2.11)
R = the count ratio (-)
a and b = soil specific constants (-)

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Fig. 2.5: Neutron probe to measure soil-water content
Because, apart from hydrogen, the count ratio is also influenced by the bulk
density of the soil and by various chemical components, a soil specific calibration
is required. Constant a in Equation 2.11 increases with bulk density; constant b is
influenced by soil chemical composition (Gardner 1986). The calibration can be
done by regression of the soil-water content of samples taken around the
measurement site, on the count ratio
For field measurements, portable equipment has been developed. The most
frequently used equipment consists of a probe unit and a scaler (Fig. 2.5). The
probe, containing a neutron source, is lowered into a tube, called an access tube,
in the soil down to the required depth. A proportion of the reflected slow neutrons
is absorbed in a boron-trifluoride gas-filled tube (counter). Ionization of the gas
results in discharge pulses, which are amplified and measured with the scaler.
The action radius of the instrument is spherical and its size varies with soil
wetness; the drier the soil, the larger the action radius (between approximately
15 cm in wet soil to 50 cm in dry soil.
The neutron-scattering technique has been widely used under field conditions.

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Advantages of the method are:
 Soil-water content can be measured rapidly and repeatedly in the same
place;
 Average soil-water content of the sphere of influence can be measured with
depth;
 Temporal soil-water content changes can easily be followed;
 Relation between count ratio and soil-water content is linear.
Disadvantages are:
 Counts have a high variability; measurement is not completely repeatable;
 Poor depth resolution;
 Measurements are interfered with by many soil constituents;
 The use of a radioactive source can pose health risks if no appropriate care is
taken
 Measurements near the soil surface are impossible.
iii. Capacitance methods
The capacitance method is based on measuring the capacitance of a capacitor,
with the soil-water-air mixture as the dielectric medium. A probe with conductive
plates or rods surrounded with soil constitutes the capacitor. The relative
permittivity (dielectric constant) of water is large compared with that of the soil
matrix and air. A change in the water content of the soil will cause a change in
the relative permittivity, and consequently in the capacitance of the capacitor
(probe) surrounded with soil. The capacitor is usually part of a resonance circuit
of an oscillator. Changes in the soil-water content, and thus changes in the
capacitor capacitance, will change the resonance frequency of the oscillator. In
this way, the water content is indicated by a frequency shift. Since the relative
permittivity of the soil matrix depends on its composition and its bulk density,
calibration is needed for each separate soil.

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Fig. 2.6: An example of the installation of the capacitance probes in a soil profile
and a schematic illustration of the capacitance probe (A) The probes are placed
in two columns in between two rows of a crop at different depths (B) The
capacitance probe consists of (a) a holder, (b) three electrodes, (c) a cable, and
(d) a connector.
v. Time-Domain Reflectrometry
A method that also uses the dielectrical properties of the soil is time-domain
reflectrometry (TDR). The propagation time of a pulse travelling along a wave
guide is measured. This time depends on the dielectrical properties of the soil
surrounding the wave guide, and hence on the water content of the soil. The
TDR method can be used for many soils without calibration, because the
relationship between the apparent dielectric constant and volumetric water
content is only weakly dependent on soil type, soil density, soil temperature, and
salt content. Time-domain reflectrometry has become popular in recent years,
mainly because the method does not need elaborate calibration procedures.
Several portable, battery powered TDR units are available at this moment.
Electrodes to be used as the actual measuring device are available in different
configurations. The full potential of this method is only realized when it is
combined with an automatic data acquisition system.
Types of soil water
Soil water has earlier been classified mainly into three heads:
(i) Hygroscopic water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Gravitational water.

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Hygroscopic Water: The water that an oven dry soil absorbs when exposed to
air saturated with vapour is called hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the
surface of soil particles by adsorption forces. It occurs as a very thin film over the
surface of soil particles and is held tenaciously at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
Capillary water: With increasing supply of water, the water film held around soil
particles thickens. Water then enters the pore system gradually filling the pores
and wedges between adjacent soil particles until a stage is reached when the
water tension is in equilibrium with gravity. This soil water tension is about 0.10 –
0.33atm. The capillary water supplies the water needed by plants. Hence, it is
also designated as plant available water. Main factors that influence the amount
of capillary water in the soil are the structure, texture and organic matter content
of the soil. A greater amount of water is held by a fine textured soil than by a
coarse textured one.
Saturation
Gravitational water
Field capacity
Capillary water
(Plant available
water)
Permanent welting point

Unavailable
water
Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry
Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants
Availability of water increases usually with fineness of soil particles, as the

capillary water content is more in fine textured soils. Optimum growth of plant
takes place when the soil water is maintained at near field capacity.
Gravitational water: When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills
the pore system expelling air completely from soil. Water moving downwards

