Electronic Absorption Spectroscopy: M, E, A A
Electronic Absorption Spectroscopy: M, E, A A
Electronic Absorption Spectroscopy: M, E, A A
Classical View
According to the classical theory discussed previously, the dynamics of an electron in an
atom are governed by its natural fiequency oo = .\l(klm,) and by dissipative processes-
radiation and "viscous" damping. Monochromatic electromagnetic radiation at
fiequency o will drive the electron in oscillatory motion, but the amplitude of the motion
remains small until o + oo, a resonance condition. The extent to which the atom is
polarized by an electric field, E, is determined by the polarizability, a, where
(Note that a is a tensor while m, the dipole moment, and E, the electric field, are vectors.)
As seen in the previous discussion, a is small when o >> oo and o << oo. The in-phase
component is related to the index of refraction and therefore governs the scattering of
light. The out-of-phase component of a governs the absorption of light i.e., the processes
by which, excludmg fluorescence, etc., light energy is dissipated into heat.
According to this picture the electron can have a continuous range of energies. Thus the
displacement of the electron in the harmonic (spring) potential is unrestricted. Hence the
energy emitted by an electron relaxing to its resting state depends on the maximum
amplitude of the displacement in the harmonic potential (xo).
Ouantum View
Quantum mechanics, which provides a more correct analysis o electronic motion and
ato9rnic structure, shows that these conclusions are incorrect. AccorSding to quantum
mechanics the electron in the atom must be in one of a set of defined states, each with a
definite energy. Hence, an electron in state i has an energy Ei. When the electron passes
from state i to state j, it emits (or absorbs) energy E,! - Ei, corresponding to emission or
absorption of light with frequency:
where h is Planck's constant. What causes the electron to undergo a transition from one
state to another?
First, we must remember that the position of the electron in the atom is characterized by a
probability density function, P(r) = luC(r)f,where ~ ( ris) a probability amplitude function
or wave function obtained by solving the Schroedinger equation appropriate for the
dynamic system under study. Solution of this equation also provides the Ei.
Quantum mechanics tells us how an electron can be caused to go fiom one state to
another by perturbing its energy. In particular, for an atom exposed to light, it is the
interaction of the atomic dipole moment p with the electric field vector of the light, E,
provides the perturbation energy V(t), i.e.,
Then it can be shown that the rate at which an electron passes from state b to state a is
where Bab= (2/3)(h2/4n3)-I~<blp~@fand <blp(a>(= d3r vb(r) p(r) va(r) and I(v) is the
incident intensity at fiequency v.
The transition dipole moment, <b(pla.,measures the extent to which the electron in state
a is polarized by the incident light so that its spatial distribution is similar to that of state
b. More generally,
Incident light will promote a transition from a + b, and thereby absorption fiom the
incident radiation field if the fiequency of the light, v = (E,- Ea) /hand if <blp(a># 0.
Hence, measuring the absorption of light while varying the orientation of its electric
vector relative to the molecules axes provides information about the orientation of the
transition dipole moments within the molecule.
Also, for a 1M solution the rate of energy absorption per cm3 of solution is
But dI(v)/dt = [dI(v)/dl]*dVdt = cdI(v)/dl.
Linear Dichroism
The dichroic ratio is (A, - AI)/(A,, + Al). This parameter provides information about
the orientation of the transition dipole moment(s) relative to the molecular axes.
'\. a (nm)
x electrons are somewhat delocalized over the N, C, and 0 atoms. An electron in a
nonbonding, n, orbital is concentrated near the 0 atom. The Lowest energy electronic
transition fiom the peptide bond is an n + n* transition in the range 210 to 220 nm and is
very weak (because it is symmetry forbidden), E = 100 (M an)-'. The n + x* at ~ 1 9nm 0
is much more intense, c M 7000 (Man)-'and is not polarized along any specific bond.
Aromatic Chromophores
Figure 7-10
Absorption spectra of the three aromatic amino acids.
A log scale has been used in order to display all
three conveniently on one graph. [After D. B.
Wetlaufer, Adv. Protein Chem. 17: 303 (1962).]
Absorbance Properties of Nucleic Acids
The nucleotide bases dominate the near W absorption in nucleic acids. There are many
n + K* nd n + n* transitions between 200 and 300 nrn. The transition dipoles are in the
planes of the aromatic rings. On average E ~ M =
) 10,000 (M cm)-l .
Effects of Conformation
Hypochromism
Figure 7-21
Schematic diagram showing origin of hypochromism and hyperchrornism. (a) This alignment of induce,
dipoles (unshaded)and transition dipole (black) produces hypochromism (shaded). (b) This alignmer
of induced dipoles and transition dipole produces hyperchromism.
Figure 7-22
Linear dichroism expected for the B-jonn
D N A double helix, when aligned as
shown relative to polarized incident
light. Because ( Y o ( t ( ~ , )is in the
plane of the base pairs, it is always
perpendicular to Ell.The intensity of
absorption will be periodic along the
helm because the angle between
<yo( tlY.) and E varies with each 36"
rotation of successive base pairs.
[DNA structure after A. Kornberg,
DNA Synthesis (San Francisco:
W . H. Freeman and Company, 1974).]
Vibrational Spectroscopies
Molecular Vibrations
Example, CO,:
Hence, one of the three vibrational modes of CO, will not show up in an IR spectrum.
Note that of the other two modes, one is polarized parallel, the other, perpendicular to the
molecular axis.
Raman spectra result from scattering rather than absorbance as in IR. In contrast
to IR the incident light, typically in the visible range, is far from the frequencies of
molecular vibrations. Rarnan complements IR; the polarizability rather than the dipole
moment must change with vibration.
Table 8-5
Characteristics of principal infrared absorption bands of the peptide group
Hydrogen-bonded forms Non-hydrogen-bonded
a Helix fi Sheet
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Vibration $/aR (cm- ') Dichroism (cm-I) Dichroism '
(cm - )
I
Amide I1 tC--N+
1
1,540-1,550 1 1,520-1,525 11 < 1,520?
SOURCE:Adapted from I. A. Schellman and C. Schellman, in The ProteiyL2d ed., vol. 2, ed. H. Neurath (New York: Academic Press,
1%2), p. I.
Amide I
NCTE:Frequency "dues are given in an-'. Calculated values shown in parentheses were adjusted to equal the
correspondingobserved values by the choice of parameters.
SOURCE: Adapted from J. A. Schellman and C. Schellman, in The Proteins. 2d ed., vol. 2, ed. H. Newath (New York: 3
Academic Press, 1962), p. 1.
A schematic representation of the vibrational modes of the antiparallel P-sheet is shown
below.
I I
I
H
I
I
0
I Ilr-
N C C
c,
P I
Figunr 8-27
Schematic representation of the vibrational modes of the antipmallel j3 sheet. Arrows represent components
of transition moments in the plane of the paper: plus and minus signs represent out-of-plane
components. [AAer T. Miyazawa. J. Chem. Phys. 32: 1647 (1960).]