Research and Selection of Research Topic

Subject: Advance Clinical Research

Submitted to: Dr. Umbreen Khizar

Dated: 2nd May, 2020

Submitted by: Akhwand Abdur Raffi Saulat

Roll no: ADCP-021R20-6

Session: 2020-2021

Department of Psychology
Scientific research

Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue (Creswell, 2012). Scientific Research is systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about
the presumed relations among such phenomena (Kerlinger & Rinehart, 1986).

Although scientific research is an objective and systematize method for acquiring any
information regarding a certain phenomenon but subjective factors also in play, so research should
equip himself with proper tool before indulging himself in any sort of research. In order to obtain
sound conclusive result researcher should have solid knowledge of research methods, He should
have a proper rationale behind his forthcoming task. An open mind regarding the results should be
present and he should be objective and empirical about the data all the time.

Researches are classified into three types depending upon the research approach intended
to be used i.e. quantitative, qualitative research and mixed approach.

Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research is the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena

via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques (Given, 2008). It is an objective and
measurable approach which is open to broad category of statistical analysis

Qualitative Research:

Qualitative Research is the interpretive study of a specified issue or problem in which the
researcher is central to the sense that is made (Banister et al., 1994). It is primarily exploratory
research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It
provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.

Mixed Research

The collection or analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study in
which the data are collected concurrently or sequentially, are given a priority, and involve the
integration of data at one or more stages in the process of research. (Creswell et al., 2003).

Using both forms of data, for example, allows researchers to simultaneously generalize
results from a sample to a population and to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of
interest. It also allows researchers to test theoretical models and to modify them based on
participant feedback. Results of precise, instrument-based measurements may, likewise, be
augmented by contextual, field-based information (Greene & Caracelli, 1997).
 Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Concepts are in the form of themes, motifs,

1. Concepts are in form of distinct variables.
generalization and taxonomies.

2. Objective Subjective
3. Research questions: How many? Strength of Association? Research questions: What? Why?
4. "Hard" science "Soft" science

5. Test theory Develops theory

Multiple realities: focus is complex and

6. One reality: focus is concise and narrow
broad

7. Facts are value-free and unbiased Facts are value-laden and could be biased

Discovery, description, understanding,

8. Reduction, control, precision
shared interpretation

9. Measurable Interpretive

10. Mechanistic: parts equal the whole Organismic: whole is greater than the parts

Report rich narrative, individual;

Report statistical analysis. Basic element of analysis are
11. interpretation. Basic element of analysis is
numbers
words/ideas.
12. Researcher is separate Researcher is part of process

13. Context free Context dependent

14. Reasoning is logistic and deductive Reasoning is dialectic and inductive

15. Establishes relationships, causation Describes meaning, discovery

Strives for generalization. Generalizations leading to Strives for uniqueness. Patterns and theories
16.
prediction, explanation, and understanding developed for understanding

Sample size is not a concern; seeks

17. Sample size: n
"informal rich" sample

Provides information as to "which beans are

18. "Counts the beans"
worth counting
Characteristics of Scientific Research:

The three most basic characteristics of a scientific research which should be present to make it
work are as under:

1. Control
2. Operationalist
3. Replication

Control:

Control refers to holding constant or eliminating the influence of extraneous variables so

that an unambiguous claim about cause and effect can be made. One of the most important tasks
of the psychological researcher is to identify causal relationships, and without control for
extraneous variables, this is not possible. It ultimately will increase the validity of the research.

Operationalism:

The principle of operationalism was originally set forth by the physicist Percy Bridgman
(1882–1961). Bridgman (1927) argued that science must be specific and precise and that each
concept must be defined by the steps or operations used to measure them. The concept later
evolved to the concept of operational definition.

There were certain criticism on the operationalism or operational definition One of the
early criticisms was that their demands were too strict. Another criticism was that a single
operational definition could not completely specify the meaning of a term. The prominent research
methodologist Donald Campbell criticized operational definitions on the grounds that any set of
operations will always be incomplete (Kyle, 2010).