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through soil under gravity is termed as gravitational water. The water tension at
this stage is 0.33 atm or less.
2.3. Basic concepts of soil water dynamics
Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of water present and its
energy state. Soil water is subjected to forces of variable origin and intensity,
hereby acquiring different quantities and forms of energy. The two primary forms
of energy recognized are kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is acquired by
virtue of motion and is proportional to velocity squared. However, because the
movement of water in soils is relatively slow its kinetic energy is considered
negligible. Potential energy, which is defined by the position of soil water within a
soil body and by internal conditions, is largely responsible for determining soil
water status under isothermal conditions. Like all other matter, soil water tends to
move from where the potential energy is higher to where it is lower, in pursuit of
equilibrium with its surroundings.
The magnitude of the driving force behind such spontaneous motion is a
difference in potential energy across a distance between two points of interest. At
a macroscopic scale, we can define potential energy relative to a reference state.
The standard state for soil water is defined as pure and free water (no solutes
and no external forces other than gravity) at a reference pressure, temperature,
and elevation, and is arbitrarily given the value of zero.
2.3.1. Components of forces acting on soil water
Soil water is subject to several force fields, the combined effects of which result
in a deviation in potential energy relative to the reference state, called the ‘total
soil water potential which is defined as “the amount of work that an infinitesimal
unit quantity of water at equilibrium is capable of doing work when it moves
(isothermally and reversibly) to a pool of water at similar standard (reference)
state, i.e., similar pressure, elevation, temperature and chemical composition.’’ It
should be emphasized that there are alternative definitions of soil water potential
using concepts of chemical potential or specific free energy of the chemical
species water (which is different from the soil solution termed ‘soil water’).

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The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix under
isothermal conditions can be conveniently grouped as:
 Matric forces resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid and
gaseous phases;
 Osmotic forces owing to differences in chemical composition of soil solution;
and
 Body forces induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force
fields.
i. Matric forces
Matric forces consist of a group of forces such as adsorptive forces and capillary
forces. The primary mechanisms for these effects include:
 capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces forming and interacting within
the irregular soil-pore geometry;
 adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces due to short-range London–
van der Waals forces and extension of these effects by cohesion through
hydrogen bonds formed in the liquid; and
 ion hydration and water participating in diffuse double layers (particularly
near clay surfaces)
Adsorptive forces cause water molecules adsorbed on clay particles
Water molecules (H2O) are electrically neutral. However, the electrical charge
within the molecules is asymmetrically distributed. As a result, water molecules
are strongly polar and attract each other by H bonding
Fig. 2.6: Schematic diagram of two

water molecules.

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The sharing of electrons by oxygen and hydrogen produces water molecules that are negatively
charged on the oxygen side and positively charged on the side where the proton of the hydrogen
sticks out. Molecules attract each other by H bonding, the attraction of the proton of one water
molecule for the negatively charged oxygen side of an adjacent water molecule.
Capillary forces are due to capillary tension (negative forces) which is mainly
responsible for retention of water around soil particles, in the wedges between
soil particles. Capillarity involves molecular forces located in the boundary layers
between phases. The force of mutual attraction of water molecules in the air
water interference is known as cohesive force.
Beyond the sphere of strong attraction of soil particles, water molecules are held
in the water film by cohesion (H bonding between water molecules). This outer
film water is called cohesion water (see fig 2.7). Molecules of cohesion water,
compared to adhesion water, are in greater motion, have greater energy and
move more readily.
Fig. 2.7: Schematic presentation showing the relationship of adhesion

and cohesion water with respect to soil particles
Other force involved in the capillarity is the adhesive force that acts in solid-liquid
interface. It represents the mutual attractive force between soil particles and
water and it is responsible for retention of water as much thicker film.

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Fig. 2.8: Capillary rise of water
The capillary concept can be illustrated by regarding the soil as a mixture of

solids and pores in which the pores form capillary tubes. If such a small capillary
tube is inserted in water, the water will rise into the tube under the influence of
capillary forces (Fig. 2.8).
The total upward force lifting the water column, Ff, is obtained by multiplying the
vertical component of surface tension by the circumference of the capillary
F1 =  cos  x 2r (2.12)
Where F1 = upward force (N)
 = surface tension of water against air ( = 0.073 kg/sec at 20°C)
 = contact angle of water with the tube (rad), ( cos  1 )
r = equivalent radius of tube (m)
By its weight in the gravitational field, the water column of length h and mass
r2w exerts a downward force F that opposes capillary rise
F2 = r2 hw x g (2.13)
Where F2= downward force (N)
w = density of water (= 1000 kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
h = height of capillary rise (m)
At equilibrium, the upward force F1 equals the downward force F2 and water
movement stops. In that case
 cos   2r 2 cos 
 cos  x 2r = r2 hw x g h 
 r 2h w g  w gr
The attraction between water and soil particle surfaces is usually so strong that
the angle of contact is very close to zero, making its cosine  1. The cos  can
therefore be ignored under these circumstances. Three of the other factors

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affecting capillary rise (, w, and g) are constants at a given temperature (e.g.,
4°C) and can therefore be combined in to a single constant
2  75 gm / s 2 1 0.15 (cm 2 )
h   (2.14)
r 1 gm / cm 3  980 cm / s 2 r (cm)
Thus the smaller the tube, the higher the capillary rise.
Fig. 2.9: Relationship between capillary raise and soil texture

ii. Osmotic force
Soil water contains certain amount of dissolved salts and other solutes and is
termed as soil solution. Presence of solutes in soil water decreases the potential
energy of water in the soil. The potential energy of water in the solution is lower
than the reference state (pure water). When a solution is separated by a semi-
permeable membrane from pure water or form a solution of lower concentration,
water tends to diffuse or osmose into the concentrated solution through the
membrane.
Excess gas
pressure
Salt Pure water

solution
Semi-permeable
membrane
20
Fig. 2.10: Illustration of the concept of osmotic pressure

