PLC PDF

SPECIAL SECTION ON ADVANCES IN POWER LINE COMMUNICATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Received June 2, 2019, accepted July 2, 2019, date of publication July 11, 2019, date of current version September 4, 2019.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2928391
The Role of Power Line Communications in the

Smart Grid Revisited: Applications, Challenges,
and Research Initiatives
GREGORIO LÓPEZ 1 , (Member, IEEE), JAVIER MATANZA 1 ,
DAVID DE LA VEGA 2 , (Member, IEEE), MARTA CASTRO3 , AMAIA ARRINDA 2 ,
JOSÉ IGNACIO MORENO 4,5 , (Senior Member, IEEE), AND ALBERTO SENDIN 1
1 ETSI ICAI, Universidad Pontificia Comillas, 28015 Madrid, Spain
2 BilbaoEngineering College, University of the Basque Country, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
3 Tecnalia.
Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Bizkaia, 48160 Derio, Spain
4 Department of Telematics Engineering, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
5 Department of Telematics Engineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain
Corresponding author: Gregorio López ([email protected])

This work was supported in part by the Basque Government under Grants IT1234-19 and Elkartek KK-2018/00037, by the Spanish
Government under Grant RTI2018-099162-B-I00 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER-UE), by the Research Project MAGOS under Grant
TEC2017-84197-C4-1-R and by the network CITIES funded by CYTED.
ABSTRACT Power line communications (PLC) have been an active research area for many years and it is
still the case, mainly because they present economic and technical natural advantages for a wide range of
applications using the existing electrical grid as transmission medium. In this paper, the authors provide an
update on PLC technologies and their applications in Smart Grids, the main challenges they are currently
facing, how they can be addressed, and the current research initiatives.
INDEX TERMS Communications networks, communications technologies, power line communications,

smart grids.
I. INTRODUCTION and it is still an attractive and live research topic, as it is

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are a shown in some recent special issues and surveys on the topic
key aspect in Smart Grids (SG) applications, in general, published in highly recognized research journals [7]–[9].
and in Smart Metering and Advanced Metering Infrastruc- In this paper, the authors, based on their applied research
tures (AMI) [1]–[3], in particular. Power Line Communi- experience on different topics related to PLC during the last
cations (PLC) present some natural advantages that make years, aim to provide their view on the current and foreseen
them appropriate for this kind of applications, such as the role of PLC in the SGs, as well as on the main challenges and
advantage of using the already deployed electrical grid as the research initiatives in PLC.
communication medium. However, since such cables were The article is organized as follows. Section II provides an
designed to transmit power, instead of data, they are usually overview and classification of the main PLC technologies
a harsh communication medium, suffering from frequency available in the market and section III presents both recently
fading, variation of the properties of the propagation medium developed and future applications. Section IV presents the
caused by the continuous connection and disconnection of main challenges that PLC will face in the coming years
different loads, Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI), and, and section V reviews some relevant research initiatives to
above all, a variety of noises and non-intentional emis- address and overcome such challenges. Finally, section VI
sions (NIE) generated by regular appliances, such as TVs or highlights the main conclusions of this review.
boilers, and by novel equipment, such as Distributed Genera-
II. OVERVIEW OF POWER LINE COMMUNICATION
tion (DG) devices, Electric Vehicles (EVs) or battery chargers
TECHNOLOGIES
[4], [5] (the so-called, Grid Edge Technologies [6]). As a
The bandwidth is the most common criterion used to classify
result, PLC has been an active research area in the last years
the different PLC technologies into three different categories
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and [10]: Ultra Narrowband PLC (UNB-PLC), Narrowband PLC
approving it for publication was Jian Song. (NB-PLC), and Broadband PLC (BPL).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
117346 VOLUME 7, 2019
G. López et al.: Role of PLC in the Smart Grid Revisited
UNB-PLC refers to systems using very narrow bandwidth The DSO Endesa has also deployed this technology in
for data transmission in frequencies below 3 kHz. Most of Spain, following the massive deployment mandated by
these technologies transmit the data when the electrical signal the Royal Decree 1634/2006.
crosses zero, in order not to be affected by the high amplitude HDR NB-PLC technologies are based on multicarrier
of mains and harmonics. Due to the extremely low frequency modulations and transmit data rates of hundreds of kbps,
range used by these technologies, they are less affected by which can reach up to 1 Mbps in the frequency range up to
transmission losses, and therefore, they can reach long dis- 500 kHz. These technologies have been developed in the last
tances and even go beyond transformers without repeaters. decade and are one of the preferred solutions for the last-
Since the signal goes beyond transformers, UNB-PLC tech- mile of smart metering applications. This group consists of
nologies can be used both in Medium Voltage (MV) and Low proposals initially promoted by industrial alliances, later stan-
Voltage (LV) sections. The main drawback is the limitation dardized (PRIME and G3-PLC), and actually being deployed;
of conveying very low data rates (a few hundreds of bps). and proposals promoted by standardization bodies (ITU-T
The X10 technology [11] represents a well-known exam- G.hnem and IEEE 1901.2), which have not had commercial
ple of UNB-PLC technology which has been used in home success:
automation since the 1970s. Another example of this kind of • PRIME specification is promoted by the PRIME
PLC technologies is Aclara Two-Way Automatic Communi- Alliance [18] led by the Spanish DSO Iberdrola.
cations System (Aclara TWACS) ) [12], [13], which repre- This specification became later a standard under the
sents the leading UNB-PLC technology for AMI. TWACS reference ITU-T G.9904 [19]. PRIME specification
systems have been widely deployed for remote meter reading defines the Physical (PHY), Data Link (DL) and
and direct load control applications in North America (e.g., Convergence (CL) layers. The PHY layer is based on
Florida Power & Light has a long and successful deploy- Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM),
ment of millions of TWACS-enabled meters and as many supporting different coding schemes, which yield a wide
as one million residential load control devices, supporting range of data rates with different levels of robustness.
one of the largest Demand Response programs in the world) There are two versions of PRIME: PRIME v1.3.6, oper-
[14]. Nevertheless, the low data rate of this technology is a ating in the CENELEC A band (specifically, from 41 to
limiting factor for its use in more advanced and challenging 89 kHz) and widely deployed in some European coun-
applications. tries, and the more recent PRIME v1.4, designed for fre-
NB-PLC refers to systems that work with medium data quencies up to 500 kHz, for its use in the American and
rates in frequencies between 3 and 500 kHz. This fre- Asia Pacific markets. Table 1 compares specifications
quency range includes the European CENELEC bands of both versions. PRIME is currently being deployed in
(3 - 148.5 kHz), the US FCC band (10 - 490 kHz), Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Brazil.
the Japanese ARIB band (10 - 450 kHz), and the Chinese • G3-PLC is a NB-PLC transmision technology devel-
band between 3 kHz and 500 kHz. This category can be oped by the G3-PLC Alliance [20], led by the French
in turn divided into Low Data Rate (LDR) and High Data DSO Enedis (formerly ERDF) and Maxim. It also
Rate (HDR) technologies. became a standard under the reference ITU-T G.9903
LDR NB-PLC technologies are based on single carrier [21]. As PRIME, it uses OFDM to allow a more efficient
modulations conveying data rates of a few kbps. Within this use of the spectrum; in contrast, G3-PLC is focused
group, it is worthwhile to highlight the following technolo- on increasing the robustness of the communication
gies due to their importance in current AMI deployments: by means of the outer layer of the channel coding.
• Open Smart Grid Protocol (OSGP) [15], initially pro- This improvement in the performance leads to lower
moted by Echelon. The PHY and MAC layers have transmission speeds (up to 34 kbps in CENELEC A
been standardized by the IEC. This protocol presents band). This can be observed in the comparison between
the highest penetration rates in the Nordic countries and G3-PLC and PRIME v1.3.6 in CENELEC A band,
Russia [16]. shown in Table 2. The G3-PLC technology can be used
• Meters and More [17] is a non-profit international asso- in frequencies up to 500 kHz, targeting the American
ciation led by the ENEL group. The association aims and Asia Pacific markets
at defining and promoting the communication proto- • ITU-T G.hnem specification is described in the ITU-T
col, which has also been standardized by the IEC. G.9902 recommendation for NB-PLC below 500 kHz
The solution consists of a narrowband Binary Phase [22]. As a matter of fact, it represents an effort from
Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation over PLC, able to the ITU-T to homogenize the available NB-PLC tech-
achieve up to 4.8 kbps. Encryption and authentication nologies (especially, PRIME and G3-PLC). The design
are also implemented via a 128-bit Advanced Encryp- of the PHY transceiver defines several configurations
tion Standard (AES) key. One of the strongest points to be used depending on the band available for com-
of Meters and More is that the Distribution System munication (i.e., CENELEC A/B/C/D or FCC). In any
Operator (DSO) ENEL deployed this technology in the case, all configurations use OFDM-based modulations
100% of the Smart Meters (SMs) in Italy a decade ago. with different numbers of carriers and pilots. In terms of
VOLUME 7, 2019 117347