Replication

Scientific knowledge is greatly advanced by replication. Replication refers to the

reproduction of the results obtained from one study in additional studies. Before trusting the
findings of a single research study, one must determine whether the observed results are reliable.
Researcher should always be cautious when interpreting findings from a single study in isolation
from other research. To make a general claim, one must be confident that same results will be
found if the study is repeated. If the observations are not repeatable, the observations were either
due to chance or they operate differently in different contexts. If the variables of interest operate
differently in different contexts, then contextual factors must be systematically examined in
additional research.
Types of Variables

There are three types of variables usually involved in any research (a) independent
variable which is manipulated by the researcher to determine its effect (b) dependent variable
which is being affected by the indented variable (c) extraneous variables are any variables that
you are not intentionally studying in your research but imparting any effect on the dependent
variable.

Ethical Issues Regarding Research

Prior to conducting any study, the proposed research must be reviewed to determine if it
meets ethical standards. There are number of different ethical issues that should be considered
before, during and after the research i.e. Risk/Benefit Ratio, Informed Consent, Privacy,
Deception and Debriefing.

Risk/Benefit Ratio

A subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of a research project is used to determine
whether the research should be conducted.

Informed Consent

Researchers are ethically obligated to describe the research procedures clearly, identify any
aspects of the study that might influence individuals’ willingness to participate, and answer any
questions participants have about the research. Research participants must be allowed to withdraw
their consent at any time without penalties. Individuals must not be pressured to participate in
research. Research participants are ethically obligated to behave appropriately during the research
by not lying, cheating, or engaging in other fraudulent behavior.

Privacy

Privacy refers to the rights of individuals to decide how information about them is to be
communicated to others.

Deception

Deception in psychological research occurs when researchers withhold information or

intentionally misinform participants about the research. By its nature, deception violates the ethical
principle of informed consent. Deception is considered a necessary research strategy in some
psychological research. Deceiving individuals in order to get them to participate in the research is
always unethical. Researchers must carefully weigh the costs of deception against the potential
benefits of the research when considering the use of deception
 Debriefing

Researchers are ethically obligated to seek ways to benefit participants even after the
research is completed. One of the best ways to accomplish this goal is by providing participants
with a thorough debriefing. Debriefing benefits both participants and researchers. Researchers are
ethically obligated to explain to participants their use of deception as soon as is feasible. Debriefing
informs participants about the nature of the research and their role in the study and educates them
about the research process. The overriding goal of debriefing is to have individuals feel good about
their participation. Debriefing allows researchers to learn how participants viewed the procedures,
allows potential insights into the nature of the research findings, and provides ideas for future
research.

Process of Conducting Research

Research Topic

Research problem is an area of interest which the researcher wants explore. It could also
be defined as a broad subject matter addressed by the study. Before abruptly jumping to the
selection of topic researcher should focus on his interest, time, scope and resources.

Interest: A person should choose something that he will enjoy studying thus minimizing
the effect of fatigue

Time: One of the major points in selecting a research topic is time management. A
researcher consider that whether the topic under consideration is worth the time is giving and
whether it be done by the end of the time constrain. Occasionally researchers have to withdraw
their research because of the lack of time

Scope: The should have a better understanding about all the aspects of research that how
well it can contribute to the society, what would be the limitations, how well it can appeal to the
modern day research and how it can broaden the aspects of knowledge.

Resources: A researcher should give a look to the resources he had, before endeavoring in
any kind of research, the lack of resources is a big cause for relinquishing the research.

When all the points are understood and explored then a person can pick a research topic
which suits his requirements.

Refining a Research Topic

Variety of different strategies can be adopted for refining the research topic, some of these
are a) background reading b) retrospective search c) contemporary search

Background Reading: For getting an overview of the research topic under consideration
background study it essential. The researcher could consult texts books, reference books, different
lectures or online resources for gathering as much as information and understanding as possible to
have clarity and comprehension of the phenomenon, which would be helpful in narrowing the
research topic.