The osmotic pressure can be illustrated by Fig. 2.9. A container, divided in to
parts by semi-permeable membrane, hold salt solution at one side of the
membrane and pure water at the other side. Both sides are at atmospheric
pressure. Because the concentration of water molecules is higher in the pure
water than in the solution, more water molecules will move in the direction of the
solution than in the other direction. As the result, the surface of the soil solution
will rise slowly and that of the pure water will drop. One can prevent this flow of
water across the membrane and maintain static equilibrium by exerting on the
salt solution a gas pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure. The excess gas
pressure needed to maintain equilibrium is equal to the osmotic pressure,, of
the solution. Then the osmotic potential can be written as:
1
O   
w
Because membranes do not generally separate soil zones, the osmotic potential
has little effect on the mass movement of water in soil. Its major effect is on the
uptake of water by plant root cells that are isolated from the soil solution by their
semi-permeable cell membranes.
iii. Gravitational force
Every body on the earth’s surface is attracted toward the earth’s center by a
gravitational force equal to the weight of the body, that weight being the product
of mass of the body and the gravitational acceleration. To raise a body against
this attraction, work must be expended, and this work is stored by the raised
body in the form of gravitational potential energy. The amount of this energy
depends on the body’s position in the gravitational force field.
As long as the gravity is lesser in magnitude than the matric and osmotic
suctions (suction or tension is used to indicate the negative force) together, there
is no downward movement of water. When the soil gets wet after irrigation or
rain, the combined matric and osmotic suctions decrease greatly and become

21
lower in magnitude than the gravity. Consequently, there is a downward
movement of water.
2.3.2. Soil water potential concept
The effect of a force on soil water may conveniently be described by potential
energy of soil water in a particular force field. The forces governing soil-water
flow can be described by the energy concept. According to this principle, water
moves from points with higher energy status to points with lower energy status.
The energy status of water is simply called 'water potential'. The relationship
between the mechanical- force concept and the energy-water-potential concept
is best illustrated for a situation in which the distance between two points
approximates zero. The forces acting on a mass of water in any particular
direction are then defined as
Fs 
 (2.15)
m s
Where Fs = total of forces (N)
m = mass of water (kg)
s = distance between points (m)
 = water potential on mass base (J/kg)
The negative sign (eq. 2.15) shows that the force works in the direction of
decreasing water potential.
The water potential is an expression for the mechanical work required to transfer
a unit quantity of water from a standard reference, where the potential is taken as
zero, to the situation where the potential has the defined value. Potentials are
usually defined relative to water with a composition identical to the soil solution,
at atmospheric pressure, a temperature of 293 K (20°C), and datum elevation
zero. Soil-water potential is defined as the work expended on or by the soil water
during the transfer of an infinitesimal quantity of water from point A to an
reference pool or point B in the soil.
The total soil water potential is the sum of potentials resulting from different force
fields. It may be defined as the amount of work done by a unit quantity of water to
transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool

22
of pure water at a specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the point of soil
water under consideration. The total soil water potential can be written as:
t m O  g (2.16)
t =total potential
m =matric potential
O =osmotic potential
g =gravitational potential
In soil physics, water potential can be expressed as energy on a mass basis
( m ), on a volume basis (v) or on a weight basis (w). As an example, let us
take the gravitational potential, g, with the water-table as reference level. The
definition of potential says that the mechanical work required to raise a mass of
water (m = wV) from the water-table to a height z is equal to mgz or wVgz. Thus
the gravitational potential on mass basis (m), on volume basis (v) or, on weight
basis (w) will be
 wV g z
g   gz ( J / kg) gravitational potential on mass basis
w V
 wV g z
g   gz ( Pa  pressure) gravitational potential on volume basis
V
 wV g z
g   z (m  height or in water column)
 w Vg
In hydrology, one prefers to use the potential on a weight basis, and potentials
are referred to as 'heads'. In the following, we shall restrict ourselves to water
potentials based on weight. In analogy to Eq. 2.16, we can write
ht  hm  hO  hg (2.17)
With the potentials now called 'heads' and the subscripts having the same
meaning as in Eq. 2.16
 The matric head (hm) in unsaturated soil is negative, because work is
needed to withdraw water against the soil-matric forces. At the
groundwater level, atmospheric pressure exists and therefore h, = 0;

23
 Changes in total water head in the soil may also be caused by changes in
the pressure of the air adjacent to it. In natural soils, however, such
changes are fairly exceptional, so we can assume that he, = 0;
In soil-water studies, we can very often neglect the influence of the osmotic head.
Taking h0 = 0, hg = z and denoting ht as H, we can also write
H = hm + z (2.18)
H = hydraulic head (m)
z = elevation head or gravitational head (m)
According to Equation 11.10, differences in head determine the direction and the
H
magnitude of soil-water flow. When the soil water is in equilibrium,   0 , and
z
there is no flow.
Measurements of Soil water pressure` head
Tensiometer is used to measure soil-water pressure head, h, or the matric head,
hm are usually restricted to a particular range of the head.
A tensiometer consists of a ceramic porous cup positioned in the soil. This cup is
attached to a water-filled tube, which is connected to a measuring device. As
long as there is a pressure-head gradient between the water in the cup and the
water in the soil, water will flow through the cup wall. Under equilibrium
conditions, the pressure head of the soil water is obtained from the water
pressure inside the tensiometer. As the porous cup of the tensiometer allows air
to enter the system for h < -800 cm, direct measurements of the pressure head in
the field are only possible from 0 to -800 cm.