TABLE 1. Comparison between PRIME v1.3.6. and PRIME v1.4.
TABLE 2. Physical speed comparison (in kbps) between G3-PLC and objects, which are specific instances of such interface classes.
PRIME v1.3.6 [22].
These objects are defined by a set of attributes and are
univocally identified by the so-called OBject Identification
System (OBIS) codes. DLMS is the protocol which specifies
the rules to access and modify (i.e., get/set) the attributes of
the set of objects that defines the functionality of a given
meter.
Finally, BPL encompasses a large variety of systems that
aim at high data rates, operating in frequencies from 1 MHz
robustness, ITU-T G.hnem outperforms even G3-PLC, up to 250 MHz. BPL can be used in LV and MV sections, typ-
since it includes several interleaver structures specially ically enabling home network multimedia communications,
designed to mitigate AC-synchronous impulsive noise. in the former case, and distribution automation/telecontrol
However, ITU-T G.hnem is computationally heavier and even AMI, in the latter case. Apart from the industrial
than PRIME and G3-PLC. solutions based on OPERA specification, the main standards
• The IEEE 1901.2 is the proposal made by the IEEE in providing specifications for BPL communications that could
order to design a NB-PLC transceiver. Due to its late be used over MV and LV distribution infrastructures are IEEE
appearance, some parts are based on both PRIME and 1901 (notably the Access System specification) and ITU-T
G3-PLC specifications. In addition, it provides mech- G.9960 (also known as ITU-T G.hn) [25].
anisms for the coexistence with them, by dynamically The IEEE 1901 standard considers two different
changing the frequencies used as data subcarriers. IEEE PHY/MAC specifications: one based on Fast Fourier Trans-
P1901.2 is based on OFDM in the 10-490 kHz frequency form (FFT) and another one based on the use of Wavelets.
range, but it allows the transceiver to be configured with Furthermore, it describes both indoor broadband communica-
different parameters in order to adequate the transmitted tions over LV lines and broadband communications over MV
signal to the corresponding frequency band (i.e., CEN- lines [26], and even over telephone wiring and coaxial cables
ELEC or FCC). [27]. The ITU-T G.hn standard features very similar technical
Table 3 shows a comparison of the NB-PLC technologies specifications compared to IEEE 1901, allowing equipment
most deployed on the field. interoperability.
CX1 [11] is a HDR NB-PLC technology promoted by Another well-known BPL technology is HomePlug AV,
Siemens, although the lower layers are being addressed by specified by the industry association HomePlug Alliance.
the IEC. CX1 uses an Adaptive Multi-Carrier Spread Spec- HomePlug AV-compliant products are fully interoperable
trum (AMC-SS) modulation based on Frequency Hopping. with IEEE 1901-compliant products (as a matter of fact,
Based on [16], this technology is mainly deployed in Austria, HomePlug technology was included in the baseline IEEE
although currently there is few information available. 1901 standard in 2008). Standing out among the multiple
The DLMS/COSEM [23], [24] model, standardized by specifications of the HomePlug Alliance is HomePlug Green
the IEC 62056 set of standards, was selected by the above- PHY, which targets applications related to the Internet of
mentioned NB-PLC technologies, when used for metering Things (IoT), such as home automation and control, home
purposes. COSEM is a data model that functionally describes energy management systems, or even EV charging, provid-
any kind of meter by means of a set of interface classes. ing lower consumption, cost, and data rates, if compared to
Thus, all the functionalities of a meter are mapped onto HomePlug AV.
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TABLE 3. Summary and comparison of the NB-PLC technologies most deployed on the field.
TABLE 4. Comparison between BPL technologies.
Two recent initiatives within IEEE are worthwhile men- (long-haul) [31]. This article focuses on PLC for SG applica-
tioning. First, the IEEE Std 1901.1-2018, Standard for tions, including also some references to Smart Cities deploy-
Medium Frequency Power Line Communications for SG ments due to its close relationship [32]. Applications of PLC
Applications [28], is a new IEEE standard strongly promoted in SGs are mainly related to the electricity distribution and
by Huawei, which defines physical (PHY) and media access communication between consumers and the utility. Current
control (MAC) layers of the medium frequency band (less examples of these applications are AMI systems, EV charg-
than 12 MHz). It is an OFDM-based BPL communication ing systems, Telecontrol applications, Smart Cities, and DG
technology, claiming to cover SG applications, including systems [33]. For these applications of PLC in SGs, both NB-
security and coexistence with other technologies based on PLC and BPL technologies, described in the section 2, are
IEEE 1901-2010. The ambition of this standard is to achieve used. Some other relevant applications of PLC for SGs are
an extended communication range with medium speeds, those related to grid topology connectivity, cable health mon-
in comparison with other existing PLC technologies. Second, itoring and fault location, as covered by literature [34]–[40].
IEEE 1901a-2019 [29] has been issued as a draft standard for NB-PLC and BPL technologies provide real-time data to the
BPL networks, amending the PHY and MAC layer specifi- devices connected to the grid, enabling an easy understanding
cations in IEEE 1901-2010, claiming enhancements for IoT of the network, as well as an efficient management of events
applications. This initiative started as P1901.3, strongly pro- and failures [41].
moted by Panasonic, and it implements some new functions In Figure 1, a representative example of a PLC solution
based on the Wavelet OFDM technology, already included for SG is shown. NB-PLC and BPL solutions can be imple-
in the IEEE 1901-2010 [30]. The two initiatives broadly mented for the management of MV substations, EVs and
overlap, but are assumed to coexist using existing IEEE 1901- EV charging points, Ring-Main Units (RMUs) and Data
2010 Inter-System Protocol (ISP). Concentrators (DC), Smart Homes and Distributed Energy
Table 4 summarizes and compares BPL technologies. Resources (DER). In this case, PLC can be used in both MV
and LV sections [42].
III. APPLICATIONS OF POWER LINE COMMUNICATIONS The major driver for the deployment of PLC market is the
IN SMART GRIDS increase of SG installations. The major deployments of PLC
Applications based on PLC highly depend on the particular- are located in the European market. However, the implemen-
ities of the market and the regulation of each country. These tation of systems based on PLC technology have recently
factors may constrain the functionalities and the deployment started also in Asia and America. Nowadays, hundreds of
of the SGs applications based on PLC around the world. millions of PLC devices are deployed all over the world. The
Despite different classifications may exist, the PLC mar- objective of achieving secure and reliable communications
ket can be segmented into three broad types of applica- with utility control centers is a challenge. The main problems
tions: SGs, indoor networking, and long-distance applications for that are caused by noises generated by electrical devices,
VOLUME 7, 2019 117349
FIGURE 1. Power line carrier communication solutions for distribution

networks [41].
which may affect the proper performance of the communi-

cations. In AMI systems, in particular, the electrical noises
can block the communication between the meters and the
head-end systems in the worst case, and produce datagram
losses [4], [5], [43], [44].
Other factors that may or have slowed down the deploy-
ment of the PLC technology are security issues related to the
regulation in different countries, interoperability of different
PLC solutions, and network topology of each country (e.g.,
a meshed electricity network, neutral secondary substations FIGURE 2. Advanced (or Smart) Metering architecture [46].
connectivity and others, could challenge the deployment of
PLC in SG if not properly engineered).
LV cables are long and power distribution grids are reason-
A. ADVANCED METERING INFRASTRUCTURE ably dense; whereas in the US (and Japan) they are located
AMI systems enable, first, the measurement of real, detailed, upwards in the power distribution hierarchy because the LV
time-based information; then, the collection of all these data; cables are shorter and less populated [49], [50].
and last, the transmission of such information to specific NB-PLC is one of the most extended solutions for AMI
equipment in the network, as well as the transmission of purposes in Europe. It is mainly used for the communication
commands on the opposite direction [45]. Therefore, an AMI between the SMs and the DCs. Although BPL can be also
system is capable of both collecting and managing data from used in this communication segment [51], this technology
SMs and sending them commands by means of two-way com- may be used between the DC and the Head End System over
munications. The utilities use the data to provide consumers the MV or Field Area Networks (FAN) for AMI and tele-
with new services and products to ensure the minimum qual- control purposes [52], [53].
ity of service defined in each country regulation, and even- In Figure 3, a detailed comparison among different tech-
tually, customer empowerment through its involvement as a nologies used in AMI systems is shown. The compared
stakeholder of the electricity system. technologies have been selected since they are the most
As Figure 2 shows, AMI systems are composed of meter widely used technologies in current AMI deployments both
devices, Data Concentrators (DC) and a Meter Data Man- in Europe [3], [54] and in the US [47]. Furthermore, reports
agement System (MDMS) [45], [47]. MDMS acquire the foresee that these technologies will be predominant in this
data from the DCs (centralized or distributed - see the dif- area worldwide in the coming years [55]. As it can be seen,
ferent possible architectures in [48]) and organize the data PLC technology stands out in coverage and equipment costs
in a database. The meters, usually located close to end-user compared to the other solutions [56].
premises, collect metering data to be sent towards the DC. The vast majority of pilot projects and deployments all
The data from different meters are collected in the DC and over the world are based on NB-PLC using international
sent to the MDMS [46]. The place where the data concen- open standards, such as PRIME, G3-PLC or Meters&More,
trators are deployed may vary depending on the features of presented in section II.
the power distribution infrastructure (e.g., number of SMs per
Secondary Substation (SS), length of the LV cables, number B. GRID TELECONTROL
of SS per primary substation, etc.). For instance, in Europe The use of control signals through PLC allows the man-
(and China) such DCs are typically located at the SS since agement of generation, distribution, and consumption [57],
117350 VOLUME 7, 2019