Retrospective Search: In-depth study of the previous articles, research paper and books
online will broaden the prospective of the researcher and he will be able to acquire the information
about what has already been done, in which dimension or in which settings. It will also help in
acquiring the historical view of the topic in hand that how it has been evolved to its current
position. Researcher can also be able to avoid the mistakes of his predecessors.

Contemporary Search: The contemporary search can help the searcher to know about the
recent trends in the domain he is interested to study. The sources of contemporary search are recent
studies, electronic, print and social media, updated editions and reported issues regarding past
studies.
Research Problem

A research problem is a general educational issue, concern, or controversy addressed in

research that narrows the topic. For example the topic of the research is gun violence in teen, the
research problem will there form is “Is the gun violence in teen is increasing due to frustration”.
It will pin point the aspect the researcher will follow.

Hypothesis

A research is done to accept or reject the hypothesis formed on the earlier stage of the study
which was in-turn based on research problem. It is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon;
testable hypotheses have clearly defined concepts (operational definitions), are not circular, and
refer to concepts that can be observed.

Directional and Non Directional Hypothesis

Directional hypothesis measures the direction of variation of two variables. This effect of
one variable on the other variable can be in positive direction or in negative direction. Non-
directional hypothesis does not indicate the kind of effects but only shows the relation between two
variables.

After the formation of hypothesis research design would be choose based on the intent of
the researcher, that how he would like to explore the research question and test the hypothesis. It
could be qualitative, quantitative or mixed (explained earlier).

Sampling

In research terms a sample is a

group of people that are taken from a
larger population for measurement. The
sample should be representative of the
population to ensure that we can
generalize the findings from the research
sample to the population as a whole. The
method through which sample is
obtained is known as sampling

The identification and selection

of elements that will make up the sample
is at the heart of all sampling techniques;
the sample is chosen from the sampling
frame, or list of all members of the
population of interest. Researchers are not interested simply in the responses of those surveyed;
instead, they seek to describe the larger population from which the sample was drawn.
 The ability to generalize from a sample to the population depends critically on the
representativeness of the sample. A biased sample is one in which the characteristics of the sample
are systematically different from the characteristics of the population. Selection bias occurs when
the procedures used to select a sample result in the overrepresentation or underrepresentation of
some segment(s) of the population.

Types of Sampling

There are two types of sampling (a) probability sampling and (b) non-probability sampling.

Remaining Steps:

The researcher will apply the appropriate tools for the collection of data it could be
scales, questionnaire (open ended close ended) based on the nature of research.

The collected data will then be analyzed via statistical techniques or through content
analysis or narrative analysis or both.

The conclusions will be made on the basis of interpretation of data and the discussion
will be done focusing on the findings and limitations of the study.
References

Banister, P., Burman, E., Parker, I., Taylor, M., & Tindall, C. (1994). Qualitative
Methods in Psychology: A Research Guide. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

Bridgman, P. W., (1927). The Logic of Modern Physics. New York: MacMillan
Publishers.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Quantitative and Qualitative Research. New York: Pearson Publications. ISBN: 0-13-136739-0.

Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M. L., & Hanson, W. E. (2003). Advanced
mixed methods research designs. In A.Tashakkori & C.Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed
methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 209–240). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Given, Lisa M. (2008). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Los
Angeles: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-4163-1.

Greene, J. C., & Caracelli, V. J. (Eds.). (1997). Advances in mixed-method evaluation:

The challenges and benefits of integrating diverse paradigms. (New Directions for Evaluation,
No. 74). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kerlinger, F.N., & Rinehart, N. (1986). Foundations of Behaviour Research. Winston

Inc.

Kyle, A. J. (2010). Introduction to Scientific Research. Retrieved May 2, 2020, from

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