24
Fig. 2.11: Tensiometers

The principle of tensiometry can be seen in Figure 2.11. The soil profile is in
hydrological equilibrium here, which means that at any place in the profile the
pressure head (h) is equal to the reversal of the gravitational head, i.e. h = -z.
Commonly used tensiometers are illustrated in Figure 1.10. They are:
 Vacuum gauge (Type A);
 Mercury-water-filled tubes (Types B and C). For Type B, we see that
 
h  d w   m d m .
 w 
With the densities of mercury, m = 13 600 kg/m3, and water, w =
1000 kg/m3, it follows that h = dw - 13.6 dm
 
 For Type C, ,we see that h  d w   m d m and dw = do + dm so that
 w 
  
h  d m 1  m   d 0 12.6 d m
 w 
Electronic transducers (Type D); they convert changes in pressure into small
electrical forces, which are first amplified and then measured with a voltmeter.

25
Good contact between the soil and the porous cup of a tensiometer is essential
for the functioning of a tensiometer. The best way to place a tensiometer in the
soil is to bore a hole with the same diameter as the porous cup to the desired
depth and then to push the cup into the bottom of the hole. Usually, tensiometers
are installed permanently at different depths.
Soil water retention
The soil stores water needed by plants. Adsorptive and capillary forces, also
called matric forces, hold significant amounts of water in the voids between
individual soil particles. Adsorptive forces result because of the attraction
between negatively charged caly particles and the positive end of dipole water
molecules. Capillary forces are due to adhesion between soil particles and water,
and the surface tension of water.
Matric forces must be overcome to remove water from a soil. The minimum force
required to remove water from a soil varies with the amount of water in the soil,
as illustrated by the soil characteristics curve in Fig. 2.12. As the voids between
soil particles are filled with water and the soil approaches saturation, the matric
forces holding water in the soil approach zero. Conversely, as the water content
of the soil approaches zero the matric forces approach negative infinity. Thus, it
is much easier for plants to obtain water when the soil is moist than when it is
dry.
When a dry soil is wetted slowly, water spreads as a thin film over the surface of
soil particles. As more water is added, the thin film gets progressively thickened
and enters the pore system. The wedges between adjacent soil particles and the
micro-pores are first filled up. Water then slowly occupies the macro-pores
driving out air form them. The process continues until forces holding the water in
the soil matrix are superseded by the gravity resulting in downward movement of
water from the macro-pores. As all pores get fully filled up by water, the soil
reaches the saturation point. At this point gravity exceeds the forces holding
water in the soil matrix and water moves downwards.
The previous sections showed that the pressure head of water in the unsaturated
soil arises from local interactions between soil and water. When the pressure

26
head of the soil water changes the water content of the soil will also change. The
graph representing the relationship between pressure head and water content is
generally called the ‘soil-water retention curve’ or the ‘soil-moisture
characteristic’. Applying different pressure heads step by step and measuring the
moisture content allows us to find a curve of pressure head, h, versus soil-water
content, . The pressure heads vary from 0 cm (for saturation) to 107 cm (for
oven-dry conditions). In analogy with pH, pF is the logarithm of the tension or
suction in cm of water. Thus
pF  log h (2.19)
Figure 2.12 shows typical water retention curves of four standard soil types.
Fig. 2.12: Soil-water retention curves for four different soil types, and their ranges
of plant-available water
The curves show a continuous nature of attraction between soil and water. As
the soil water content decreases, soil water tension rises and at higher tension,
the soil water content becomes low. On the other hand, tension become
particularly insignificant as the soil approaches the saturation point. Different

27
soils have different water retention curves (Fig. 2.12). Heaver soil retains greater
quantity of water at any particular tension in comparison to a coarser soil. The
water content of a soil depends on the relative proportions of silt and clay.
Greater amount of silt and clay in soil encourages retention of more water at any
particular suction.
Between saturation and dry are two important soil water contents relative to the
plant. These are field capacity and permanent wilting point. They define
respectively, the upper and the lower limits of soil water that is available to the
plants.
The following illustrates the concepts of field capacity and permanent wilting
point. Consider a completely saturated root zone of soil (all voids within the root
zone are full of water) that is receiving as much water as it is losing. Suddenly
inflow to the soil ends. Flow from the soil will continue as long as gravitational
forces exceed the matric forces tending to hold water in the soil. As the soil
dewaters, the matric force steadily increase (negatively) to contribute to a
steadily declining outflow rate. This continues until the rate of water movement
through the soil is negligible. The water content when this occurs is filed capacity.
Because many soils are dewatered from saturation to filed capacity in less than
48 hours, water in excess of field capacity is not considered to be available to
plants. Field capacity is defined as the soil water content corresponding to a
matric potential ranging from 0.1 bar for sand to 0.5 bar or more for very fine
textured soils. A matric potential 1/3 bar is used to define field capacity for most
soils.
The ‘wilting point’ or ‘permanent wilting point’ is defined as the soil water
condition at which the leaves undergo a permanent reduction in their water
content (wilting) because of a deficient supply of soil water, a condition from
which the leaves do not recover in an approximately saturated atmosphere
overnight. The permanent wilting point (PWP) is not a constant, because it is
influenced by the plant characteristics and meteorological conditions. In the
following, we shall take h = -15000 (pF 4.2) as the permanent wilting point.