FIGURE 3. Comparison of different communications technologies in AMI systems [56].
focusing on the criterion of minimizing the electricity losses reporting and restoration. Thus, it allows for immediate net-
and consumption. work response actions or even procedures to react automat-
Deployment of BPL technologies in MV grids combined ically, which is key in a modern distribution grid, where
with Wide Area Networks (WAN) solutions at Secondary impacts need to be identified and prevented before they
Substation (SS) level for SG services is a great advantage happen.
for data transmission [52]. BPL solutions offer the possibility
to extend the access network to several SSs through PLC
technology over the MV network. Telecontrol improves fault C. ELECTRIC VEHICLE
detection and allow self-healing of the networks through There are different solutions in order to manage the com-
automation schemes, without the intervention of human oper- munication between the EV charging post and the EV. The
ators (technicians). communication standard is related to the specific plug and
There are industrial and mature solutions in the market connector type used in the EV charging post and/or the EV
that allow MV-based BPL deployments [58] to improve fault [61]. There are two different types of charging AC and DC,
detection and reduce the response time and technician inter- as Table 5 and Table 6 show.
vention time, ensuring reliability of the electricity network. The EV DC charging uses PLC to manage the commu-
Several deployments of grid control have been done using nication between the vehicle and the charging post [62].
different technologies [59]; some of the standards used for The standard used for that purpose is Combined Charging
AMI are also used in deployments of grid control PLC System (CCS) specification [63], currently the only standard
applications [60]. based on PLC technology. The main features of CCS are the
The benefit of PLC in this context goes beyond pro- safety during the charging process, the user authentication,
viding connectivity, since PLC itself can be also used for the payment authorization, and load balancing functions.
topology estimation and automatic fault detection [38]–[40], An example of the definition and architecture of the CCS
facilitating faster electric service outage identification, standard is shown in Figure 4.
VOLUME 7, 2019 117351

TABLE 5. AC charging technologies [61].
TABLE 6. DC charging technologies [61].
TABLE 7. Technical specifications of main DC charging standards [63].
United Kingdom with 1,150 charging points, and Denmark

with 515 charging points.
Focusing on the projects, the most important ones using
PLC technology regarding the volume of equipment in oper-
ation are listed next:
• IONITY: Formed by Volkswagen Group, BMW Group,
Daimler y Ford companies. Nowadays the solution is
working in Europe with European standard CCS. A map
with the EV charging stations currently working and the
ones which are under constructions is available in [64].
FIGURE 4. CCS standard architecture and data flow [63].
• Enel X: This project is working in the implementation
of 8,500 EV charging stations in the next 5 years, most
of them located in Italy [65].
Although different technologies can be used in DC charg-
• Smart Mobility: This project has 30 EV charging sta-
ing (see Table 7), PLC technology stands out in coverage
tions in operation by 2018, and 200 additional EV charg-
availability and equipment cost among the rest of the solu-
ing stations planned by 2019.
tions. Moreover, the PLC solution for charging units has
• Superchargers (Tesla): There is a plan to adapt all the
the advantage of the wide PLC-based deployment of SMs
superchargers network to CCS connector. EV charging
for AMI.
stations under construction are shown in [66].
There are different PLC deployments and projects all over
the world based on CCS specification. There are more than The EV deployment has been slower than expected
5,000 active charging points in Europe alone, where Germany because of ‘‘the chicken and the egg’’ problem: there are
stands out with more than 2,000 points, followed by the not many EV circulating because there are not facilities and
117352 VOLUME 7, 2019

charging systems that enable the use of the EV, and at the
same time, there is not evolution in the EV facilities because
the number of EV in operation is low for further investment.
D. SMART CITIES
Smart Cities are closely connected to the SG services [67].
Among the many technologies that can be considered ele-
ments of a Smart City plan, energy is a prevalent one [68].
Today many cities are using SG technologies so that con-
sumers can more intelligently make use of energy [69] (e.g.,
some Smart Grid-related services [70] always associated to
the Smart Cities are automatic meter reading, energy effi-
ciency, demand management, EVs for transport electrifica-
tion and so on). Moreover, energy utilities own a physical
network with a ubiquitous footprint that can be used for
telecommunications that can avoid building a new network,
or at least can leverage the utility data network already
in place.
Thus Smart Cities are a promising field for PLC tech- FIGURE 5. BPL application for Smart Cities.
nologies, mainly due to the numerous services that can be
considered. Beyond the already mentioned SG applications be controlled. This interconnection between the devices con-
in the Smart City, cities offer a wide range of applications nected to the grid provokes that the impact of a problem in any
such as urban lighting [71], traffic control [72], and traffic part of the grid can affect the rest of the connected devices.
lighting control [73], among others, as well as varying uses Power monitoring systems allow a continuous monitoriza-
of automation such as irrigation or remote switch on/off of tion of the PQ, which is measured at many different places
assets. Since all the devices or services connected to the through PLC without any additional communication lines.
power line can be managed through PLC, the applicability SMs equipped with PLC, deployed in the AMI system, can
of PLC within the urban context is pretty obvious [74], and be used to collect all the PQ information of the equipment
as such, is being tackled by different companies [68]. PLC and the grid. As the SG devices are connected to electricity
technology has a good position against other technologies, network, no additional infrastructure is needed. There are dif-
because most of the nodes that want to be managed in the ferent deployments of PLC hardware and software techniques
Smart Cities are connected to the electrical network. So, for PQ monitoring [75] that meets the categories of IEEE
the communication network, infrastructure and system are Std. 1159 [76]. The PQ monitoring and control, based on a
already deployed. lightweight assessment of voltage parameters to be imple-
mented in the SMs connected to the grid, allows for the opti-
1) SMART LIGHTING mal real-time network operation and market services [77].
Lighting is one of the fastest growing application segments
of Smart Cities automation. PLC communication is gaining 3) DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
traction, owing to its key advantages, such as the use of DG consists in generating electricity near the consumption
existing wiring infrastructure of the building. An example points. The DG is mainly based on renewable sources, such
of BPL solution applied to Smart Cities using the lighting as solar panels, small wind turbines, natural gas cells, and
infrastructure can be seen in Figure 5. The solution is based combined heat and power to allow the users to generate
on a DC, which collects the data from a set of nodes and electricity to the grid. Figure 6 shows a DG system, including
sends them to a central system. The nodes are installed within a variety of different generation resources.
each luminaire to manage the luminaire itself or to control and DG may serve a home or business, or it may be part of a
manage devices linked by radio solutions to these nodes. microgrid. If the DG is connected to the LV distribution lines,
it can help to manage and deliver reliable power to additional
2) POWER QUALITY customers and reduce electricity losses along transmission
The Power Quality (PQ) is an important issue for elec- and distribution lines.
tric utilities and their customers. Deviations in PQ, such as DG and microgrids are the main elements that are experi-
momentary interruptions, voltage sags, voltage swells and encing a huge transformation. However, PLC technologies in
harmonic distortion can impact the customer operations, DG are in a preliminary status. There are several standards
causing equipment malfunctioning and significant costs in that allow planning and operation of energy-related produc-
lost production and downtime. The distributed power system tion and consumption units. A Smart Distribution Grid (SDG)
has been increased with solar and wind power local facilities, is considered an active service network, enabling the effective
which make the grid more heterogeneous and difficult to penetration of medium-sized DG, together with microgrids
VOLUME 7, 2019 117353

