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Work and Heat Concepts

Abstract
Work and heat are fundamental concepts addressed in the study of thermodynamics.
This paper presents work and heat as the process variables resulting from the energy
transfer across the boundary of the system. An overview of the various definitions of
work and heat found in the literature are presented. We have also introduced the internal
energy from the behavior of bodies that are able to be deformed, while the importance
of bearing in mind the microscopic picture is given a special attention. Then, we consider
several examples for analysis and show that these concepts lead into the presentation
of the First law of thermodynamics.

Keywords: work, heat, First law.

1. Introduction

Energy is transferred between a reactive system and its interacting surrounding through
heat and work in thermodynamics. Therefore, for any system, energy transfer is related
with mass crossing the boundary control, external work, or heat transfer across the
system boundary. These result into a change of stored energy inside the control volume.
The mass flow of a fluid is connected with the kinetic, potential, internal, and low energies
that affect the overall energy balance of the system. Exchanges of external work and

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heat complete energy balance. This is the reason the first law of thermodynamics is
defined as the conservation of energy principle, which means energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but rather converted into different forms as the fluid within the
control volume changes. A system is a control volume via which a working fluid may or
may not pass. The various energies connected with the fluids are carefully studied as
they cross the boundaries of the system and the equilibrium is established.

2. Literature Review

Work
In thermodynamics, the work done by a system is the energy conveyed by the system
to its surrounding. The kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy are forms of
energy that are properties of a system. Work is a form of energy, though it is an energy
in transit. A system contains no work, work is a process done by or on a system. In
general, work is defined for mechanical systems as the action of a force on an object
through a distance.

W = F. d

where:

W = work (J)

F = force (N)

d = displacement (m)

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Boundary work also known as pΔV Work:

The pressure-volume work (or pΔV Work) occurs if the volume V of a fluid changes. It is
equivalent to the area under the procedure curve plotted on the pressure-volume outline.
It is also referred to as the limit work and it takes place in light of the fact that the mass
of the substance contained inside the framework limit produces a power, the weight
times the surface territory, to find out the limit surface and make it moves. This clearly
shows that the Limit work (or pΔV Work) happens when the volume V of a fluid changes.
It is used for calculating cylindrical removal work in a shut framework. This is the thing
that happens when steam, or gas stored in a cylinder chamber gadget extends against
the cylinder and powers the cylinder to move.

Fig.1 Shows pΔV work as the area under the process curve plotted on the
pressure-volume diagram

Example:
Consider a frictionless piston that is used to generate a constant pressure of 500
kPa in a cylinder holding steam of a volume of 2 m3 at 500 K.
Work out the final temperature, when 3000 kJ of heat is added.

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compute the final temperature, if 3000 kJ of heat is added

Solution:

With the help of steam tables we know, that the specific enthalpy of this steam (500
kPa; 500 K) is about 2912 kJ/kg. Because at this condition the steam has density of 2.2
kg/m3, then we know there is about 4.4 kg of steam in the piston at enthalpy of 2912
kJ/kg x 4.4 kg = 12812 kJ. If we use simply Q = H2 − H1, then the resulting enthalpy of
steam will be: H2 = H1 + Q = 15812 kJ. From steam tables, the superheated steam
(15812/4.4 = 3593 kJ/kg) will produce a temperature of 828 K (555°C). Since at this
enthalpy the steam has density of 1.31 kg/m3, it is obvious that it has expanded by about
2.2/1.31 = 1.67 (+67%). Therefore, the resulting volume is 2 m3 x 1.67 = 3.34 m3 and ∆V
= 3.34 m3 – 2 m3 = 1.34 m3. The p∆V part of enthalpy, i.e. the work done is: W = p∆V =
500 000 Pa x 1.34 m3 = 670 kJ

Work and Internal Energy

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When an isolated system is in thermal equilibrium internally, it is described as
macroscopic states with the variables P, V and T to represent pressure, volume, and
temperature. Also, such a system can be described using microscopic state of internal
energy with the variable 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 , also symbolized as U. This can be clarified by the following
example.

Assuming that our system contains gas confined to a cylinder with insulated walls and
movable frictionless piston of area A. the cylinder rests on a heat reservoir whose
temperature T is regulated by a knob. The upward force on the piston produced by the
pressure of the confined gas is equal to the weight of the load on the top of the piston at
the equilibrium.

Fig.2 Gas confined to a cylinder with a movable frictionless piston.

The gas can do work W to raise or lower the piston. By regulating the temperature of the
thermal reservoir by means of a control knob, a quantity of heat can be added or
removed from the gas.