28
Available Water
The amount of water held by a soil between field capacity (pF 2.0) and wilting
point (pF 4.2) is defined as the amount of water available for plants. Below the
wilting point, water is too strongly bound to the soil particles. Above field
capacity, water either drains from the soil without being intercepted by roots, or
too wet conditions will cause aeration problems in the root zone, which restricts
water uptake. The ease of water extraction by roots is not the same over the
whole range of available water.
Table 1: The average amount of available water in the root zone

29
Available
water
Fig. 2.13: Relationship between soil texture and water content
Tab. Pressure conversion factors

kPa MPa cm H2O mbar bar atm
1 0.001 10 10 0.01 0.0099
FC 10 0.01 100 100 0.1 0.099
PWP 1,500 1.5 15,000 15,000 15 14.85
2.4. Infiltration
2.4.1. Introduction
Definitions
 Infiltration is a process in which water enters the surface strata of the soil
mass.
 The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if any, and
thereafter the excess water moves vertically downwards to reach the
groundwater table. This vertical movement is called percolation.

30
 Infiltration capacity of the soil is defined as the maximum rate at which it
is capable of absorbing water.
Infiltration rate decreases during rain or irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid
initially and the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. In general
infiltration rate is high in the early stages of infiltration, particularly where the soil
is initially dry, but tends to decrease monotonically and eventually to approach
asymptotically a constant rate, which is often termed the final infiltration capacity
but which is preferably called steady-state infiltration.
The decrease of infiltration rate from an initially high rate is the result of decrease
in hydraulic potential gradient (constituting one of the forces drawing water into
the soil) which occurs as infiltration proceeds. If the surface of an initially dry soil
is suddenly saturated, as, for instance, if the surface is ponded, the hydraulic
gradient acting in the surface layer is at first very steep. As the wetting zone
deepens, however, this gradient is reduced, and, as the wetted part of the profile
becomes thicker and thicker, the suction gradient tends eventually to become
vanishingly small.
It is influenced by soil properties and also by moisture gradient. Moisture tension
may be zero near the surface of soil shortly after wetting and may be very high a
few centimeters below, thus causing a large downward force (in addition to
gravity) pulling the water into the unsaturated soil. Several hours after wetting,
these differences in tension may be very small, and gravity then becomes the
dominant force causing infiltration. The decrease of infiltration with time after
wetting a soil is of importance in rainfall-runoff studies and in irrigation.
2.4.2. Factors affecting infiltration
Major factors governing the rate of infiltration of water are: (i) Conditions and
characteristics of surface soil, (ii) Duration and intensity of irrigation or rainfall,
(iii)Vegetation cover, (iv) Tillage and crop management practices
Condition and characteristics of soil primarily involved in the process are the soil
water content, soil texture, soil structure, soil compaction, soil organic matter

31
content soil surface sealing, presence of cracks in surface soil, soil depth, depth
of water table and the soil hydraulic conductivity.
 Soil water content and looseness of the soil surface exert a profound
influence on the initial rate and the total amount of infiltration. As the soil
water content decreases or soil gets compact, the rate of infiltration
decreases.
 Soil tillage and crop management practices increase the looseness of the
soil and by that increase the infiltration rate.
 Contour ploughing and terracing in agricultural areas have the effect of
delaying runoff resulting thereby in increased infiltration.
 Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there
are large pores.
 On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in
between which there are small pores
 In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily
into larger pores; it takes less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In
other words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse textured soils than for fine
textured soils
 The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry,
than when it is wet. As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to
a field, the water at first infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the
infiltration rate decreases.
 Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into
granular soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and
compact soils.
 Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural
practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
 A soil surface with vegetative cover favours a greater infiltration than a
bare soil as the vegetative cover encourages slow movement of water
over the surface.