A. NOISE AND NON INTENTIONAL EMISSIONS

IN THE LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
1) SOURCES AND TYPES OF NOISE AND
NON-INTENTIONAL EMISSIONS
Some devices connected to the electrical grid generate
disturbances in the frequency range 2 - 150 kHz, com-
monly used by NB-PLC for Smart Metering and other SG
applications [43], as it has already been introduced in the
section II. Although NB-PLC technologies, such as PRIME,
G3-PLC, or IEEE 1901.2, allow the use of robust mod-
ulation and coding techniques, these interfering emissions
present in the transmission channel may severely degrade the
communications [2], [43], [79]–[81].
These channel disturbances are mainly radioelectric noise
and Non-Intentional Emissions (NIE) generated by electronic
FIGURE 6. Types of DG [78]. devices connected to the electrical grid. Throughout the liter-
ature, different types of noise and NIE have been identified,
TABLE 8. Communications technologies for Smart Distribution Grids [58]. according to different criteria (frequency response, duration,
or periodicity) [5], [82], [83]:
• Background noise: it is always present, and it usually
changes slowly with time.
• Colored background noise: in contrast to white noise,
the frequency response of this kind of noise is not flat.
It is usually higher in lower frequencies, but it highly
depends on the type of devices connected to the grid and
their working regime.
• Narrowband noise: it consists of one or several
amplitude-modulated narrowband emissions.
• Harmonics of the switching frequency: switching
devices generate spurious narrowband signals in multi-
ples of the switching frequency. As the switching fre-
and active management techniques, assuring high levels of quency is usually above 10 kHz, some harmonics are
quality of service. Different communication options are used located within the band for NB-PLC.
for the transition of the power grid to the SG. A detailed • Impulsive noise: impulsive signals of high amplitude
comparative analysis among different technologies used in during short periods of time (between microseconds and
SDG systems can be seen in Table 8. PLC technology stands milliseconds), synchronous to the mains frequency or
out in coverage and availability of the infrastructure among asynchronous (in this case, generated by the switching
other solutions [58]. of power transistors for DC/AC conversion, engines and
New advanced applications, such as DG management and some electronic devices).
distribution grid monitoring, require more bandwidth and According to CENELEC [43], the European committee for
higher data rates in the order of a few kbps per second. electro-technical standardization, the above-mentioned types
Therefore, NB-PLC technologies are a good alternative for of noise and NIE in the 2-150 kHz range are generated by a
DG, operating in the band of 3 - 500 kHz. wide range of devices (see Figure 7). The most relevant ones
Table 9 summarizes and compares the requirements of the are electronic devices that include small inverters for switch-
applications of PLC in SGs presented in this section. ing (power supplies, elevators, washing machines, or engine
control systems) [84]–[86], lighting equipment (compact
IV. CURRENT CHALLENGES IN POWER LINE lamps, fluorescent lamps, and LED lamps) [87]–[90], but
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES also DERs, such as photovoltaic inverters, battery chargers,
Once the main PLC technologies and their applications in hydropower systems, or wind turbines [4], [5], [82], [86],
SGs have been outlined, this section focuses on the main [90]–[93]. As more renewable power generators, EV chargers
challenges that PLC technologies are currently facing and and energy-efficient devices are added to the grid, the number
will face during the coming years. Such challenges are mainly and amplitude of the emissions is expected to be considerably
related to meeting the requirements of novel applications higher in the next years [4], [94]. The interest in the analysis
based on NB-PLC network performance, and to guarantee of PV panels, battery chargers, and other electronic devices
security levels suitable for such applications. that contain inverters lies in the fact that inverters usually
117354 VOLUME 7, 2019

TABLE 9. Smart Grids application summary and requirements [25].
for communications. This Working Group is now demanding

updated results in this area that provide the basis to re-visit
criteria and reference levels [43].
Additionally, the IEC, the international body for the assess-
ment of standards and conformity of all fields of electrotech-
nology, launched the joint working group of TC77A and
CISPR SC/H to define requirements for the regulation of
emissions, in order to ensure the compatibility of electrical
products in the frequency band assigned to NB-PLC [99].
Moreover, the CISPR, in charge of developing standards
to control the electromagnetic interference in electrical and
electronic devices, has determined limits for NIE generated
by some specific devices:
FIGURE 7. Frequency ranges for the main sources of NIE, compared to
the frequency bands for NB-PLC (2 - 500 kHz) [43]. • NIE generated by lighting equipment (CISPR15,
EN 55015) [100].
• NIE generated by induction cooking equipment
generate NIE in the harmonics of the switching frequency (CISPR11, EN 55011) [101].
within the frequency range used for PLC. • Intentional emissions generated by mains communicat-
CENELEC identified the frequency ranges that should be ing equipment (EN 50065-1).
evaluated for the main sources of NIE, as Figure 7 shows. • NIE generated by mains communicating equipment (EN
50065-1).
2) REGULATION OF EMISSIONS These limits, together with the voltage limits for intentional
The negative effects that the noise and EMI may have on communication signals given in IEC 61000-2-5 [102] and
PLC, and consequently, on the development of new SG the limits given in EN 5016 [103], related to electric power
applications based on PLC, is a relevant topic for regulatory quality, were published by IEC in the document TS 62578 Ed.
and standardization bodies. In the last years, there has been 2:2012 [103] (see Figure 8). However, specific limits for
a significant effort to regulate the emissions at harmonics NIE from DERs and other types of equipment have not been
of the fundamental, and in general, in the frequency range established yet, so that the limits for perturbations generated
immediately above the 50/60 Hz, for the sake of guaranteeing by mains communicating equipment given in EN 50065-1
the power quality [95], [96]. have been generally used as a reference [83]. These specific
A similar itinerary should be followed for the limitation limits are labeled in Figure 8 as ‘‘non-intentional PLC out-
of supra-harmonics in the frequency range used for NB-PLC of-band emission’’. Additionally, the EN 50065-1 defines
(above 2 kHz), as there is a lack of standardization in these different levels of the limits, considering that CISPR quasi-
frequencies, in particular about the limits of emission, com- peak and CISPR average detectors can be used [104]–[106].
patibility and immunity [85], [97], [98]. This deficiency hin- Originally, these detectors were defined to be implemented by
ders that involved devices address this problem. Currently, analog components; nowadays, they are usually implemented
the discussion is focused on defining the compatibility levels; using digital signal processing [106]. Limits to NIE should in
though there is an agreement for the range 2 - 30 kHz [84], any case be defined not only considering the voltage level
an agreement for the range 30 - 150 kHz is already to be of interfering carriers, but including the maximum power
reached [43]. Additional field measurements are required to spectral density that can be supported.
characterize the time and frequency response of the different Other working groups that address the analysis of the
types of noise and NIE. performance and effects of supra-harmonics are the Joint
In particular, CENELEC launched the SC 205 Working Working Group CIGRE-CIRED C4.24 [96], the IEEE PES
Group 11 to promote, gather and analyze NIE in elec- P1250 [107], and the TC7 of IEEE EMC Society [108],
trical grids, and to determine adequate immunity levels working in coordination with IEC SC 77A.
VOLUME 7, 2019 117355

FIGURE 9. Measurement of the NIE generated by an inverter. They are

composed of a set of supra-harmonics of the switching frequency [92].
FIGURE 8. Recommended emission limits below 150 kHz for different
scenarios [103]. The curve on the bottom represents the limits for
non-intentional out-of-band emissions from PLC.
3) EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF NOISE AND