The system can change from the initial state to the final state. This process is called a
thermodynamic process. Work is done by the system to raise the piston, this is called
positive work or to lower it, and it is known as negative work. In addition, positive heat,

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may be transferred into the thermal reservoir or vice versa. We assume that the state of
the gas changes quasi-statically, i.e. slowly enough to allow the system to remain
essentially in a thermodynamic equilibrium at all times. When load is reduced, the piston
will move upward through a differential displacement ds with almost constant upward
force F. And from the definition of pressure, F=PA, where A is the area of the piston.
Therefore, the differential work dw done by the gas during the displacement is:

dW = F • ds = F ds = PAds

Because A ds is the differential change in the volume of the gas dV i.e. dV= A ds
Hence, the work done by the gas can be expressed as:

dW=PdV

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The flow of energy across the boundary separating a system from its surroundings uses
the First Law of Thermodynamics. Consider the classic example of a gas enclosed in a
cylinder with a movable piston. The walls of the cylinder act as the boundary separating
the gas inside from the world outside, and the movable piston provides a mechanism for
the gas to do work by expanding against a force holding the assumed frictionless in
place. If gas does work W, as it expands, and/or absorbs heat Q from its surroundings
through the walls of the cylinder, then it is similar to a net flow of energy W − Q across
the boundary to surroundings. In order to conserve the total energy U, there must be a
counterbalancing change ΔU = Q – W in the internal energy of the gas. The first law
provides a kind of strict energy accounting system in which the change in the energy
account (ΔU) equals the difference between deposits (Q) and withdrawals (W). There is

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an essential difference between quantity ΔU and related energy quantities Q and W.
because this internal energy U is described entirely by quantities/parameters that
uniquely indicate the state of the system at equilibrium, then it is said to be a state
function so that any change in energy can be determined entirely by the initial (i) and
final (f) states of the system: ΔU = Uf − Ui. However, Q and W are not state functions.
Just as in the example of a bursting balloon, the gas inside may do no work at all in
reaching its final expanded state, or it could do maximum work by expanding inside a
cylinder with a movable piston to attain the same final state. All that is required is that
the change in energy (ΔU) remain the same. By comparison, the same change in one’s
bank account could be achieved by many different combinations of deposits and
withdrawals. Thus, Q and W are not state functions, because their values depend on the
particular process (or path) connecting the same initial and final states. Just as it is more
meaningful to speak of the balance in one’s bank account than its deposit or withdrawal
content, it is only meaningful to speak of the internal energy of the system and not its
heat or even work content.
From a formal mathematical point of view, the incremental change dU in the internal
energy is an exact differential equation, while the corresponding incremental
changes d′Q and d′W in heat and work are not, because the great advantage in a precise
definite integrals of these quantities are path-dependent. These concepts are used to a
mathematical formulation of the thermodynamics.

Heat

Heat may be defined as energy in transit. Heat is used only if there is a transfer of energy
from one system to another. When two systems at various temperatures are kept in
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contact with each other, after some time temperatures of both systems become equal
and this phenomenon can be described by saying that energy had flown from one object
to another. This flow of energy from one system to another on account of temperature
difference is termed as heat transfer. Therefore, flow of heat is a non-mechanical mode
of energy transfer. The heat flow depends not only on initial and final states but also on
the path.

Heat as Energy in Transition

The amount of energy that is transferred as heat into/out of the system can be measured
very easily: we measure the work needed to bring about given change in an adiabatic
system, then the work required to bring about the same change of state in a non-
adiabatic system i.e. one with thermal insulated, and take the difference of two values.
The difference is the energy transferred as heat. A point to take into account is that this
type of the measurement of the rather evasive concept of heat has had put on purely
mechanical foundation as the difference in the height through which the weight falls to
bring about a given change of state under two different conditions. When energy is inside
a system, it does make use of the uniform motion of atoms within the surrounding or
rather of the randomly oscillating atoms “a hotter object, when inside, this energy is
stored as the kinetic energy “the energy due to motion” and the potential energy of the
constituent atoms and that energy is withdrawn either as heat or work. The difference
between work and heat is made in surroundings; the system hasn’t got the memory of
the mode of transfer nor is it concerned about how its store of energy shall be used.
When a closed system is used it to do some work, it allowed a release of energy as heat.
Its internal energy falls. You can leave the system isolated from its surroundings for an

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indefinite period of time. Return to it then measure its capacity to do work. Distinctly, it’s
capacity to do work—its internal energy—is the same as when it was first isolated. That
is; the internal energy of an isolated system is constant i.e. the first law of
thermodynamics, or at least one statement of it, for the law is generated in many
equivalent forms.

Heat Capacity

Different substances are affected to different magnitudes by the addition of heat. When
a given amount of heat is added to different substances, their temperature increases
by different amounts. This proportionality constant between the heat Q that the object
absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change T of the object is known as the
heat capacity C of an object.