32
 Mulch-cover on bare soil has more or less the effect of vegetation in
absorbing the raindrop impact and maintaining a fairly high rate of
infiltration.
The infiltration rate is influenced by the rainfall duration and its intensity.
 The duration of sustained heavy rainfall results in a steady reduction in the

infiltration capacity until the rate of infiltration attains a nearly constant
value.
 When the rainfall rate is smaller than the infiltration capacity, there is still a
steady reduction of the infiltration capacity, but the rate of reduction is
lower. Under this condition, all rainfall will be infiltrated as long as rain
falls.
 Rainfall intensity affects infiltration in two ways:
i. when rainfall intensity is lesser than infiltration rate
o In this case, all the rainwater will be absorbed by the soil
ii. When rainfall intensity greater than infiltration rate
o In this case infiltration rate decreases due to the following reasons:
 Increment of supply of moisture to the surface layer
 mechanical compaction of soil by raindrops impact
 in-wash of fine soil particles
During heavy rainfall, the top soil is affected by mechanical compaction and by
the inwash of finer materials. This leads to faster decrease in the rate of
infiltration than with low intensities of rainfall.
2.4.3. Measurements of Infiltration
Infiltration is measured using a device called infiltrometer. Two types of
infiltrometers used are: single and double ring infiltrometer.
It consists of a hollow metal cylinder 30cm in diameter and 60 cm long driven into
the ground such that 10cm of it projects above ground level. A graduated jar or

33
burette is used to add water, to give directly the volume of water added over
time. Knowing the volume of water added at different time intervals, the plot of
infiltration capacity vs. time is obtained. The experiments are continued till a
uniform rate of infiltration is obtained.
a) b)
Inner ring
Outer ring
Fig. 2.14: Ring infiltrometer, a) single ring, b) double ring
Under single ring infiltrometer the infiltrated water spreads at the outlet from the
tube as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2.14. As the result the tube area is not
representative of the area through which infiltration takes place. To overcome
this problem, the ring infiltrometer consisting of a set of two concentric rings, i.e.
double ring (Fig. 2.14 b) is used. In this case, two rings are inserted into the
ground and water is maintained on the soil surface, in both the rings, to a
common level. The outer ring provides a water jacket or buffer to the infiltrating
water from the inner ring and hence prevents spreading out of the infiltrating
water from the inner tube. The measurement of water volume is taken from the
inner ring only.
Infiltration equations
An ideal infiltration capacity curve proposed by Horton is given by
it   i f  i0  i f e  Bt (2.20)
where i(t) is the infiltration capacity at any time t from the beginning of water
application in mm/h, i0 is the maximum initial infiltration vale, when t  0 in mm/h
at the beginning of water application , i f is minimum infiltration rate at the final
steady stage where the soil profile becomes fully saturated which is related to the

34
hydraulic conductivity, B is an empirical constant depending on soil types, soil
cover complex, vegetation and other factors and t is the time lapse from the start
of water application. Values of i0 , i f and B are dependent on number of factors
like soil characteristics and climatic conditions. A typical curve of i(t) separating
the rainfall intensity from infiltration and surface runoff is shown in Fig. 2.15.
i0
i(t)
P(t)
Rainfall & Infiltration (mm/h)
if
Fig. 2.15:
Pilip equation
This is given by
1
I t   S t  A  t 2
(2.21)
1
1 
it  
dI
 St 2 A (2.22)
dt 2
where S is the sorptivity which is a factor characterizing the soil water
relationship, and A is the factor that represents the effect of gravity.
Equation 2.22 shows that the infiltration capacity decreases with infiltration time,
A gives the final infiltration rate, the value of which is very near the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the topsoil.
Kostiakov equation
k
Kostiakov : i(t )  k  t  n , I (t )   t1 n  A  t B
1 n (2.23)
k
modified Kostiakov : i(t )  k  t  n  C , I (t )   t1 n  C  t  A  t B  C  t
1 n
35
Where k (equivalent depth/time) and n are fitted to infiltration trials, and C is the
infiltration rate at large time t.
Example: From a double ring infiltrometer the following infiltration rate were
observed.
Time (h) 0.0167 0.0583 0.125 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.25
i (cm/h) 8.76 7.90 6.45 4.68 2.75 1.76 1.10
Determine the constants i0, if and B of Horton’s equation to describe the above
data
Solution: The Horton’s equation is given by
it   i f  i0  i f e  Bt
The constants i0, if and B can be found out from the following two methods
Method i: The given data is plotted on an ordinary graph as shown in fig. below:
10
9
8
Infiltration (cm/h)
7 i0
6 FC= area of shaded portion
5 = 2.515cm (cm/h*h)
4
3
2
1
if
0
Then exponential
0 0.2 0.5 1curve
2 is3fitted
4 by
5 eye
6 to7 the8plotted
9 10data. This yielded
 Time
i0=9.2 cm/h (h)
and
 if =1.0cm/h
the value of B may then be obtained as follows:
The Horton’s equation is rewritten as
i  i   if 0  i f e  Bt
Integrating the above equation on both sides, we get

36
 i  i dt

LHS = f = the area of shaded portion in fig = Fc
0
i i f 
 i  i f e  Bt  dt 
 0
RHS = 0
0 B
From these two results we can determine B from the equation
B
i0  i f

9.2 1.0  3.26
Fc 2.515
The Horton’s equation to describe the given data is therefore given by
i  1.0  9.2 1.0e 3.26t  1.0  8.2 e 3.26t
2.5. Flow of water in the soil
Soil water is dynamic and moves constantly in the soil medium in different
directions under different forces acting on it. Downward and lateral movement of
water occurs during or after irrigation or rainfall and upward movement takes
place when upper soil layers start drying up owing to evaporation or
evapotraspiration.
Soil water moves in response to soil-water potential differences. Water will move
from points of higher water potential toward points of lower potential. Soil-water
potential differences give rise to water flow which can be either
 a viscous flow of liquid water in water filled pores, or vapour flow in air-
filled pores; or
 a diffusive flow, namely, diffusion of water molecules as vapour.
For water movement the first form is predominant in wet soils, and the second is
responsible for water transfer in dry soils.
The forces causing soil-water movement may be divided into classes based on
the characteristics form of such movements:
 mechanical forces are those forces, such as gravitational, pressure, and
matrical forces, that cause mass flow.
 Molecular forces include the osmotic, adsorptive and vapour pressure
gradient forces that cause diffusion transfer.