EMI IN ELECTRICAL GRIDS
Due to the numerous types of noise and NIE, the wide variety
of sources, and the different behavior in time and frequency,
the characterization of these phenomena must have an empiri-
cal basis, which requires the development of extensive labora-
tory and field measurements of different sources and working
conditions of the devices. This characterization must address
the challenges of defining a commonly accepted measure-
ment methodology, able to characterize the great variability
in time and frequency of a wide diversity of types of noise. FIGURE 10. Measurement of the noise and NIE generated by a
The study report published by the SC 205 A of CENELEC hydropower pump. In this case, the colored background noise is
predominant; a narrowband emission at a specific frequency (87.5 kHz) is
[43] provides interesting results for a preliminary charac- also present [92].
terization of the nature and relevance of NIE generated by
specific devices. In addition, some measurements campaigns NIE [4], [5], [92]. As the amplitude of these harmonics
have been carried out in the last years with this purpose, decreases with frequency, the potential impact of this type of
most of them focused on the frequency range 2 - 150 kHz, emission may be of less significance for higher frequencies;
to evaluate NIE from DERs, the lighting devices of different from a practical point of view, it could be possible to estimate
technologies, battery chargers, and other types of appliances. the frequencies potentially affected by a specific switching
The noise and NIE generated by DERs is one of the main device, as they are located at values that are multiple of the
concerns in this area, as they may be of high amplitude switching frequency.
and different types of noise may be present, and they are Other narrowband interfering signals of high amplitude
progressively more usual in the grid due to the deployment can be also generated by DERs at specific frequencies. The
of renewable generation. Results of these measurements have frequency and amplitude of these signals depend on the elec-
identified four types of noise and NIE: tronics of each specific device, and they can be characterized
• A set of high amplitude narrowband emissions at har- by measuring the NIE of each specific device in different
monic frequencies of the switching frequency of the working regimes.
inverters in PV panels, battery chargers and other gen- The colored background noise is present in almost all
eration systems (see Figure 9). the devices analyzed in the measurement campaigns, with
• Additional narrowband emissions at specific frequen- varying characteristics both in frequency and in time. The
cies in power generation devices (see Figure 10). amplitude does not clearly decrease with frequency as in the
• Colored background noise (see Figure 10). case of the harmonics of the inverters, and in some cases,
• High-level emissions in transitory periods due to cou- higher amplitudes are shown also at higher frequencies.
pling processes (see Figure 10). The transient emissions occur during changes in the work-
The emissions with highest levels are those caused by ing regimes and/or coupling processes. The amplitude, dura-
inverters, as it can be shown in Figure 9 and therefore, tion and frequency response depend entirely on the device
the performance of the switching devices is the key aspect model. As they only occur from time to time, their effects on
to be considered in order to reduce the levels of the the communications might be limited to sporadic cases.
117356 VOLUME 7, 2019

consist in the use of coding and modulation schemes or in

the addition of time interleaving [92]:
• The OFDM technique is widely employed in NB-PLC
systems, due to its good performance against frequency
selective fading and narrowband interferences, as data
are split into multiple carriers, and therefore, narrow-
band interferences only affect a small part of the bit
stream. For this reason, it is a useful tool against inter-
ferences such as the high amplitude harmonics generated
by switching devices.
• Coding techniques are based on inserting redundant
information, which implies a lower net throughput, and
therefore, a less efficient use of the spectrum. Convo-
lutional coding is performed in PRIME, G3-PLC, and
IEEE 1091.2 specifications. Additionally, G3-PLC and
FIGURE 11. NIE generated by lighting device [43].
IEEE 1091.2 allow the additional use of Reed-Solomon
coding.
• Robust modulation schemes transmit a lower number
The NIE generated by low power LED lamps and other
of bits per symbol, whenever the limitation in the bit
lighting devices are discussed in [86]–[89]. In some cases,
rate required by the selected modulation scheme could
they seem to be organized in bands [84], though it is diffi-
be assumed. Three different modulation schemes were
cult to find common patterns, due to the wide diversity of
selected by PRIME, G3-PLC and IEEE 1091.2 specifi-
types of noise and emissions generated by different mod-
cations, in order to provide different rates of robustness
els and technologies. A representative example is shown
at the expense of net throughput (DBPSK, DQPSK and
in Figure 11.
D8PSK), while other schemes could be used in G3-PLC
The chargers of EVs have been identified as another sig-
and IEEE 1091.2, depending on the required robustness
nificant source of noise and NIE, though there are very few
(PSK, QPSK, 8PSK and 16QAM).
measurements in the literature [5], [94]. In this case, NIE are
• The time interleaving consists on interlacing the bits
caused by internal inverters, and the highest emission levels
in time before they are transmitted, and then, perform-
at switching frequency of the rectifier circuit usually occur
ing the reverse operation in the receiver. Thus, a short
during the time when the highest charging current is drawn
impulsive interference would affect consecutive bits in
by the EV [94]. In any case, the amplitudes, the frequency
the transmission channel; but when they are reordered
range, and the shape of the NIE highly depend on the charger
in the receiver, the erroneous bits are separated in time,
model, the charging type, and the state of charge of the battery
so the errors can be more easily detected and fixed by
stage, and therefore, they vary significantly with charging
decoding techniques. Consequently, time interleaving
conditions and with time [5]. A detailed characterization of
increases the effectiveness of coding techniques, and
this type of emissions is needed, and for that, additional mea-
therefore, the robustness of the transmission against
surements for the different types of EVs, charging devices,
impulsive noise or rapid transitions in the propagation
and batteries are required.
channel performance.
All these studies demonstrate the need to carry out addi-
• OSI-Layer 2 network coding-based cooperative
tional field measurements, due to the wide variety of devices
schemes to improve communication reliability in
that generate emissions of different nature, level and variation
PLC channels, as an alternative to traditional retrans-
in time and frequency. As few field measurements have been
missions with Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
carried out for frequencies above 150 kHz, particularly for
schemes [109], [110].
DERs and EVs, a detailed characterization for frequencies
• Hybrid network PLC and non-PLC deployment strate-
up to 500 kHz is needed, in order to estimate if these emis-
gies, installing PLC-enabled gateways where noise can-
sions might cause problems in PLC communications up to
not be reduced, to increase available transmitter signal
this limit.
level, closer to the load [48].
• Additionally, repetition techniques increase the success
4) IMPACT ON COMMUNICATIONS probability in the message reception, but also the occu-
The potential impact of noise and NIE on the quality of the pancy of the channel and the percentage of the packet
data transmission largely depends on the techniques used collisions. The basic idea is to repeat the same bit a
to increase the robustness of the communications against number of times. It can be seen as a coding technique
interference and impulsive noise, and therefore, to overcome in the sense that it adds redundancy to the transmitted
the communication impairments. These techniques mainly message. This redundancy is not so efficient as in Reed-
VOLUME 7, 2019 117357

Solomon or convolutional encoding but the decoding claimed that it was physically difficult to get such a sensi-
process is surely computationally less intense. tive information. Reference [120] represents another example
• MIMO techniques-derived approaches, using the differ- related to encryption. In this case, the researchers found a
ent channels that exist due to the multiwire nature of breach in the authenticated encryption scheme used in OSGP.
power line feeders [111]. Thus, they presented several practical key-recovery attacks
which entails few operations and negligible time complexity.
In any case, new strategies that provide both a more robust
Reference [121] deals with how to identify G3-PLC and
performance against interference and the efficient use of the
PRIME communications in order to perform an interference
spectrum should be developed and tested in real environ-
attack to them.
ments. On the side of the devices connected to the grid,
These vulnerabilities led research community to dis-
the implementation of specific filters that reduce the level of
sect PLC technologies from the cybersecurity perspective.
the NIE within the frequency bands used by NB-PLC would
Thus, reference [122] presents a layer-2 security comparison
minimize the negative effect on the communications. On the
between G3-PLC and IEEE 1901.2. Reference [123] presents
side of the communication devices, the use of new coding and
a comprehensive analysis of cybersecurity vulnerabilities of
modulation techniques can increase the robustness, while the
the layers 1 and 2 of the PRIME specification, showing vul-
development of new strategies to manage data of different
nerabilities that may involve Denial-of-Service (DoS) or pri-
priority and channel occupancy would improve the spectral
vacy leaks. Reference [124] extended the analysis to a whole
efficiency. In any case, the availability of a wider frequency
AMI based on PLC, including an assessment of the risk that
range up to 500 kHz in Europe would allow higher data rates,
the found vulnerabilities entail. Most of such vulnerabilities
robustness and development of new services. Some of these
can be mitigated by encrypting lower layers of the protocol
strategies are described in section V-A.2.
stack with existing mechanisms and by using filters in the
SMs to isolate the customer facilities, although this solution
B. CYBERSECURITY would imply high costs. As a result, in practice, in many cases
The digitalization of the power grid brings many benefits, but DLMS/COSEM has been secured as a first and easy solution.
also important risks, since it entails that such a critical infras- Nevertheless, reference [125] identifies and describes some
tructure will be more exposed than ever. As a result, cyberse- vulnerabilities within DLMS/COSEM.
curity concerns have been carefully considered since the new Much research is expected to be carried out in this area in
paradigm of the SG came up. As a token of this, the first issue the coming years. Since key exchange mechanisms are crucial
of the IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid published a paper on for lower layers encryption to be effective, novel proposals
key security technologies for SGs [112], which was followed are expected along this line, such as [126], where the PLC
by special issues on the topic in prestigious journals and channel itself is used for both generating the common key
magazines [113], as well as highly cited surveys [114], [115]. and distributing it. The research community needs also to go
Cybersecurity in PLC will be a hotter topic in the coming beyond theoretical analysis and gather practical experience
years, considering the high penetration of PLC technologies on which are the vulnerabilities that hackers actually exploit
in SGs. In AMI deployments, for instance, the domestic from PLC technologies and protocols, which can be achieved,
infrastructure is not used to be separated from the DSO infras- e.g., by means of honeypots [127], [128]. There are also
tructure by filters, which leaves the door open to hamper AMI research opportunities related to the design and development
communications. Reference [116] already drew the attention of Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) [129], [130]
on the fact that SMs create a new strategic vulnerability, for PLC networks. Taking into account their peculiarities, dis-
since if they got massively compromised, it could imply tributed approaches that coordinate the measurements from
the interruption of citizen electricity supply, something that different agents deployed throughout the network may be
previously was only possible by attacking critical generation, needed. Finally, these systems need to be integrated into secu-
transmission and distribution assets. Nevertheless, the first rity dynamic risk assessment platforms [131], which allow
attacks to this kind of infrastructures have not taken this increasing the cybersituational awareness of DSOs.
direction, but the economic one, as in Malta, where more than
a thousand SMs were compromised between 2011 and 2012, V. RESEARCH INITIATIVES
incurring a power theft worth 30 M euros [117], or in Puerto In the following paragraphs, the authors compile a set of
Rico, where FBI found that Puerto Rico Utility Industry was recent initiatives that have been proposed and tested recently,
losing an average of 400 M dollars from SM hacking [118]. and that may provide useful advances to overcome these
Regarding specific vulnerabilities, [119] represents one of challenges for PLC technologies in the coming years.
the first published research works on this topic. In this work,
two Spanish researchers reverse engineered a SM, obtained A. RECENT EXPERIMENTS
the symmetric encryption keys, which were shared among The improvement of the management and control of elec-
devices. Thus, an attacker who got access to these keys tricity grids is a key requirement for the transition towards
would be able to send commands to the network (e.g., disable the SG paradigm [2]. On one hand, the optimization of the
the SMs) or even had full control of it. However, the DSO network performance is a key aspect to make the most out
117358 VOLUME 7, 2019