C=Q/ΔT

Heat transfer modes

Heat transfer is the transmission of energy as a result of a temperature difference

between different amounts of matter. Energy in these modes can be transferred to the
nearby molecules by interactions “collisions” or by exchange of molecules so that energy
is emitted by molecules having more on average (higher temperature) to the ones that
have less on average or lower temperature. Hence, this energy exchange between
molecules is heat transfer through conduction, and it increases with the temperature
difference and the ability of the substance to do the transfer. This is expressed in
Fourier’s law of conduction, Q = −kAdT/ dx.

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Other modes of heat transfer are radiation and convection.

3. Research Goal
• To develop a conceptual understanding of the nature of work and heat concepts
in thermodynamics.
• To develop the valuable problem-solving skills and attitude needed for studying
work and heat concepts in thermodynamics and other natural sciences
• To be able to calculate changes in internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of simple
fluids in the vapor, liquid and mixed state as a result of heat and work interactions.

4. Results and Discussion

Work and heat are both measured in energy units, in order that they must both present
energies. Questionably, what can be the difference between them? And from plain
energy? In our daily language, we regularly say that "this object contains plenty of heat",
but this can be gibberish in thermodynamics terms, although it's okay to say that the
object is hot, which indicates that its temperature is higher. The term "heat"
encompasses a special meaning in thermodynamics: it's a process within which a body
(the contents of a tea kettle, for example) acquires or loses energy as an instantaneous
consequence of it having a unique temperature than its surroundings. Hence, thermal
energy can only be due to the next temperature to a lower temperature. It's this flow that
constitutes "heat". The use of the term "flow" of warmth recalls the inaccurate 18th-

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century notion that heat is an actual substance called "caloric" that might flow sort of a
liquid.

Therefore, according to the First Law of Thermodynamics, changes to the internal

energy of a thermodynamic system are separated into two sorts of energy transfers.
Work refers to forms of energy which can be explained in terms of changes in the
macroscopic physical variables of the system, for example energy which goes into
expanding the volume of a system against an external pressure, as in driving a piston-
head out of a cylinder against an external force. This is in distinction to heat energy
carried into or out of the system in the form of transfers in the microscopic thermal
motions of particles. The concept of thermodynamic work is a little more general than
that of mechanical work, because it also includes other energy transfers, i.e. for example
electrical work, the movement of charge against an external electrical field to charge up
a battery for instance, which may or may not necessarily be thought of as strictly
mechanical in nature.

Note: Heat

We seldom say that "this object contains more of heat" however, this is not sensible
(Joule, (1818-1889))since heat represents an energy transfer.

Transfer of thermal energy is accomplished by bringing two bodies into physical contact
( the kettle on top of the stove, or through an electrical constituent inside the kettle)
Another mechanism of thermal energy transfer is by radiation: a hot object will covey
energy to anybody seeable of it via electromagnetic wave within the infrared a part of
the spectrum. In many cases both modes are active

Work refers to the transfer of energy some means don't rely on the temperature
difference. Work, like energy, can take various forms, the foremost familiar being

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mechanical and electrical. Mechanical work is completed when an object moves a

distance Δx against an opposite force f

w=f Δx

Electrical work arises when a body having a charge q moves through a possible
difference ΔV.

Note: Work

A transfer of energy to or from a system by any means aside from heat is termed work

5-Conclusion

It is possible to find different work and heat definitions in literature, as well as different
methods to apply those definitions. The work is thermodynamically and normally based
on its mechanical version whereas heat is related to temperature differences. This fact
wouldn’t constitute a serious problem if these existing definitions were equivalent and
didn’t lead to a violation of any law in thermodynamics. The main objective of this paper
was to develop the conceptual understanding of the nature of work and heat in
thermodynamics leading to their appropriate calculations. Firstly, we examine the first
law of thermodynamics which revealed that the energy of a closed system, up to and
including the universe is constant, the sum of all its potential and motional energies
equals the heat gained by the system minus the work done by the system. Finally, we
conclude that neither the work done nor the heat energy are independently conserved
during a thermodynamic process between the initial and final states of a system.
Thermodynamics, in spite of its relatively low mathematical complexity, has a lot of
subtleties that have promoted a great deal of interest in many recent publications. We
hope that this work be a relevant contribution to clarify the concepts of heat and work in
thermodynamics.

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Willey & Sons, 2nd edition, 1985. A. Sommerfeld, Thermodynamics
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• R.E. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke and G.J. Van Wylen, Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics (John Wiley, Nova York, 2003).
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• H.B. Callen, Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics (John

Wiley, Nova York, 1985).

• E.A. Gislason and N.C. Craig, The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics 37,
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• N.C. Craig and E.A. Gislason, Journal of Chemical Education 79, 193 (2002).

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