37
Movement of water in soil medium may be considered in different stages under
different conditions of soil wetness. These stages are: (i) movement in saturated
soil and (ii) movement in unsaturated soil.
i. Flow of water in saturated soil
Under saturated condition when all soil pores are completely filled with water, the
movement is referred to as saturated flow. Water in saturated soils is not under
any tension and the flow follows either poiseuille’s or Darcy’s law.
According to Poiseuille’s law the rate of discharge, Q, of capillary tube with radius
 r 2 P
r is Q  (2.24)
8 L
Where P = pressure difference between two ends of the tube =  w H
 w = density of water and H = difference in head between two ends of the tube
 = viscosity of water
L = length of the tube
The equation states that the flow is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
radius of pore. The shows that a soil with large sized pores, for example, sandy
soil permits a faster movement of water than a soil with smaller sized pores (clay
soil).
Suppose a soil column contains cylindrical, parallel pores of one size only, and
the number of pores divided by the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow
is n. Then the flow rate through the column is
q  nQ (2.25)
If the pores, instead of being all the same, are of various size classes, the total
flow is the sum of the flows of each of the pore size classes.
Darcy's law
Darcy (1856) gave the empirical relationship between water flux and energy
gradient. Water flow in saturated soils is considered to follow the Darcy’s law
which states that the velocity of water flow is directly proportional to the
difference of hydraulic heads and inversely proportional to the flow length.

38
For the derivation of Darcy's equation we shall discuss a simple experiment
demonstrated in Fig. below. The soil is placed in a horizontal cylinder connected
on both sides with vessels containing water maintained at a constant level in
each vessel by an overflow valve. If the water level on the left side is higher than
that on the right side, water flows to the right. The rate of discharge Q = V/t is
simply measured by the volumetric overflow V in time t. The flux density q (LT -1)
(macroscopic flow rate) is
V
q (2.26)
At
where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil column perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
Constant
h Constant
A V
L
Fig. 2.16:
In 1956, Darcy experimentally demonstrated for columns of sand a linear
relationship between the flux density q and the hydraulic gradient I h. In our
experiment shown
h
qK (2.27)
L
where h/L is the hydraulic gradient Ih, h the difference between water level on
both ends of the soil column of length L. h considered the hydraulic head drop
along the soil. Inasmuch as h/L is dimensionless, K is proportionality coefficient
called hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic gradient is the fall or decrease in
hydraulic head per distance in direction of flow. When hydraulic gradient
becomes unity, the driving force is equal in magnitude to force of gravity. That
means, q=K

39
When we read piezometer levels h1 and h2 at elevations z1 and z2, respectively,
we have in terms of the potential H
 H  H1  H H
q   K  2    K . or q   K …(2.28
 z1  z 2  z z
where the total potential head H (= h + z) is related to a unit weight of water.

This equation states that the flow is proportional to the driving force of the water
flow that is the gradient of the potential.
 The negative sign in the above equations means that water flows in the
direction of decreasing potential or against the positive direction of z.
Limitations of Darcy’s law
Darcy’s law is not valid for all conditions of liquid flow. It applies only when the
flow is laminar and where soil-water interaction does not result in change of
permeability with a change in gradient. Laminar flow occurs usually in silt and
clay soil
Movement of water in saturated soils does not depend on the total pore space,
but on the size of conducting pores as it appears from the Poiseuilles’ and
Darcy’s law.
Hydraulic conductivity
The hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ability of the soil to conduct the
flow of water. It is a soil property that is highly dependent on the soil water
content and thus with matric potential. The hydraulic conductivity also differs
greatly between soils. The reason is that the friction forces acting on the flowing
water depend not so much on the total amount of water in the soil, but on the
geometry of the liquid filled pore space. This in turn depends on the pore-size
distribution of the soil, and thus on the soil texture and soil structure. Finally, the
hydraulic conductivity depends also on the friction between water molecules and
thus on the viscosity of the water.
Hydraulic conductivity of soils decreases by several orders of magnitude as the
water content changes from saturation to permanent wilting point.