of the current communication technologies. For this reason, (Portugal), Nottingham (UK) and Nuremburg (Germany).
some analyses have been developed to get the best configu- Alternatively, some private companies have also followed this
ration of the communication protocols in order to improve approach in order to understand and experiment with power
their efficiency and capacity at each scenario [132]–[135]. grids and telecommunication networks. Such is the case of the
On the other hand, once the communication infrastructure mock-up facilities available in the Iberdrola Campus [141].
of NB-PLC has been deployed for AMI, it can be used for
additional applications other than metering. In this line, two 2) MITIGATION TECHNIQUES AGAINST NOISE AND
approaches to extend the possibilities of the PLC infrastruc- INTERFERING EMISSIONS
tures are being studied: first, the IP-based data transmission in As it has been described in the previous section, the distur-
the PLC infrastructure, within the same frequency range used bance generated by conducted noise and NIE in the electrical
for Smart Metering [33], [132], [136]; and second, the use of grids is one of the most relevant challenges to be solved
the extended frequency range up to 500 kHz for advanced for the proper performance of NB-PLC, as they can limit
use cases [134], [137], [138]. In addition, PLC has been the availability and efficiency of the communications. Sev-
also recently connected with the backhauling required for the eral mitigation techniques have been proposed to avoid this
connectivity needs of 5G antennas [139]. problem.
The previous step to the application of mitigation tech-
1) OPTIMIZATION OF THE COMMUNICATION niques is the proper identification of the interfering emission.
PARAMETERS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT This is not a simple matter, as the noise is coupled among
OF THE NETWORK PERFORMANCE the cables of the different phases and propagated through
The appropriate configuration of the parameters of the com- the network. A solution to detect the source in a short time,
munication protocol is a key aspect for the proper perfor- without the interruption of the power mains and without
mance of all those applications based on the transmission the need of disconnecting loads to identify the interfering
data. source, is proposed in [142]. The basis of this proposal is the
The scenario, this is, the number of devices to be con- comparison of the noise level at the different phases of the
nected and the distance between them (which determines, SMs. Hence, the noise level is usually higher in the phase
in turn, the number and length of the branches of the grid) of the load that injects the noise; on the contrary, within the
is a determinant aspect [132], [133], [135]. Besides, some SMs, the noise is coupled to the rest of the cables due to the
studies have demonstrated the great influence of the grid low attenuation of the meter in the PLC frequency bands. As a
topology in the communications performance, as it conditions result, in the SM connected close to the noisy load, the input
the traffic profile and the latency of the communications noise level will be higher in one phase, but the output level
[132]–[135]. Consequently, the capacity and latency values will be similar in the three phases. This solution could be
for two networks containing the same number of SMs, but integrated within the SMs connected to the distribution grid.
with a different layout, may differ considerably. One of mitigation technique usually found in the field is the
On this matter, two interesting studies [134], [135] demon- use of filters near the noise sources, in order to limit the
strate the significance of adapting the communication param- propagation of noise and NIE through the grid; this is, near
eters, mainly those that provide an adequate MAC layer the industrial inverters and power sources, or even at the cus-
parametrization, to the specific constraints of each scenario, tomer premises, to filter out emissions generated by domestic
in order to improve the network performance. In particular, appliances and DERs. The filters required for this use must
the potential of the MAC layer to improve the efficiency of address several requirements, such as tolerating currents up
the transmission is evaluated in [134], as some strategies not to tens of amperes, high input impedance and stability for the
defined in the standard provide better performance in some whole range of operating conditions. In [5], a configurable
particular scenarios. Moreover, in [135], the possibilities of passive filter, specifically designed to remove noise and NIE
the configuration of the PRIME technology are analyzed, in the last mile of AMI, is proposed and tested in different
as the configuration of the communication parameters is left noise scenarios; this interesting study demonstrates the need
to manufacturer discretion, showing that the specific config- of considering the internal operation of the SMs.
urations must be adapted to the particularities and require- Another technique to be used is the design of novel mod-
ments of each situation. ulation schemes, such as Orthogonal Poly-Phase-based Mul-
Some rigorous experiments in scenarios isolated from ticarrier Code Division Multiple Access (OPP-MC-CDMA),
external disturbances have been developed in the last years. proposed to overcome the effects of burst-shaped noise and
Although they entail remarkable costs (at least laboratory multipath frequency-selective fading in BPL networks [143].
facilities and expensive equipment are required), they pro- Some memoryless nonlinearity techniques have been also
vide objective and representative results. The European SEN- tested to mitigate the effects of impulsive noise [144], [145].
SIBLE project [140], where the aim is to understand the Some other techniques to mitigate the effects of impulsive
economic benefits that energy storage can bring to house- noise are based on the analysis of the transmission medium,
holds, communities, and commercial buildings, is an example such as compressive sensing [146]–[148], or in the use of DCs
of multi-tenant demonstrators built in the cities of Evora with three phase injection capabilities [149].
VOLUME 7, 2019 117359

3) IP-BASED DATA TRANSMISSION OVER NB-PLC order to achieve the proper performance of the communica-
AMI infrastructure might allow additional applications tions in these higher frequencies.
beyond Smart Metering. In [136], laboratory tests demon- Moreover, as it was also mentioned in section I, the LV
strated that IP can be implemented in the available channel electrical grid is a harsh transmission medium, as it is fre-
of a NB-PLC system (specifically, PRIME 1.3.6 technology quency and time varying and highly dependent on the number
in CENELEC A frequency band). IP is a mature open tech- and location of the loads connected at a certain moment,
nology that provides the basis for higher layer protocols that which results in one of the main drawbacks for its use for
lead to reliable, simple, secure and robust applications [150]. NB-PLC systems. A detailed characterization of the trans-
These features can face several challenges of the SG such as mission medium in this new frequency range (150 - 500 kHz)
scalability, resilience and reliability. In fact, IP is increasingly is the best way to evaluate the performance of the commu-
being used in monitoring and control applications in the nication standards in terms of capacity, coverage, data rate,
energy sector, such as demand management, or control of and robustness. Moreover, the characterization of NIE in the
DG and distributed storage [151]. In any case, the possible electrical grid has been traditionally limited to the frequency
applications of the implementation of IP must be compatible range up to 150 kHz. However, there is an increasing interest
with the metering traffic flows of the AMI system. in Europe to extend this characterization up to 500 kHz
Field trials performed in a real environment (a real micro- [43]. As few field measurements have been carried out for
grid implementing a PLC-based AMI system consisting these higher frequencies, particularly for DERs, a detailed
of 21 nodes) demonstrated the availability of some limited characterization of the different types of NIE in the frequency
channel capacity for additional IP-based applications beyond range up to 500 kHz is needed in order to estimate if these
AMI [132], [133]. Hence, applications that require data rates emissions might cause problems in the communications, and
in the order of bps up to a few kbps could be addressed, therefore, if they should be limited through regulation [92].
though the resultant data rate highly depends on the topology Frequency range up to 500 kHz is also evaluated in [153]
of the subnetwork involved in the transmission [133]. On the in order to provide new possibilities of configuration for
contrary, applications requiring real-time or near real-time AMI in grid topologies composed of a lower number of SMs
responses would not be possible. Therefore, it is not a solution per substation. Based on the hypothesis that communications
for applications requiring low latency [33]. through transformer substations might be possible in higher
In summary, extra channel capacity can be used for addi- frequencies, due to a lower attenuation in this frequency
tional applications without strict latency requirements, whose range, it suggests the connection between devices located in a
data rates vary between bps and a few kbps, such as mon- MV-LV environment by means of a switch node for frequency
itoring of the DERs of a microgrid, some types of com- channel conversion, instead of data concentrator working at
munications in home networks, signaling and monitoring in lower frequencies.
wide area networks or signaling tasks for utilities and grid
operators [133].
5) IN-BAND FULL-DUPLEX PLC
4) PERFORMANCE OF PLC IN FREQUENCIES The In-Band Full-Duplexing (IBFD) is evaluated in [154],
UP TO 500 KHZ [155] as a solution to increase the spectral efficiency. It con-
The NB-PLC has been the first option for many DSOs in sists of enabling simultaneous bidirectional data communi-
Europe for the implementation of AMI [16]. In Europe, CEN- cation in the same frequency band. The simulation results
ELEC A band (3 - 95 kHz) is reserved for communications of of this study show a clear improvement of the data rate,
electricity suppliers and distributors in deployments of PLC since an increase over 80 % in median bidirectional data
systems compliant with EN 50065-1 [152], as harmonized rates is achieved under typical in-home power line network-
standard. The EN 50065-1 also stablishes certain limits for ing conditions, without any additional power or bandwidth
transmissions in the so-called B, C and D bands, from 95 kHz requirement.
to 148.5 kHz, for use in other environments, such as in-home Additionally, the IBDF technique is proposed also for the
services [8]. However, in view of the increasing communica- transmitter devices to sense the operating spectrum, in order
tion problems due to NIE in the CENELEC A band and the to reduce the impact of the electromagnetic interference
need for higher bandwidths to allocate new services, several caused by unintentional PLC radiation on broadcast radio ser-
European markets are considering the frequency band up to vices, digital subscriber line communications, and neighbor-
500 kHz [43], [137], [138]. This frequency range has been ing PLC systems in a heterogeneous PLC environment [156].
historically used for PLC in USA (FCC) and Asia (ARIB), Hence, some EMC compatibility issues could be addressed
as it has already been mentioned. at PLC deployments.
Some field trials of NB-PLC in frequency bands higher The implementation of this proposal requires incorporat-
than CENELEC A were developed in [137], and the distance ing digital echo cancellation filtering to suppress the self-
between the SS and reception points and different kind of interference, considering the linear periodically time-varying
interference were found as relevant aspects to be faced in channel conditions of the PLC scenarios [157].
117360 VOLUME 7, 2019

B. SIMULATION AND CO-SIMULATION communications model and vice versa. After all, these inter-
As we have already mentioned, the central concept of SG is actions are what the SGs is all about.
the convergence of ICT and the Power System Engineering. Nevertheless, this approach can be useful to assess a com-
As a matter of fact, recent developments in ICT together with munication technology (or a Power Grid-related scenario).
vast deployments of demand-side energy management have Thus, in [163] a PLC channel simulator based on ns-3 is
allowed the SG concept to go one step further. Thus, in order presented.
to assess the performance of the new SG applications, effects In [164] a distributed simulation environment based on
of both dimensions, the ICT and the Power dimension, need Linux processes is proposed for PRIME. One of the strongest
to be carefully evaluated. points of this work is that real commercial PRIME Alliance
Simulation has always been a fundamental tool to design certified code is used in such processes to model the network
and evaluate the performance of power [158]–[161] or/and nodes.
telecommunication systems [160]–[162]. The main motiva- The PRIME network simulator SimPRIME [165] also
tion for simulation is to reduce the cost of evaluating the effect allows carrying out PRIME network simulations by com-
of new features or upgrades in very large networks without bining MATLAB and OMNeT++. SimPRIME has been
the potential loss of service. A simulation approach reduces widely used for research works encompassing the evaluation
this kind of risks and allows for the design and evaluation of of PRIME performance for DR in presence of different types
different solutions before a real-life deployment. In addition of noises [81], the evaluation of PRIME performance for
to this, simulation allows for emulating the evolution of the AMI in different scenarios [166]–[168] and varying different
system at a faster-than-real-time speed, which facilitates the MAC parameters [169], the evaluation of the use of the
development of new technologies. In summary, the main contention free period defined in the PRIME standard [170],
benefits of this option are flexibility, scalability, and cost- the evaluation of optimal switch positioning [171], or the
effectiveness. However, the significance and relevance of the evaluation of different policies to promote PRIME service
obtained results are tightly related to how well the model nodes to switches at the base node [172].
behind the simulations fit the real conditions of the scenarios References [173], [174] present two PRIME network sim-
under test [129]. Simulation tools are especially important for ulators also based on OMNeT++ which were developed
research purposes in SG scenarios since the access to such a almost at the same time as SimPRIME. The work presented
critical infrastructure for carrying out experiments and tests in [173] focuses very much on the PHY layer, notably on
is extremelly limited. the probability of error. The work presented in [174], instead,
The underlying challenge that exists when simulating focuses on a very relevant practical scenario, the remote and
SGs scenarios is the need to combine the simulation for massive upgrade of firmware in PRIME networks, from the
both the Power and the ICT dimension together with the DSO perspective.
applications running on top of them. However, typically, Reference [175] also proposes a network simulator for
state-of-the-art power grid simulators do not consider com- G3-PLC which combines MATLAB, to model the PHY layer
munication protocols and their corresponding effects or com- phenomena, with OMNeT++, to model the upper layer
mon traffic patterns in SGs infrastructures. The same holds effects.
for the most used telecommunication simulators, which do Regarding BPL, [51] also uses simulations to evaluate the
not include the impact on the traffic due to the operation suitability of BPL as a backhaul solution in AMI. On the other
mode of the SG. In the following subsections, we elabo- side, [176] presents a simulation tool based on MATLAB
rate on some strategies that are intended to fill this gap which focuses on MV-BPL cells. This tool allows varying
and provide a list of the most recent efforts in order to most of the technical parameters of such cells and observing
couple together both the Power Grid and the ICT effects the impact on their performance in terms of the Round Trip
(power and communications, in short, in the following Time (RTT).
sections).
2) MONOLITHIC SIMULATIONS
In order to avoid the main previous drawback of lack of
1) USE OF DECOUPLED SIMULATIONS interactions between the models, one straight-forward solu-
A first alternative to real premises would be to model each tion is to design a single model that takes into account the
dimension of the problem separately (i.e., power and commu- specifics of both the power and the communication dimen-
nications related) in a professional or community-validated sions. However, writing a new simulation engine from scratch
simulator. is a time-consuming, expensive and complex task. Indeed,
The advantage of this method is clear: using state-of-the- it is especially complex due to the kind of effects that needs
art models for each part of the whole problem. However, this to be modelled due to each dimension of the overall prob-
approach is limited due to its decoupled design: simulation lem. In the case of the communications, simulations are
outputs are isolated results from both models. It could be based on event-based models. This is, nothing virtually hap-
argued the model may not be completely realistic since the pens between two consecutive and discrete time instant; for
Power Grid model does not consider any details about the instance, the start of transmission and the end of transmission
VOLUME 7, 2019 117361

of a packet. In the case of the Power Grid models, simulators

are typically focused on solving load-flow dynamics and
transients via differential equations. Nevertheless, there are
some example of such monolith simulators in the literature;
such is the case of the EPOCHS [177] or the GECO [178]
simulators.
In other cases, a state-of-the-art simulation tool validated
in one of the domains adds libraries or modules in order
to consider the effects of the other dimension. However, FIGURE 12. Co-simulation general scheme.
due to the previously described differences in the funda-
mentals of the problem under consideration, this approach
leads to simplifications. One example of this would be the
GridLAB-D platform [179]. GridLAB-D is an open-source
power system modeling and simulation environment that
counts with a communications library. This library models the
communication channel in terms of bandwidth, statistics of
latency and congestion. However, no effects such as attenua-
tion, Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), channel collisions, or Bit-
Error-Rate (BER) are considered.
3) COLLECTION OF SPECIFIC SIMULATORS:

FIGURE 13. Simulators with Submodules consisting of a Model and a
CO-SIMULATION Solver.
An alternative to all previous approaches that tries to over-
come the main disadvantages is the option of coupling a het- With this configuration, the power system simulator makes
erogeneous set of submodules or simulators and make them no simplifications about the communication networks and
work together synchronously. This concept is commonly uses a solver targeted for the specific problem of com-
referred to as Co-simulation. This approach is computation- puting the current-flows or the power circuit characteris-
ally more complex than previous ones but offers the advan- tics. The same occurs with the communication simulator or
tage of producing more realistic results. This can be achieved any additional model to be considered in the co-simulation
since the environment consists of a number of state-of-the-art environment.
tools, each one of them working on the dimension for which The interface between the simulators involved in a
they were originally designed to. The co-simulation environ- co-simulation environment is an issue still to be solved.
ment enables the interaction of each model so that phenomena As defined in [180], [181] submodules within a co-simulation
taking place on one dimension have consequences on the need to exchange data with each other during various stages
other one. Thus, co-simulation presents a great potential for of the simulation workflow (e.g., model instantiation, ini-
assessing power distribution networks controlled by means tialization, runtime, and data export). The interface between
of PLC technologies, since some situations that may require the models can be implemented via shared memory, if all
actions from the power perspective (e.g., an PV inverter starts the simulators can access one common memory; via net-
working) may affect the performance of the communications work communication protocols; or application program inter-
(e.g., a noise associated to the inverter appears in the PLC faces (APIs). However, two interface types that are evolving
band). As mentioned, a co-simulation environment is com- as standards for coupling physical models and simulators
posed of a set of coupled simulators that cooperate with each are the Hardware Level Architecture (HLA) [182] and the
other. Simulators are coupled by dynamically connecting the Functional Mockup Interface (FMI) [183].
models using their input and output variables, so that the out- As it has already been said, co-simulation platforms rep-
put of one simulator becomes the input of the other and vice resent a very promising solution to increase the realism and
versa. The variable exchange, time synchronization, and exe- significance of PLC simulations taking into account their
cution coordination are, in the most general case, facilitated in close relation with the Power Grid. Thus, this approach would
runtime by a so-called Master Algorithm, which orchestrates allow, e.g., that when a PV panel connects to the network in
the entire co-simulation. A scheme of this concept is shown the power part, an interference appears in the PLC commu-
in Figure 12. nications. However, there are no co-simulation tools for PLC
A simulator is defined as a software package that contains available in the state-of-the-art, which leaves the door open
the model of a system and a solver (see Figure 13), which for future research work.
carries out calculations based on the model and on input
variables. In addition, the model and the solver, i.e., the VI. CONCLUSIONS
simulator, predict the behavior of a real system under a set PLC technologies are used in a wide range of industrial
of specified conditions. applications, ranging from home automation and industrial
117362 VOLUME 7, 2019

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An open-source power systems modeling and simulation environ- ing from the University of the Basque Country
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pp. 1–5. research interests include the analysis of the signal
[180] T. Blochwitz, M. Otter, J. Åkesson, M. Arnold, C. Clauss, H. Elmqvist, propagation, and mainly, on the analysis of the
M. Friedrich, A. Junghanns, J. Mauss, D. Neumerkel, and H. Olsson,
effects of different types of interferences and dis-
‘‘Functional mockup interface 2.0: The standard for tool independent
turbances on the quality of the data transmission.
exchange of simulation models,’’ in Proc. 9th Int. MODELICA Conf.,
Sep. 2012, Munich, Germany: Linköping Univ. Electronic Press, 2012, Within the area of smart grids, he researches
pp. 173–184. on the characterization of the electrical grid as
[181] T. Blochwitz, M. Otter, M. Arnold, C. Bausch, H. Elmqvist, propagation medium for data transmission, and on the effects of noise and
A. Junghanns, J. Mauß, M. Monteiro, T. Neidhold, D. Neumerkel, and emissions on the Smart Grid communications. He has been a Principal
H. Olsson, ‘‘The functional mockup interface for tool independent Investigator of competitive research projects funded by European, national,
exchange of simulation models,’’ in Proc. 8th Int. Modelica and regional calls and by industry. The results of his work are published
Conf., Dresden, Germany: Linköping Univ. Electronic Press, 2011, in 36 indexed papers, and part of them are included in reports of regulatory
pp. 105–114. and standardization bodies.
VOLUME 7, 2019 117367

MARTA CASTRO received the M.Sc. degree in JOSÉ IGNACIO MORENO received the Ph.D.
telecommunication engineering from the Univer- degree in telecommunication from the Universidad
sity of the Basque Country (UPV), Bilbao, Spain. Politecnica de Madrid, in 1996. He is currently
She is responsible of management of the Smart an Associate Professor with the Universidad Car-
Meters and Smart Grids areas as a Smart Data & los III de Madrid (UC3M), in 1997. He received
Protocol Manager with TECNALIA. Since 2011, the accreditation for Full Professor position by
TECNALIA is the first privately funded applied the National Agency for Quality Assessment and
research and technological development centre in Accreditation of Spain. Since 1992, he has been
Spain and one of the leading such centres in working in international research projects related
Europe. Her professional experience has been cen- with protocol design, protocol engineering, net-
tered in smart grid products certification and standardization, which is work management, advanced networks, and wireless system performance.
involved primarily in the conformity assessment of products according to During the last 10 years, he has led national and European projects on ICT
European and International Standards. As a result, she has developed a deep topics with special focus on Sensors & Smart Grid technologies. He has
knowledge of the processes of standardization and how standards play a role published more than 100 papers in the field of advanced communications
in the development of new and innovative products. She has an extensive in technical books, magazines, and conferences.
experience in designing specification and test books to design the system
and define the requirements for the products. She is an Active Member of the
PRIME Alliance Specification and Certification Task Forces. She is involved
in DLMS UA association for standardization and Meters&More association.
ALBERTO SENDIN received the M.Sc. degree in

telecommunication engineering, the M.A. degree
in management for business competitiveness, and
AMAIA ARRINDA received the M.Sc. degree in the Ph.D. degree from the University of the Basque
telecommunication engineering from the Univer- Country, Spain, in 1996, 2001, and 2013, respec-
sity of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, tively. Since 1998, he has been with Iberdrola,
in 1993. In September 1993, she joined the Depart- Spain (one of the biggest electricity utilities) trans-
ment of Electronics and Telecommunications, forming its telecommunication networks, where he
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), is currently the Head of telecommunications. He is
where she is currently a Full Professor. In Febru- also a part-time Professor with the University of
ary 2001, she presented her Ph.D. thesis deal- Deusto, Spain, and also with the ICAI, Universidad Pontificia Comillas,
ing with interferences between terrestrial analogue Spain, with almost two decades teaching Telecommunications and Project
and digital TV transmissions. She has stayed at Management. He has authored eight telecommunication books edited by
ENST, Bretagne, and CNET, France, during one year, and at the Wireless McGraw-Hill, Artech House, and others. He has published tens of papers,
Networks and Communications Research Centre, Brunel University, U.K., and has contributed to three PLC books, references in the area Power Line
for four months. She has been involved for more than 15 years in research Communications: Theory and Applications for Narrowband and Broadband
projects related to measurements for several purposes (human exposure, Communications Over Power Lines; Power Line Communications: Princi-
digital broadcasting, and radio noise). She has coauthored many journal and ples, Standards and Applications from Multimedia to Smart Grid (2nd Ed.);
conference papers. Her current research interests include signal propagation, and Communication and Networking in Smart Grids.
measurements and simulations in PLC systems, and wireless systems.
117368 VOLUME 7, 2019

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SPECIAL SECTION ON ADVANCES IN POWER LINE COMMUNICATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The Role of Power Line Communications in the

Corresponding author: Gregorio López ([email protected])

INDEX TERMS Communications networks, communications technologies, power line communications,

I. INTRODUCTION and it is still an attractive and live research topic, as it is

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TABLE 1. Comparison between PRIME v1.3.6. and PRIME v1.4.

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TABLE 4. Comparison between BPL technologies.

FIGURE 1. Power line carrier communication solutions for distribution

which may affect the proper performance of the communi-

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FIGURE 3. Comparison of different communications technologies in AMI systems [56].

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TABLE 5. AC charging technologies [61].

TABLE 6. DC charging technologies [61].

TABLE 7. Technical specifications of main DC charging standards [63].

United Kingdom with 1,150 charging points, and Denmark

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A. NOISE AND NON INTENTIONAL EMISSIONS

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TABLE 9. Smart Grids application summary and requirements [25].

for communications. This Working Group is now demanding

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FIGURE 9. Measurement of the NIE generated by an inverter. They are

3) EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF NOISE AND

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consist in the use of coding and modulation schemes or in

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of a packet. In the case of the Power Grid models, simulators

3) COLLECTION OF SPECIFIC SIMULATORS:

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ALBERTO SENDIN received the M.Sc. degree in

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