40
The hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils is constant in time and, in a uniform
soil, also in position.
ii. Flow of water in unsaturated soil
Soil of which the pore volume is only partially filled with water are called
unsaturated. The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is smaller than that
of saturated soils, because only the pores which contain water can contribute to
the flow of water. When a saturated soil starts to become unsaturated, the large
pores are emptied first. As the result, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
decreases very fast with water content. The flow becomes a function of the water
content of the soil and is referred to as unsaturated flow and the conductivity of
the soil is referred to as unsaturated hydraulic conductivity.
Under saturated condition there exists steady state flow through a tube of
uniform size (Fig. 2.17), the flux density or flow rate is the same through every
cross-section of the tube. Consequently water is not stored. On the contrary,
under non-steady state flow, water is stored (or in some situations it is coming
from storage) in the soil. Thus in transient or non-steady state flow, the flux
density entering the tube in Fig. 3.2 would not equal the flux density leaving the
tube. The difference between that entering and that exiting is the storage. That is,
the storage (which can be expressed as a change in volume water content with

time, can be determined from the difference between inflow and outflow
t
(which can be expressed as the change in flux density along the length of the
q
tube, .
s
The description given above has been termed conservation of mass because it
states that water is not lost or destroyed, i.e., what flows in is either stored or
flows out. For one dimensional water flow in soils, the conservation of mass can
be stated mathematically as
 q
 (2.29)
t s

41
In which  is volume water content, t is time, q is water flux density, and s is
distance. If we substitute from Dary’s law or equation (2.28) for q in equation
(2.29) we obtain
   H 
 K (2.30)
t s  s 
A qout
qin
s
Fig. 2.17: a tube of cross-sectional area A and length s is uniformly packed with
a uniform soil. Water enters at a flux density qin and leaves at a flux density qout
2.6. Water extraction by plant
Abut 60 – 95% of a physiologically active plant is water. Water is required for
such plant processes as:
 Photosynthesis,
 Transport of minerals and photosynthates,
 Structural support,
 Growth and
 transpiration
The plant uses water primarily for transpiration. The process of transpiration,
defined as water loss through evaporation of living plants via openings of
stomata, usually accounts for about 99% of the water used by the plants.
Transpiration involves the conversion of water from the liquid to vapor phase
within the leaf and its support through stomata of the leaf into the atmosphere. It
occurs when the vapour pressure within the leaf exceeds that of the surrounding
air and stomata are open to allow carbon dioxide into the plant for
photosynthesis.
The plant extracts water from the soil to replenish water lost by transpiration.
Water moves through the soil into the roots, up the xylem and into the leaves due

42
to a water potential gradient between the leaf and the soil. The rate of water flow
is given by
 leaf  soil
Q  ,  leaf   T  O
rplant  rsoil
Where Q =rate of flow

 leaf = total water potential in the leaf
 soil = total water potential in the soil

T = turgor pressure within the leaf
 O =osmotic pressure within the plant
rplant =resistance to water movement into the roots, up the xylem, and
into the leaf;

rsoil =resistance to water movement in the soil
1
The term rsoil can also be written as: rsoil 
K
Where: K is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Absorption of water occurs mainly through the roots. As the plant removes water
from the soil, the water content of soil decreases and  soil decreases (becomes
more negative). At the same time the conductivity of the soil decreases (hence
rsoil increases). Decreasing  soil and increasing rsoil tends to decrease water flow
into the plant.

Water moves in the soil toward a single root along a gradient of decreasing water
potential. If water is to enter the root, the root should be in contact with the soil
and at a lower water potential.

43
Fig. 2.18: Soil water extraction pattern

Plants have normally a higher concentration of roots in the upper part of the root
zone. In a normal soil with good aeration and without restrictive layers, a greater
portion of roots of most plants remains within 45 to 60 cm surface soil layers and
most the water needs of plants are met from this zone. As the available water
from this zone decreases, plants extract more water from lower depths. About
40% of the water need is met from the first 25% of the root zone (Fig. 2.18).
When the water content of upper soil layers reaches the wilting point, all the
water need of plants are essentially met from lower layers.
In uniform soil profile with moist soil, plants usually extract 40, 30, 20 and 10
percent of the water needed from respective quarters of the root zone (Fig. 2.18).
The extraction pattern is normally positively correlated with the root distribution
pattern.

44

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Chapter –soil-water-plant relation ship 2014

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 1

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 2

The percentage content of soil separates in a soil is determined by mechanical

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 3

Fig. 2.2: The relative sizes of

Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 4

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 5

Fig. 2.4: Soil structure and its effect on permeability

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 6

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as three-phase system

Symbols given in Fig. 2.4 are defined as:

Vs = volume of soil solids Va =volume of soil air

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 7

Mt = total soil mass Ma =mass of soil air which is

Ms =mass of soil solids negligible

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 8

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes 9

W1 =weight of empty aluminium box, gm

To get the soil-water content on a volume basis, we need samples of known

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.5: Neutron probe to measure soil-water content

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Permanent welting point

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

Availability of water increases usually with fineness of soil particles, as the

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.6: Schematic diagram of two

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.7: Schematic presentation showing the relationship of adhesion

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.8: Capillary rise of water

The capillary concept can be illustrated by regarding the soil as a mixture of

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.9: Relationship between capillary raise and soil texture

Salt Pure water

Fig. 2.10: Illustration of the concept of osmotic pressure

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.11: Tensiometers

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Fig. 2.13: Relationship between soil texture and water content

Tab. Pressure conversion factors

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

Irrigation Engineering lecture notes

 The duration of sustained heavy rainfall results in a steady reduction in the

 Rainfall intensity affects infiltration in two ways: